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draw a line between acceptable shifts and problematic changes. This becomes even harder when dealing with neurotechnologies aimed at influencing psychological processes—such as those designed to recude the symptoms of depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by modulating emotional states or saliency of memories to ease a patient's pain. Even helping a patient remember, which would seemingly help preserve identity, can be a delicate question: "Forgetting is also important to how a person navigates the world, since it allows the opportunity for both losing track of embarrassing or difficult memories, and focusing on future-oriented activity. Efforts to enhance identity through memory preservation thus run the risk of inadvertently damaging a valuable, if less consciously-driven cognitive process."
517:). Current improvements such as "brain fingerprinting" or lie detection using EEG or fMRI could give rise to a set fixture of loci/emotional relationships in the brain, although these technologies are still years away from full application. It is important to consider how all these neurotechnologies might affect the future of society, and it is suggested that political, scientific, and civil debates are heard about the implementation of these newer technologies that potentially offer a new wealth of once-private information. Some ethicists are also concerned with the use of TMS and fear that the technique could be used to alter patients in ways that are undesired by the patient.
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491:, agency is commonly understood as the individual's ability to consciously make and communicate a decision or choice. While identity and agency are distinct, an impairment in agency can in turn undermine personal identity: the subject may no longer be able to substantially modify their own self-narrative, and may therefore lose their ability to contribute to the dynamic process of identity formation.
339:(MEG) is another method of measuring activity in the brain by measuring the magnetic fields that arise from electrical currents in the brain. The benefit to using MEG instead of EEG is that these fields are highly localized and give rise to better understanding of how specific loci react to stimulation or if these regions over-activate (as in epileptic seizures).
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294:, hallucinations, and other disorders. Currently, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is being researched to see if positive behavioral effects of TMS can be made more permanent. Some techniques combine TMS and another scanning method such as EEG to get additional information about brain activity such as cortical response.
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347:. Similarly, real-time fMRI is being researched as a method for pain therapy by altering how people perceive pain if they are made aware of how their brain is functioning while in pain. By providing direct and understandable feedback, researchers can help patients with chronic pain decrease their symptoms.
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The interplay between agency and neurotechnology can have implications for moral responsibility and legal liability. As with identity, devices aimed at treating some psychiatric conditions like depression or anorexia may work by modulating neural function linked with desire or motivation, potentially
317:
assessment of brain electric activity during TDCS promise to advance understanding of these mechanisms. Research into using TDCS on healthy adults have demonstrated that TDCS can increase cognitive performance on a variety of tasks, depending on the area of the brain being stimulated. TDCS has been
503:
tools. Because these devices often operate by interpreting sensory inputs or the user's neural data in order to estimate the individual's intention and respond according to it, estimation margins can lead to inaccurate or undesired responses that may threaten agency: "If the agent's intent and the
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but can have side effects that touch on the concept of identity, such as loss of voice modulation, increased impulsivity or feelings of self-estrangement. In the case of neural prostheses and brain-computer interfaces, the shift may take the form of an extension of one's sense of self, potentially
342:
There are potential uses for EEG and MEG such as charting rehabilitation and improvement after trauma as well as testing neural conductivity in specific regions of epileptics or patients with personality disorders. EEG has been fundamental in understanding the resting brain during sleep. Real-time
474:
Part of the difficulty in determining which changes constitute a threat to identity is rooted in its dynamic nature: since one's personality and concept of self is expected to change with time as a result of emotional development and lived experience, it is not easy to identify clear criteria and
404:
act as chemical modulators in the brain, and they allow for normal activity in many people whose brains cannot act normally under physiological conditions. While pharmaceuticals are usually not mentioned and have their own field, the role of pharmaceuticals is perhaps the most far-reaching and
278:
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique for applying magnetic fields to the brain to manipulate electrical activity at specific loci in the brain. This field of study is currently receiving a large amount of attention due to the potential benefits that could come out of better
512:
Finally, when these technologies are being developed society must understand that these neurotechnologies could reveal the one thing that people can always keep secret: what they are thinking. While there are large amounts of benefits associated with these technologies, it is necessary for
1721:
Tecchio F, Cancelli A, Pizzichino A, L'Abbate T, Gianni E, Bertoli M, Paulon L, Zannino S, Giordani A, Lupoi D, Pasqualetti P, Mirabella M, Filippi MM (2022). "Home treatment against fatigue in multiple sclerosis by a personalized, bilateral whole-body somatosensory cortex stimulation".
369:
Neurotechnological implants can be used to record and utilize brain activity to control other devices which provide feedback to the user or replace missing biological functions. The most common neurodevices available for clinical use are deep brain stimulators implanted in the
329:(EEG) is a method of measuring brainwave activity non-invasively. A number of electrodes are placed around the head and scalp and electrical signals are measured. Clinically, EEGs are used to study epilepsy as well as stroke and tumor presence in the brain.
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of individuals to control their own mental processes, cognition, and consciousness including by the use of various neurotechnologies and psychoactive substances. This perceived right is relevant for reformation and development of associated laws.
692:
Cook MJ, O'Brien TJ, Berkovic SF, Murphy M, Morokoff A, Fabinyi G, et al. (June 2013). "Prediction of seizure likelihood with a long-term, implanted seizure advisory system in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy: a first-in-man study".
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revolutionized the field, allowing researchers to directly monitor the brain's activities during experiments. Practice in neurotechnology can be found in fields such as pharmaceutical practices, be it from drugs for depression, sleep,
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Cathodal tDCS (compared with sham) decreased learning rates during training and resulted in poorer performance which lasted over 24 h after stimulation. Anodal tDCS showed an operation-specific improvement for subtraction
259:
Transcrancial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) is a technique using ultrasound to modulate neural activity in the brain. It is an emerging technique that has shown therapeutic promise in a variety of neurological diseases.
318:
used to enhance language and mathematical ability (though one form of TDCS was also found to inhibit math learning), attention span, problem solving, memory, coordination and relieve depression and chronic fatigue.
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scientists, citizens and policy makers alike to consider implications for privacy. This term is important in many ethical circles concerned with the state and goals of progress in the field of neurotechnology (see
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While disruption of identity is not a common goal for neurotechnologies, some techniques can create unwanted shifts that range in severity. For instance, deep brain stimulation is commonly used as treatment for
434:. While experts agree that these core features of the human experience stand to benefit from the ethical use of neurotechnology, they also make a point of emphasizing the importance of preventively establishing
504:
device's output can come apart (think of how the auto-correct function in texting sometimes misinterprets the user's intent and sends problematic text messages), the user's sense of agency may be undermined."
1163:"Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop on the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, June 5-7, 1996"
279:
understanding this technology. Transcranial magnetic movement of particles in the brain shows promise for drug targeting and delivery as studies have demonstrated this to be noninvasive on brain physiology.
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We found that stimulation of dlPFC significantly increased recollection accuracy, relative to a no-stimulation sham condition and also relative to active stimulation of a comparison region in left parietal
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which uses constant, low current delivered via electrodes placed on the scalp. The mechanisms underlying TDCS effects are still incompletely understood, but recent advances in neurotechnology allowing for
181:
Many in the field aim to control and harness more of what the brain does and how it influences lifestyles and personalities. Commonplace technologies already attempt to do this; games like
495:
compromising the user's agency. This can also be the case, paradoxically, for those neurotechnologies designed to restore agency to patients, such as neural prostheses and BCI-mediated
220:
perception. Advances in the field promise many new enhancements and rehabilitation methods for patients with neurological problems. The neurotechnology revolution has given rise to the
2739:
333:(ECoG) relies on similar principles but requires invasive implantation of electrodes on the brain's surface to measure local field potentials or action potentials more sensitively.
427:, neurotechnologies have the potential for profound social and legal repercussions, and as such their development and introduction to society raise a series of ethical questions.
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commonplace in modern society. Movement of magnetic particles to targeted brain regions for drug delivery is an emerging field of study and causes no detectable circuit damage.
1917:
Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, et al. (July 2006). "Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia".
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Pharmaceuticals play a vital role in maintaining stable brain chemistry, and are the most commonly used neurotechnology by the general public and medicine. Drugs like
282:
Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a relatively new method of studying how the brain functions and is used in many research labs focused on behavioral disorders,
182:
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incorporating the device as an integral part of oneself or expanding the range of sensory and cognitive channels available to the user beyond the traditional
3635:
1611:
Tecchio F, Bertoli M, Gianni E, L'Abbate T, Sbragia E, Stara S, Inglese M (2020). "Parietal dysfunctional connectivity in depression in multiple sclerosis".
2623:"Restoration of reaching and grasping movements through brain-controlled muscle stimulation in a person with tetraplegia: a proof-of-concept demonstration"
2732:
1472:
Gray SJ, Brookshire G, Casasanto D, Gallo DA (December 2015). "Electrically stimulating prefrontal cortex at retrieval improves recollection accuracy".
2535:
Goering S, Klein E, Dougherty DD, Widge AS (2017-04-03). "Staying in the Loop: Relational Agency and
Identity in Next-Generation DBS for Psychiatry".
1972:
1519:
Nitsche MA, Boggio PS, Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A (2009). "Treatment of depression with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a review".
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Currently, modern science can image nearly all aspects of the brain as well as control a degree of the function of the brain. It can help control
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The field of neurotechnology has been around for nearly half a century but has only reached maturity in the last twenty years. The advent of
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60:. In addition to their therapeutic or commercial uses, neurotechnologies also constitute powerful research tools to advance fundamental
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Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Fregni F, Palm U, Padberg F, Blumberger DM, Daskalakis ZJ, Bennabi D, Haffen E, Alonzo A, Loo CK (2016).
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Deep brain stimulation is currently used in patients with movement disorders to improve the quality of life in patients.
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1564:"Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data"
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44:
Common design goals for neurotechnologies include using neural activity readings to control external devices such as
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2792:
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Sellers EW, Vaughan TM, Wolpaw JR (October 2010). "A brain-computer interface for long-term independent home use".
49:
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Farwell LA, Smith SS (January 2001). "Using brain MERMER testing to detect knowledge despite efforts to conceal".
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initiative, which was started in 2007. It also offers the possibility of revealing the mechanisms by which
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1420:"Transcranial direct current stimulation of the posterior parietal cortex modulates arithmetic learning"
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that states a
Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
53:
1261:"Movement of magnetic nanoparticles in brain tissue: mechanisms and impact on normal neuronal function"
2003:
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1363:"In vivo assessment of human brain oscillations during application of transcranial electric currents"
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Veniero D, Bortoletto M, Miniussi C (July 2009). "TMS-EEG co-registration: on TMS-induced artifact".
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196:, over-activation, sleep deprivation, and many other conditions. Therapeutically it can help improve
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738:"Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current State of the Art and Future Prospects"
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Ramaswamy B, Kulkarni SD, Villar PS, Smith RS, Eberly C, Araneda RC, et al. (October 2015).
718:
547:
529:
488:
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221:
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Haselager P (2013-08-01). "Did I Do That? Brain–Computer
Interfacing and the Sense of Agency".
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2004:"Legal liabilities of BCI-users: Responsibility gaps at the intersection of mind and machine?"
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The Brain That
Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science
1005:
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838:"Brain-computer interfaces for dissecting cognitive processes underlying sensorimotor control"
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and mental integrity and their persistence over time. In other words, it is the individual's
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Ajiboye AB, Willett FR, Young DR, Memberg WD, Murphy BA, Miller JP, et al. (May 2017).
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2311:""I Am Who I Am": On the Perceived Threats to Personal Identity from Deep Brain Stimulation"
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1207:"An ethics perspective on transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and human neuromodulation"
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Key concerns include the preservation of identity, agency, cognitive liberty and privacy as
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Pham U, Solbakk AK, Skogseid IM, Toft M, Pripp AH, Konglund AE, et al. (2015-01-29).
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Yuste R, Goering S, Arcas BA, Bi G, Carmena JM, Carter A, et al. (November 2017).
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Goering S, Klein E, Sullivan LS, Wexler A, y Arcas BA, Bi G, et al. (April 2021).
38:
27:
Technology that interfaces with the nervous system to monitor or modify neural function
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1178:
887:"Integration of optogenetics with complementary methodologies in systems neuroscience"
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patients' motor coordination, improve brain function, reduce epileptic episodes (see
166:
2241:
2035:
1837:
1656:"tDCS randomized controlled trials in no-structural diseases: a quantitative review"
1532:
1501:
1454:
936:"On the Use of TMS to Investigate the Pathophysiology of Neurodegenerative Diseases"
722:
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1096:"What happened to posteroventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease and dystonia?"
557:
552:
217:
186:
72:
61:
2548:
2427:
2224:
2207:
1860:"Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI"
1548:
1001:
The changing nervous system: neurobehavioral consequences of early brain disorders
591:"Recommendations for Responsible Development and Application of Neurotechnologies"
1485:
1321:
999:
3534:
3381:
1735:
1361:
Soekadar SR, Witkowski M, Cossio EG, Birbaumer N, Robinson SE, Cohen LG (2013).
514:
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34:
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2019:
1864:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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and other mechanisms that protect against inappropriate or unauthorized uses.
393:
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2233:
1654:
Gianni E, Bertoli M, Simonelli I, Paulon L, Tecchio F, Pasqualetti P (2021).
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2108:"Personality changes after deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease"
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Cortex; A Journal
Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior
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283:
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17:
1938:
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2504:
2363:"Wired Emotions: Ethical Issues of Affective Brain-Computer Interfaces"
1973:"The Rise of Neurotechnology Calls for a Parallel Focus on Neurorights"
1386:
2837:
1821:
1438:
2925:
2208:"I Miss Being Me: Phenomenological Effects of Deep Brain Stimulation"
197:
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3272:
2677:"Emerging neurotechnologies for lie-detection: promises and perils"
2412:"Biomarkers for PTSD Susceptibility and Resilience, Ethical Issues"
984:
Nintendo
Company of America. BrainAge (2006). Based on the work of
789:"Brain-computer interfaces: a powerful tool for scientific inquiry"
934:
Rawji V, Latorre A, Sharma N, Rothwell JC, Rocchi L (2020-11-03).
468:
2206:
Gilbert F, Goddard E, Viaña JN, Carter A, Horne M (2017-04-03).
287:
225:
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2721:
213:
106:
1858:, Ludlow D, Pauly JM, Soneji D, et al. (December 2005).
2002:
Bublitz C, Wolkenstein A, Jox RJ, Friedrich O (2019-07-01).
308:
Transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) is a form of
189:
that aim to improve brain function, are neurotechnologies.
124:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
643:"Neurotechnology: Current Developments and Ethical Issues"
2257:"Multi-Person Brain-To-Brain Interfaces: Ethical Issues"
419:
Brain implant § Concerns and ethical considerations
1418:
Grabner RH, RĂĽtsche B, Ruff CC, Hauser TU (July 2015).
130:
2051:"Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI"
1797:. Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging.
483:
Although the nuances of its definition are debated in
204:), improve patients with degenerative motor diseases (
836:
Golub MD, Chase SM, Batista AP, Yu BM (April 2016).
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Electroencephalography and
Clinical Neurophysiology
2467:(Winter 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab,
2410:Bassil KC, Rutten BP, Horstkötter D (2019-07-03).
2159:"Deep Brain Stimulation, Authenticity and Value"
736:Cinel C, Valeriani D, Poli R (31 January 2019).
885:Kim CK, Adhikari A, Deisseroth K (March 2017).
2157:Pugh J, Maslen H, Savulescu J (October 2017).
1763:
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8:
3636:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
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52:to repair or normalize function affected by
2008:International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
67:Some examples of neurotechnologies include
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2675:Wolpe PR, Foster KR, Langleben DD (2005).
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2361:Steinert S, Friedrich O (February 2020).
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1056:The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences
1052:"For an international decade of the mind"
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153:Learn how and when to remove this message
2163:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
1772:. Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 715.
174:, or anti-neurotics to cancer scanning,
41:to monitor or modulate neural activity.
2464:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
568:
304:Transcranial direct current stimulation
298:Transcranial direct current stimulation
1205:Illes J, Gallo M, Kirschen MP (2006).
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1427:The European Journal of Neuroscience
361:Surface chemistry of neural implants
274:Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy
446:Identity in this context refers to
343:EEG has been considered for use in
255:Transcranial ultrasound stimulation
25:
3616:Development of the nervous system
2681:The American Journal of Bioethics
2010:. Neuroscience, Law, and Ethics.
647:Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience
270:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
264:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
85:transcranial electric stimulation
81:transcranial magnetic stimulation
37:device which interfaces with the
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3714:
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3067:
3056:
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787:Wander JD, Rao RP (April 2014).
111:
1533:10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.03.038
842:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
793:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
742:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
528:refers to a suggested right to
216:), and can even help alleviate
48:, altering neural activity via
2367:Science and Engineering Ethics
1795:"Magnetoencephalography (MEG)"
1793:Hämäläinen M (November 2007).
1161:Wassermann EM (January 1998).
1004:. Oxford University Press US.
998:Broman SH, Fletcher J (1999).
436:specific regulatory frameworks
58:augmenting cognitive abilities
1:
3457:Social cognitive neuroscience
2639:10.1016/s0140-6736(17)30601-3
2580:Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
2549:10.1080/21507740.2017.1320320
2428:10.1080/21507740.2019.1632964
2225:10.1080/21507740.2017.1320319
1179:10.1016/S0168-5597(97)00096-8
707:10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70075-9
3432:Molecular cellular cognition
1810:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1770:Neuroscience, Fourth Edition
1486:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.09.003
1322:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.04.023
891:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
71:, photostimulation based on
3651:Neurodevelopmental disorder
3626:Neural network (biological)
3621:Neural network (artificial)
2457:Wilson G, Shpall S (2016).
1971:Al-Rodhan N (27 May 2021).
1736:10.1016/j.msard.2022.103813
641:MĂĽller O, Rotter S (2017).
3770:
3178:Computational neuroscience
2890:Computational neuroscience
2793:Intelligence amplification
2379:10.1007/s11948-019-00087-2
2020:10.1016/j.ijlp.2018.10.002
1680:10.1038/s41598-021-95084-6
1277:10.1016/j.nano.2015.06.003
1112:10.1016/j.nurt.2008.02.001
854:10.1016/j.conb.2015.12.005
805:10.1016/j.conb.2013.11.013
607:10.1007/s12152-021-09468-6
412:
385:
354:
301:
267:
244:
33:encompasses any method or
3709:
3646:Neurodegenerative disease
3490:Evolutionary neuroscience
3269:
3123:
3051:
2834:
2693:10.1080/15265160590923367
2592:10.3109/17482961003777470
2496:10.1007/s11023-012-9298-7
2327:10.1007/s12152-011-9137-1
2261:Frontiers in Neuroscience
2175:10.1017/S0963180117000147
1580:10.1192/bjp.bp.115.164715
953:10.3389/fneur.2020.584664
89:brain–computer interfaces
3611:Brain–computer interface
3560:Neuromorphic engineering
3485:Educational neuroscience
3392:Nutritional neuroscience
3297:Clinical neurophysiology
3193:Integrative neuroscience
2749:Brain–computer interface
2274:10.3389/fnins.2019.01177
1625:10.1177/1352458520964412
1310:Clinical Neurophysiology
755:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00013
660:10.3389/fnsys.2017.00093
357:Brain–computer interface
3422:Behavioral neuroscience
2309:Baylis F (2013-12-01).
1885:10.1073/pnas.0505210102
1724:Mult Scler Relat Disord
1094:Gross RE (April 2008).
388:Neuropsychopharmacology
232:emerge from the brain.
3417:Affective neuroscience
3198:Molecular neuroscience
3153:Behavioral epigenetics
2885:Cognitive neuroscience
2255:Hildt E (5 Nov 2019).
1050:Olds JL (April 2011).
940:Frontiers in Neurology
501:computer accessibility
425:disruptive innovations
409:Ethical considerations
337:Magnetoencephalography
327:Electroencephalography
247:Deep brain stimulation
241:Deep brain stimulation
133:by rewriting it in an
69:deep brain stimulation
54:neurological disorders
3480:Cultural neuroscience
3475:Consumer neuroscience
3317:Neurogastroenterology
3173:Cellular neuroscience
3033:Simulation hypothesis
2461:. In Zalta EN (ed.).
1367:Nature Communications
1211:Behavioural Neurology
695:The Lancet. Neurology
458:and concept of self.
176:stroke rehabilitation
3452:Sensory neuroscience
3292:Behavioral neurology
3263:Systems neuroscience
2853:Electrocorticography
2846:Scientific phenomena
2818:Sensory substitution
2633:(10081): 1821–1830.
499:like wheelchairs or
497:assistive technology
331:Electrocorticography
210:Huntington's disease
185:, and programs like
3595:Social neuroscience
3495:Global neurosurgery
3372:Neurorehabilitation
3342:Neuro-ophthalmology
3327:Neurointensive care
3158:Behavioral genetics
2828:Synthetic telepathy
2469:Stanford University
2125:10.1155/2015/490507
2112:Parkinson's Disease
2067:2017Natur.551..159Y
1978:Scientific American
1939:10.1038/nature04970
1931:2006Natur.442..164H
1876:2005PNAS..10218626D
1672:2021NatSR..1116311G
1379:2013NatCo...4.2032S
1224:10.1155/2006/791072
903:10.1038/nrn.2017.15
464:Parkinson's disease
448:personal continuity
376:Parkinson's disease
372:subthalamic nucleus
206:Parkinson's disease
3671:Neuroimmune system
3565:Neurophenomenology
3505:Neural engineering
3228:Neuroendocrinology
3208:Neural engineering
3043:Walk Again Project
2962:J. C. R. Licklider
2900:Neural engineering
2484:Minds and Machines
1660:Scientific Reports
1387:10.1038/ncomms3032
548:Neural engineering
530:self-determination
374:for patients with
222:Decade of the Mind
135:encyclopedic style
122:is written like a
3741:
3740:
3590:Paleoneurobiology
3525:Neuroepistemology
3500:Neuroanthropology
3466:Interdisciplinary
3352:Neuropharmacology
3312:Neuroepidemiology
3083:
3082:
3023:Human enhancement
2952:Douglas Engelbart
2880:Cognitive science
2537:AJOB Neuroscience
2416:AJOB Neuroscience
2212:AJOB Neuroscience
2061:(7679): 159–163.
1822:10.1520/JFS14925J
1779:978-0-87893-697-7
1768:Purves D (2007).
1439:10.1111/ejn.12947
1100:Neurotherapeutics
1036:978-0-670-03830-5
1025:Doidge N (2007).
1011:978-0-19-512193-3
526:Cognitive liberty
521:Cognitive liberty
322:Electrophysiology
163:
162:
155:
93:cochlear implants
77:photopharmacology
16:(Redirected from
3761:
3729:
3728:
3717:
3716:
3631:Detection theory
3515:Neurocriminology
3442:Neurolinguistics
3357:Neuroprosthetics
3275:
3238:Neuroinformatics
3188:Imaging genetics
3110:
3103:
3096:
3087:
3071:
3070:
3059:
3058:
2982:Miguel Nicolelis
2921:Brain transplant
2840:
2803:Neuroprosthetics
2742:
2735:
2728:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2672:
2661:
2660:
2650:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2507:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2358:
2349:
2348:
2338:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2286:
2276:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2227:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2186:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2137:
2127:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2086:
2046:
2040:
2039:
1999:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1968:
1959:
1958:
1925:(7099): 164–71.
1914:
1908:
1907:
1897:
1887:
1870:(51): 18626–31.
1848:
1842:
1841:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1765:
1756:
1755:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1701:
1691:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1619:(9): 1468–1469.
1608:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1424:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1398:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1333:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1288:
1256:
1247:
1246:
1236:
1226:
1202:
1191:
1190:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1123:
1091:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1029:. Viking Adult.
1022:
1016:
1015:
995:
989:
982:
976:
975:
965:
955:
931:
925:
924:
914:
882:
876:
875:
865:
833:
827:
826:
816:
784:
778:
777:
767:
757:
733:
727:
726:
689:
683:
682:
672:
662:
638:
629:
628:
618:
586:
365:Neuroprosthetics
310:neurostimulation
158:
151:
147:
144:
138:
115:
114:
107:
97:retinal implants
46:neuroprosthetics
21:
3769:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3754:Neurotechnology
3744:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3705:
3691:Neurotechnology
3686:Neuroplasticity
3681:Neuromodulation
3676:Neuromanagement
3599:
3570:Neurophilosophy
3467:
3461:
3447:Neuropsychology
3408:
3401:
3362:Neuropsychiatry
3322:Neuroimmunology
3307:Neurocardiology
3283:
3276:
3267:
3258:Neurophysiology
3248:Neuromorphology
3203:Neural decoding
3144:
3137:
3119:
3114:
3084:
3079:
3047:
3011:
2935:
2909:
2868:
2864:Neuroplasticity
2859:Neural ensemble
2841:
2832:
2808:Neurotechnology
2763:Biomechatronics
2751:
2746:
2716:
2674:
2673:
2664:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2360:
2359:
2352:
2308:
2307:
2300:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2075:10.1038/551159a
2048:
2047:
2043:
2001:
2000:
1993:
1983:
1981:
1970:
1969:
1962:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1767:
1766:
1759:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1568:Br J Psychiatry
1561:
1560:
1556:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1471:
1470:
1466:
1422:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1217:(3–4): 149–57.
1204:
1203:
1194:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1142:
1141:
1137:
1093:
1092:
1085:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1012:
997:
996:
992:
986:Ryuta Kawashima
983:
979:
933:
932:
928:
884:
883:
879:
835:
834:
830:
786:
785:
781:
735:
734:
730:
691:
690:
686:
640:
639:
632:
588:
587:
570:
566:
539:
523:
510:
481:
450:, described as
444:
421:
411:
398:methylphenidate
390:
384:
382:Pharmaceuticals
367:
355:Main articles:
353:
324:
306:
300:
276:
268:Main articles:
266:
257:
249:
243:
238:
159:
148:
142:
139:
131:help improve it
128:
116:
112:
105:
50:neuromodulation
31:Neurotechnology
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3767:
3765:
3757:
3756:
3746:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3723:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3701:Self-awareness
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3656:Neurodiversity
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3555:Neuromarketing
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3530:Neuroesthetics
3527:
3522:
3520:Neuroeconomics
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3471:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3411:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3367:Neuroradiology
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3347:Neuropathology
3344:
3339:
3337:Neuro-oncology
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3288:
3286:
3278:
3277:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3223:Neurochemistry
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3090:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3065:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2947:Charles Stross
2943:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2931:Mind uploading
2928:
2923:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2798:Isolated brain
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2737:
2730:
2722:
2715:
2714:
2662:
2613:
2570:
2527:
2490:(3): 405–418.
2474:
2449:
2422:(3): 122–124.
2402:
2373:(1): 351–367.
2350:
2321:(3): 513–526.
2298:
2247:
2198:
2169:(4): 640–657.
2149:
2098:
2041:
1991:
1960:
1909:
1843:
1800:
1785:
1778:
1757:
1713:
1646:
1603:
1574:(6): 522–531.
1554:
1511:
1464:
1433:(1): 1667–74.
1410:
1353:
1300:
1248:
1192:
1153:
1135:
1083:
1042:
1035:
1017:
1010:
990:
977:
926:
897:(4): 222–235.
877:
828:
779:
728:
684:
630:
601:(3): 365–386.
567:
565:
562:
561:
560:
555:
550:
545:
538:
535:
522:
519:
509:
506:
480:
477:
456:self-narrative
443:
440:
410:
407:
386:Main article:
383:
380:
352:
349:
323:
320:
302:Main article:
299:
296:
265:
262:
256:
253:
245:Main article:
242:
239:
237:
234:
161:
160:
119:
117:
110:
104:
101:
39:nervous system
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3766:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3734:
3733:
3724:
3722:
3721:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3585:Neurotheology
3583:
3581:
3580:Neurorobotics
3578:
3576:
3575:Neuropolitics
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3540:Neuroethology
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3437:Motor control
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3427:Chronobiology
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3387:Neurovirology
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3279:
3274:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3233:Neurogenetics
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3168:Brain-reading
3166:
3164:
3163:Brain mapping
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3111:
3106:
3104:
3099:
3097:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3076:
3075:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3038:Transhumanism
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3007:Edward Boyden
3005:
3003:
3002:Yoky Matsuoka
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2977:Merlin Donald
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2967:Kevin Warwick
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2768:Brain implant
2766:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2738:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2724:
2723:
2720:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2671:
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2644:
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2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2586:(5): 449–55.
2585:
2581:
2574:
2571:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2531:
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2506:
2501:
2497:
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2489:
2485:
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2406:
2403:
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2389:
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2364:
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2355:
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2337:
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2303:
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2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2226:
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2218:(2): 96–109.
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2180:
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2172:
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2164:
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2094:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
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2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2042:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1996:
1992:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
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1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1816:(1): 135–43.
1815:
1811:
1804:
1801:
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1789:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1771:
1764:
1762:
1758:
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1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1717:
1714:
1709:
1705:
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1689:11573/1575485
1685:
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1665:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1647:
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1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1316:(7): 1392–9.
1315:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1271:(7): 1821–9.
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1212:
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1149:
1148:BiomedCentral
1145:
1139:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1106:(2): 281–93.
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1070:
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1061:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1007:
1003:
1002:
994:
991:
987:
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978:
973:
969:
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959:
954:
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937:
930:
927:
922:
918:
913:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
881:
878:
873:
869:
864:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
832:
829:
824:
820:
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810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
783:
780:
775:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
747:
743:
739:
732:
729:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
701:(6): 563–71.
700:
696:
688:
685:
680:
676:
671:
666:
661:
656:
652:
648:
644:
637:
635:
631:
626:
622:
617:
612:
608:
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600:
596:
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585:
583:
581:
579:
577:
575:
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569:
563:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
543:Biotechnology
541:
540:
536:
534:
531:
527:
520:
518:
516:
507:
505:
502:
498:
492:
490:
486:
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465:
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457:
453:
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408:
406:
403:
399:
395:
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381:
379:
377:
373:
366:
362:
358:
350:
348:
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345:lie detection
340:
338:
334:
332:
328:
321:
319:
316:
311:
305:
297:
295:
293:
289:
285:
280:
275:
271:
263:
261:
254:
252:
248:
240:
235:
233:
231:
230:consciousness
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
168:
167:brain imaging
157:
154:
146:
136:
132:
126:
125:
120:This section
118:
109:
108:
102:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
65:
63:
59:
55:
51:
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42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3730:
3718:
3690:
3666:Neuroimaging
3661:Neurogenesis
3545:Neurohistory
3510:Neurobiotics
3509:
3409:neuroscience
3377:Neurosurgery
3302:Epileptology
3284:neuroscience
3253:Neurophysics
3243:Neurometrics
3218:Neurobiology
3213:Neuroanatomy
3183:Connectomics
3117:Neuroscience
3073:
3060:
3028:Neurohacking
2997:Vernor Vinge
2987:Peter Kyberd
2905:Neuroscience
2813:Optogenetics
2807:
2756:Technologies
2687:(2): 39–49.
2684:
2680:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2543:(2): 59–70.
2540:
2536:
2530:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2462:
2452:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2370:
2366:
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2260:
2250:
2215:
2211:
2201:
2166:
2162:
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2111:
2101:
2058:
2054:
2044:
2011:
2007:
1982:. Retrieved
1976:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1867:
1863:
1846:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1788:
1769:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1666:(1): 16311.
1663:
1659:
1649:
1616:
1612:
1606:
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1567:
1557:
1527:(1): 14–19.
1524:
1520:
1514:
1505:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1458:
1430:
1426:
1413:
1370:
1366:
1356:
1331:11572/145615
1313:
1309:
1303:
1268:
1265:Nanomedicine
1264:
1214:
1210:
1170:
1166:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1103:
1099:
1059:
1055:
1045:
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1020:
1000:
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980:
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792:
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741:
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694:
687:
650:
646:
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594:
558:Neuroscience
553:Neuroimaging
524:
511:
493:
482:
473:
460:
445:
429:
422:
391:
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341:
335:
325:
314:
307:
281:
277:
258:
250:
218:phantom pain
191:
187:Fast ForWord
180:
164:
149:
143:October 2021
140:
121:
73:optogenetics
66:
62:neuroscience
43:
30:
29:
3535:Neuroethics
3382:Neurotology
2914:Speculative
2873:Disciplines
2505:2066/116450
2315:Neuroethics
1854:, Maeda F,
1852:deCharms RC
1173:(1): 1–16.
595:Neuroethics
515:neuroethics
432:neurorights
423:Like other
415:Neuroethics
64:knowledge.
3696:Neurotoxin
3397:Psychiatry
2992:Steve Mann
2972:Matt Nagle
2118:: 490507.
2014:: 101399.
1730:: 103813.
1613:Mult Scler
1521:Exp Neurol
1480:: 188–94.
1062:(2): 1–2.
946:: 584664.
564:References
485:philosophy
413:See also:
394:sertraline
194:depression
103:Background
91:, such as
35:electronic
3641:Neurochip
3407:Cognitive
3332:Neurology
2957:Hugh Herr
2823:Stentrode
2788:Exocortex
2783:Cyberware
2778:Brainport
2773:BrainGate
2709:219640810
2557:2150-7740
2514:1572-8641
2444:198982833
2234:2150-7740
1856:Glover GH
1752:248967047
1641:224829189
1460:learning.
848:: 53–58.
489:sociology
18:Neurotech
3748:Category
3720:Category
3604:Concepts
3550:Neurolaw
3282:Clinical
3062:Category
2701:16036700
2657:28363483
2600:20583947
2459:"Action"
2436:31361197
2397:30868377
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2242:55652038
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2144:25705545
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1830:11210899
1744:35597081
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1633:33084529
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1541:19348793
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823:24709603
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774:30766483
723:33908839
715:23642342
679:29326561
625:33942016
537:See also
442:Identity
402:zolpidem
351:Implants
292:migraine
284:epilepsy
202:epilepsy
183:BrainAge
3732:Commons
3145:science
3133:History
3128:Outline
3074:Commons
2648:5516547
2608:4713118
2565:6176406
2522:7199782
2388:6978299
2336:3825414
2284:6849447
2184:5658726
2135:4325225
2084:8021272
2063:Bibcode
1955:4347367
1927:Bibcode
1895:1311906
1872:Bibcode
1699:8357949
1668:Bibcode
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1507:cortex.
1396:4892116
1375:Bibcode
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670:5733340
616:8081770
508:Privacy
315:in vivo
178:, etc.
129:Please
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479:Agency
469:senses
452:bodily
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363:, and
198:stroke
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2604:S2CID
2561:S2CID
2518:S2CID
2440:S2CID
2238:S2CID
2032:S2CID
1951:S2CID
1834:S2CID
1748:S2CID
1637:S2CID
1545:S2CID
1498:S2CID
1451:S2CID
1423:(PDF)
1344:S2CID
1144:"TUS"
719:S2CID
236:Types
56:, or
2895:NBIC
2697:PMID
2653:PMID
2596:PMID
2553:ISSN
2510:ISSN
2432:PMID
2393:PMID
2341:PMID
2289:PMID
2230:ISSN
2189:PMID
2140:PMID
2116:2015
2089:PMID
2024:PMID
1986:2021
1943:PMID
1900:PMID
1826:PMID
1774:ISBN
1740:PMID
1704:PMID
1629:PMID
1594:PMID
1537:PMID
1490:PMID
1443:PMID
1401:PMID
1336:PMID
1291:PMID
1239:PMID
1183:PMID
1126:PMID
1074:PMID
1031:ISBN
1006:ISBN
968:PMID
917:PMID
868:PMID
819:PMID
770:PMID
711:PMID
675:PMID
621:PMID
487:and
417:and
288:PTSD
272:and
228:and
226:mind
172:ADHD
95:and
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75:and
2689:doi
2643:PMC
2635:doi
2631:389
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2545:doi
2500:hdl
2492:doi
2424:doi
2383:PMC
2375:doi
2331:PMC
2323:doi
2279:PMC
2269:doi
2220:doi
2179:PMC
2171:doi
2130:PMC
2120:doi
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2071:doi
2059:551
2016:doi
1935:doi
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1684:hdl
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1314:120
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