1402:, a particular part of a plant preserved in a particular way. Although the name is always fixed to the type specimen, the circumscription (i.e. range of specimens that may be included within the taxon) is defined by the taxonomist who uses the name. Such a change in circumscription could result in an expansion of the range of plant parts or preservation states that could be incorporated within the taxon. For instance, a fossil-genus originally based on compressions of ovules could be used to include the multi-ovulate cupules within which the ovules were originally borne. A complication can arise if, in this case, there was an already named fossil-genus for these cupules. If paleobotanists were confident that the type of the ovule fossil-genus and of the cupule fossil-genus could be included in the same genus, then the two names would compete as to being the correct one for the newly emended genus. In general, there would be competing priority whenever plant parts that had been given different names were discovered to belong to the same species. It appeared that morphotaxa offered no real advantage to paleobotanists over normal fossil-taxa and the concept was abandoned with the 2011 botanical congress and the 2012
1383:. These early provisions allowed fossils representing particular parts of plants in a particular state of preservation to be placed in organ-genera. In addition, a small subset of organ-genera, to be known as form-genera, were recognised based on the artificial taxa introduced by Brongniart mainly for foliage fossils. The concepts and regulations surrounding organ- and form-genera were modified within successive codes of nomenclature, reflecting a failure of the paleobotanical community to agree on how this aspect of plant taxonomic nomenclature should work (a history reviewed by Cleal and Thomas in 2020). The use of organ- and fossil-genera was abandoned with the
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1326:. Fire normally destroys plant tissue but sometimes charcoalified remains can preserve fine morphological detail that is lost in other modes of preservation; some of the best evidence of early flowers has been preserved in fusain. Fusain fossils are delicate and often small, but because of their buoyancy can often drift for long distances and can thus provide evidence of vegetation away from areas of sedimentation.
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These only tend to preserve the more robust plant parts such as seeds or woody stems. They can provide information about the three-dimensional form of the plant, and in the case of casts of tree stumps can provide evidence of the density of the original vegetation. However, they rarely preserve any
1335:
Plant fossils almost always represent disarticulated parts of plants; even small herbaceous plants are rarely preserved whole. The few examples of plant fossils that appear to be the remains of whole plants are in fact incomplete as the internal cellular tissue and fine micromorphological detail is
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These are the most commonly found type of plant fossil. They provide good morphological detail, especially of dorsiventral (flattened) plant parts such as leaves. If the cuticle is preserved, they can also yield fine anatomical detail of the epidermis. Little other detail of cellular anatomy is
1319:
These can provide very fine, three-dimensional morphological detail, and have proved especially important in the study of reproductive structures that can be severely distorted in adpressions. However, as they are formed in mineral nodules, such fossils can rarely be of large
842:
was a sufficient figure in this emergence of
Paleobotany, known for his work on the relationship between the living and extinct plant life. This work not only progressed paleobotany but also the understanding of the earth and its longevity in actuality and the
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depending on whether it is preserved as a cast or a petrifaction. All of these fossils may have originated from the same parent plant but they are each given their own taxonomic name. This approach to naming plant fossils originated with the work of
1966:
1287:, where the centre of a stem is either hollow or has delicate pith. After death, sediment enters and forms a cast of the central cavity of the stem. The best known examples of pith casts are in the Carboniferous Sphenophyta (
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Plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about the original parent plant. These modes of preservation may be summarised in a paleobotanical context as follows.
1908:
Cleal, Christopher J.; Lazarus, Maureen; Townsend, Annette (2005). "Illustrations and illustrators during the 'Golden Age' of palaeobotany: 1800–1840". In Bowden, A. J.; Burek, C. V.; Wilding, R. (eds.).
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Because of this, paleobotanists usually assign different taxonomic names to different parts of the plant in different modes of preservation. For instance, in the subarborescent
Palaeozoic
819:. Paleobotany is a historical science much like its adjacent, paleontology. Because of the understanding that paleobotany gives to archeologists, it has become important to the field of
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These provide fine detail of the cell anatomy of the plant tissue. Morphological detail can also be determined by serial sectioning, but this is both time consuming and difficult.
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Greuter, W.; McNeill, J.; Barrie, F R.; Burdet, H.M.; Demoulin, V.; Filgueiras, T.S.; Nicolson, D.H.; Silva, P.C.; Skog, J.E.; Turland, N.J. & Hawksworth, D.L. (2000),
1872:
Cabanes, D. (2020). Phytolith
Analysis in Paleoecology and Archaeology. In Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology (pp. 255-288) doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-42622-4_11
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A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of
2555:
Brongniart, A. (1822), "Sur la classification et la distribution des végétaux fossiles en général, et sur ceux des terrains de sediment supérieur en particulier",
1268:, Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert, Scotland, UK. Transverse section through a stem preserved as a silica petrifaction, showing preservation of cellular structure.
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normally lost during fossilization. Plant remains can be preserved in a variety of ways, each revealing different features of the original parent plant.
1882:
957:. Besides uncovering documentation of our past environmental conditions, palynology can also tell us about animal diets, historical standings of human
3767:
341:
2779:
2641:
International code of botanical nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the seventeenth
International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005
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and any other micro-organic matter. Paleopalynology is simply paleobotany on a much smaller scale, the two in close association with each other.
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Kidston, Middle
Pennsylvanian, Coseley, near Dudley, UK. A lyginopteridalean pollen organ preserved as an authigenic mineralization (mineralized
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2742:
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1999:
1831:
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Proposed additions to the
International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the fifth International Botanical Congress Cambridge1930
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The study and discipline of paleobotany was seen as far back as the 19th century. Known as the “Father of
Paleobotany”, French botanist
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2737:, 2nd edition. Academic Press (an imprint of Elsevier): Burlington, MA; New York, NY; San Diego, CA, USA, London, UK. 1252 pages.
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922:, is the science and study of ancient palynomorphs: particles sized between 5 and 500 micrometers. This would be an inclusion of
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2357:"Professor William Gilbert Chaloner (Bill) and his contributions to palaeobotany – International Organisation of Palaeobotany"
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2626:, Regnum Vegetabile 3, Utrecht: International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy of the International Association for Plant Taxonomy,
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704:
57:
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839:
2624:
International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature: Adopted by the Seventh International Botanical Congress; Stockholm, July 1950
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321:
100:
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1709:
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1244:, Middle Jurassic, Yorkshire, UK. Leaves preserved as compressions. Specimen in Munich Palaeontological Museum, Germany.
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53:
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Règles internationales de la nomenclature botanique adoptées par le Congrès
International de Botanique de Vienne 1905
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79:
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For many years this approach to naming plant fossils was accepted by paleobotanists but not formalised within the
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that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded
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538:
487:
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1059:, are also found in the Rhynie chert, and it offers a unique window into the history of early terrestrial life.
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2940:
1682:
510:
384:
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2701:"Proposed additions to the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature suggested by British palæobotanists"
2622:
Lanjouw, J.; Baehni, C.; Merrill, E.D.; Rickett, H.W.; Robyns, W.; Sprague, T.A. & Stafleu, F.A. (1952),
2293:"Origin of Equisetum: Evolution of horsetails (Equisetales) within the major euphyllophyte clade Sphenopsida"
86:
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The
International Fossil Plant Names Index (IFPNI): Global registry of scientific names of fossil organisms
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548:
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394:
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311:
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that existed over the earth’s timeline. Paleobotany also succeeded in the hands of German paleontologist
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316:
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1942:
1724:(1852–1924), early land plants, Devonian and Carboniferous floras, and their use in stratigraphy
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2015:
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170:
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2644:(electronic ed.), Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy, archived from
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Similar to paleobotany, we can tell a great deal of information about the environment and
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The Biota of Early Terrestrial Ecosystems: The Rhynie Chert, University of Aberdeen, UK
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proposed a set of formal provisions, the essence of which was introduced into the 1952
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Some plants have remained almost unchanged throughout earth's geological time scale.
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era. Some dispersed, fragmentary fossils of disputed affinity, primarily spores and
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existed prehistorically. These particles also help geologists identify and date the
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and the interactions held in the environments they once existed in, before becoming
3993:
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2692:
2568:
Cleal, C.J. & Thomas, B.A. (2010), "Botanical nomenclature and plant fossils",
2291:
Elgorriaga, A.; Escapa, I.H.; Rothwell, G.W.; Tomescu, A.M.F.; CĂşneo, N.R. (2018).
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1994:. Topics in geobiology (2. ed., printed with corr ed.). Dordrecht: Springer.
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1772:(1924–1996), known for work on Carboniferous lycophytes of central North America.
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contexts, and their use for the biological reconstruction of past environments (
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Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late Devonian including
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fine morphological detail or cell anatomy. A subset of such fossils are
1215:
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147:
2537:
2513:
2384:, Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University
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2166:
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1489:. Some plants of prehistory are the same ones around today and are thus
1259:
1140:, and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appeared during the Early
3173:
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3085:
3075:
2581:
2039:
Wellman, Charles H.; Osterloff, Peter L. & Mohiuddin, Uzma (2003),
1718:(1903–1983), Mesozoic plants of Jameson Land (Greenland) and Yorkshire.
1219:
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Petrifactions (permineralisations or anatomically preserved fossils).
1264:
923:
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751:
688:
185:
1760:(1800–1870), pioneer in plant physiology, phytotomy and soil science
2659:
Meyer-Berthaud, Brigitte; Scheckler, S.E. & Wendt, J. (1999), "
2645:
2096:
Meyer-Berthaud, Brigitte; Scheckler, S.E. & Wendt, J. (1999), "
1826:(4th (p/b) ed.). Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. p. 460.
1051:
to more unusual, problematic forms. Many fossil animals, including
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3784:
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3674:
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3465:
3460:
3455:
3443:
3428:
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2121:
1736:(1883–1952), extinct flora of Oregon and the Western United States
1296:
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1233:
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1006:
934:
927:
869:
785:
766:
692:
143:
131:
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had evolved by the Late Devonian, early ferns had evolved by the
1043:. It is exceptional due to its preservation of several different
3701:
3696:
3348:
3188:
3163:
3158:
3142:
3113:
3001:
2785:
1460:
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of 2005 was that any plant taxon whose type is a fossil, except
1106:
1085:
1081:
1071:
1063:
1001:
993:
774:
2834:
2757:
2590:
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Saint Louis Code)
1404:
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants
3621:
3183:
1601:
1151:
29:
2733:
Thomas N. Taylor, Edith L. Taylor, and Michael Krings. 2008.
2722:, Second edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
736:
811:
respectively. It is fundamental to the study of green plant
2402:"Margaret Bryan Davis | Biography & Facts | Britannica"
2246:
1766:(1936–2005), Tertiary paleoclimate of western North America
2268:
1505:. Other plants have changed radically, or became extinct.
1109:
swamp deposits across North America and Europe during the
795:
Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of ancient
2830:
1706:(1942–), colonization of land by early terrestrial floras
1343:, an impression of a leaf might be assigned to the genus
1096:, although it is now known to be the recently discovered
1748:(1854–1934), analysis of the structures of fossil plants
2780:
Paleobotany Research Group, University MĂĽnster, Germany
2735:
Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
150:
of Washington state, approximately 49 million years ago
2802:
PaleoNet – listservs and links related to paleontology
2766:
Botanical Society of America – Paleobotanical Section
2606:
Jongmans, W.J.; Halle, T.G. & Gothan, W. (1935),
1019:
An important early land plant fossil locality is the
27:
Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils
2820:
2817:. Plants that lived when dinosaurs roamed the earth.
2512:
Bacigalupo, NĂ©lida M.; Guaglianone, E. Rosa (1999).
2479:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
2475:"Thomas Maxwell Harris, 8 January 1903 - 1 May 1983"
4007:
3971:
3861:
3734:
3650:
3546:
3496:
3221:
3151:
3094:
3056:
3030:
2966:
2886:
1730:(1928–1999), fossil wood morphology, spermatophytes
1700:, (1931-), American paleoecologist and palynologist
1376:
742:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1847:Liddell, Henry George & Scott, Robert (1940).
1418:Lycopod axis (branch) from the Middle Devonian of
868:As paleobotany is the specification of fossilized
1917:. London: Geological Society of London. p.
1011:An unpolished hand sample of the Lower Devonian
976:are first found in the fossil record during the
691:dealing with the recovery and identification of
1742:(1891–1949), Revision of Indian Gondwana Plants
731:means "ancient, old", and is derived from the
1913:History of palaeobotany : selected essays
1311:). Specimen in Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, UK.
1113:Period contain a wealth of fossils containing
872:and the environment in which they thrived in,
2846:
2718:Wilson N. Stewart and Gar W. Rothwell. 2010.
2426:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
2171:Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University
1369:International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature
661:
8:
3952:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
2762:— International Organisation of Palaeobotany
1381:International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
2257:
1636:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1074:. The earliest tree was once thought to be
949:. It is also used to find natural oils and
887:Paleoecology is a similar study to that of
3053:
2853:
2839:
2831:
2213:
1889:. Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary
668:
654:
153:
2308:
2182:
1656:Learn how and when to remove this message
1254:Adpressions (compressions – impressions).
1202:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
3896:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
2592:, Königstein.: Koeltz Scientific Books,
2473:Chaloner, William Gilbert (1985-11-01).
1754:(1761–1838), the "father of paleobotany"
1444:
1425:
1413:
1165:This section includes a list of general
2720:Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants
2638:McNeill, J.; et al., eds. (2006),
2279:
2041:"Fragments of the Earliest Land Plants"
1814:
1144:, approximately 130 million years ago.
781:, which is the study of fossilized and
161:
1372:
1347:, a compression of a cone assigned to
961:, and reveal evidence in crime cases.
2450:"Dianne Edwards | Plant Fossil Names"
1088:spirally arranged on branches atop a
965:Overview of the paleobotanical record
823:as a whole. primarily for the use of
7:
2378:"Isabel Clifton Cookson (1893–1973)"
1691:(1893–1973), early vascular plants,
1634:adding citations to reliable sources
1508:Examples of prehistoric plants are:
988:, have been found in rocks from the
747:. Paleobotany includes the study of
58:adding citations to reliable sources
1433:, a common fossil tree root. Upper
1377:Jongmans, Halle & Gothan (1935)
907:standpoint as paleontologists do.
2382:Australian Dictionary of Biography
1351:, and the stem assigned to either
1171:it lacks sufficient corresponding
851:, and Czech nobleman and scholar,
25:
3901:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1967:"Paleoecology | Encyclopedia.com"
996:, and are thought to derive from
4064:
4063:
2514:"Ana MarĂa Ragonese (1928-1999)"
2167:"The Peel Method in Paleobotany"
2142:Speer, Brian R. (10 June 1995),
1606:
1387:, and replaced by "morphotaxa".
1156:
1039:) deposit composed primarily of
1031:. The Rhynie chert is an Early
876:is the study of all once-living
169:
34:
1117:up to 30 m tall, abundant
1023:, found outside the village of
231:List of human evolution fossils
45:needs additional citations for
2663:is the Earliest Modern Tree",
2100:is the Earliest Modern Tree",
1883:"Brongniart, Adolphe-Théodore"
1788:Evolutionary history of plants
1469:Evolutionary history of plants
849:Ernst Friedrich von Schlothiem
705:evolutionary history of plants
1:
1947:Digital Atlas of Ancient Life
1230:Preservation of plant fossils
953:within these rock layers for
891:, but paleoecology uses more
777:. A closely related field is
3942:History of plant systematics
3529:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1712:(1826–1897), Tertiary floras
1710:Constantin von Ettingshausen
226:List of transitional fossils
2791:Bibliography of Paleobotany
2165:Darrah, William C. (1936).
1803:Timeline of plant evolution
1362:Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart
1317:Authigenic mineralisations.
1047:of plants, from mosses and
840:Adolphe-Theodore Brongniart
743:
342:Mammalian auditory ossicles
4116:
3758:Alternation of generations
2782:(archived 25 October 2005)
2557:MĂ©m. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat.
2297:American Journal of Botany
1752:Kaspar Maria von Sternberg
1466:
853:Kaspar Maria von Sternberg
754:, as well as the study of
737:
707:, with a bearing upon the
4095:Subfields of paleontology
4059:
3908:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3871:Biological classification
2868:
2826:Links for Palaeobotanists
1990:Traverse, Alfred (2008).
1855:. Oxford: Clarendon Press
1125:, and countless smaller,
918:, more commonly known as
711:in general. A synonym is
539:Invertebrate paleontology
488:Biological classification
468:Introduction to evolution
369:Evolution of various taxa
3768:Evolutionary development
2793:(archived 12 March 2007)
2454:www.plantfossilnames.org
2020:Paleobotany + Palynology
1683:William Gilbert Chaloner
1502:Sciadopitys verticillata
1398:, can be described as a
523:Branches of paleontology
511:Timeline of paleontology
3419:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
2258:Cleal & Thomas 2010
1853:A Greek-English Lexicon
1746:Dunkinfield Henry Scott
1410:Fossil groups of plants
1186:more precise citations.
1121:, such as conifers and
715:. It is a component of
629:Vertebrate paleontology
506:History of paleontology
500:History of paleontology
221:Lagerstätte fossil beds
4034:by author abbreviation
3958:Plant taxonomy systems
3876:Botanical nomenclature
2491:10.1098/rsbm.1985.0009
1770:Gilbert Arthur Leisman
1598:Notable paleobotanists
1464:
1442:
1423:
1312:
1269:
1245:
1080:, which bears simple,
1016:
1004:-grade fossil plants.
549:Molecular paleontology
151:
4041:Botanical expeditions
2797:The Sternberg Project
2699:Thomas, H.H. (1935),
1822:Stearn, W.T. (2004).
1716:Thomas Maxwell Harris
1448:
1429:
1417:
1390:The situation in the
1300:
1262:
1257:normally preserved.
1237:
1136:) evolved during the
1010:
289:Timeline of evolution
135:
3773:Evolutionary history
3763:Double fertilization
3615:Cellular respiration
2807:Jurassic Park plants
2430:kiki.huh.harvard.edu
2225:Briquet, J. (1906),
1971:www.encyclopedia.com
1887:www.encyclopedia.com
1698:Margaret Bryan Davis
1630:improve this section
1591:Trochodendron nastae
1115:arborescent lycopods
903:rather than from an
306:Organs and processes
216:List of fossil sites
54:improve this article
2992:Non-vascular plants
2677:1999Natur.398..700M
2376:Dettmann, Mary E.,
2269:Greuter et al. 2000
2247:Lanjouw et al. 1952
2145:The Devonian Period
2114:1999Natur.398..700M
2068:10.1038/nature01884
2060:2003Natur.425..282W
1556:Nelumbo aureavallis
1514:Araucaria mirabilis
1457:Upper Carboniferous
970:Macroscopic remains
901:geological sciences
897:biological sciences
687:, is the branch of
640:Paleontology Portal
294:Transitional fossil
264:Geologic time scale
157:Part of a series on
4100:Branches of botany
3497:Surface structures
3292:Flower development
2813:2007-10-21 at the
2772:2019-10-21 at the
2582:10.1002/tax.591024
2563:: 203–240, 297–348
2406:www.britannica.com
1728:Ana MarĂa Ragonese
1577:Peltandra primaeva
1465:
1443:
1424:
1313:
1270:
1246:
1017:
937:at the time these
683:, also spelled as
201:Fossil preparation
152:
4077:
4076:
3716:Herbaceous plants
3542:
3541:
2743:978-0-12-373972-8
2728:978-0-521-38294-6
2708:Journal of Botany
2671:(6729): 700–701,
2648:on 6 October 2012
2599:978-3-904144-22-3
2337:www.nasonline.org
2310:10.1002/ajb2.1125
2229:, Jena: Fischer,
2214:Brongniart (1822)
2108:(6729): 700–701,
2054:(6955): 282–285,
2001:978-1-4020-5609-3
1833:978-0-7153-1643-6
1734:Ethel Ida Sanborn
1666:
1665:
1658:
1449:External mold of
1291:) and cordaites (
1280:Moulds and casts.
1212:
1211:
1204:
1127:herbaceous plants
947:sedimentary rocks
749:terrestrial plant
709:evolution of life
678:
677:
604:Paleotempestology
589:Paleoneurobiology
544:Micropaleontology
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
4107:
4067:
4066:
4046:Individual trees
3721:Secondary growth
3692:Succulent plants
3680:Prostrate shrubs
3563:Apical dominance
3548:Plant physiology
3509:Epicuticular wax
3054:
3047:
3038:Plant morphology
2855:
2848:
2841:
2832:
2761:
2760:
2758:Official website
2715:
2705:
2695:
2655:
2654:
2653:
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2323:
2322:
2312:
2303:(8): 1286–1303.
2288:
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2271:
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2255:
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2222:
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2186:
2184:10.5962/p.295100
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2012:
2006:
2005:
1987:
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1860:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1819:
1798:Prehistoric life
1661:
1654:
1650:
1647:
1641:
1610:
1602:
1549:Hymenaea protera
1437:of northeastern
1207:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1182:this section by
1173:inline citations
1160:
1159:
1152:
1134:flowering plants
859:Related Sciences
833:paleoethnobotany
809:paleoclimatology
746:
740:
739:
670:
663:
656:
619:Sclerochronology
347:Mosaic evolution
284:Paleoclimatology
254:Extinction event
173:
154:
146:) leaf from the
139:Betula leopoldae
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
4115:
4114:
4110:
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4104:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4073:
4055:
4024:Botanical terms
4017:
4003:
3967:
3913:Citrus taxonomy
3891:Author citation
3857:
3751:
3730:
3652:
3646:
3642:Turgor pressure
3550:
3538:
3492:
3307:Floral symmetry
3225:
3217:
3147:
3136:Vascular bundle
3131:Vascular tissue
3090:
3050:
3041:
3040:
3026:
2997:Vascular plants
2962:
2958:Plant pathology
2882:
2864:
2859:
2815:Wayback Machine
2774:Wayback Machine
2756:
2755:
2752:
2703:
2698:
2658:
2651:
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2587:
2567:
2554:
2551:
2549:Further reading
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2095:
2094:
2090:
2043:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2024:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2002:
1992:Paleopalynology
1989:
1988:
1984:
1975:
1973:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1907:
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1890:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1858:
1856:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1824:Botanical Latin
1821:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1779:
1670:Edward W. Berry
1662:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1627:
1611:
1600:
1471:
1412:
1371:. Eventually,
1333:
1232:
1208:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1178:Please help to
1177:
1161:
1157:
1150:
974:vascular plants
967:
916:Paleopalynology
913:
911:Paleopalynology
905:anthropological
866:
861:
829:relative dating
760:photoautotrophs
674:
642:
634:
633:
529:Biostratigraphy
524:
516:
515:
501:
493:
492:
463:
455:
454:
370:
362:
361:
352:Nervous systems
307:
299:
298:
274:History of life
269:Geologic record
244:
243:Natural history
236:
235:
211:List of fossils
181:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
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4053:
4048:
4043:
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4026:
4020:
4018:
4016:
4015:
4014:Related topics
4012:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4002:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3975:
3973:
3969:
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3963:Taxonomic rank
3960:
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3936:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3915:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3881:Botanical name
3873:
3867:
3865:
3863:Plant taxonomy
3859:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3839:Megasporangium
3836:
3835:
3834:
3827:Microsporangia
3819:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3792:
3787:
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3667:
3665:Cushion plants
3656:
3654:
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3647:
3645:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3602:
3600:Plant hormones
3597:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3583:Photosynthesis
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3554:
3552:
3544:
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3361:
3356:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3302:Floral formula
3299:
3297:Floral diagram
3294:
3289:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3250:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3227:
3226:(incl. Flower)
3219:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3186:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3155:
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3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3140:
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3138:
3128:
3126:Storage organs
3123:
3118:
3117:
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3106:
3100:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3078:
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3068:
3062:
3060:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3034:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3012:Spermatophytes
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2982:Archaeplastida
2979:
2973:
2971:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2936:Phytogeography
2933:
2931:Phytochemistry
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2892:
2890:
2888:Subdisciplines
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2869:
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2828:
2823:
2818:
2804:
2799:
2794:
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2783:
2777:
2763:
2751:
2750:External links
2748:
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2565:
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2368:
2348:
2333:"Edward Berry"
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2250:
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2134:
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2000:
1982:
1958:
1943:"Paleoecology"
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1800:
1795:
1793:Paleophycology
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1749:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1722:Robert Kidston
1719:
1713:
1707:
1704:Dianne Edwards
1701:
1695:
1689:Isabel Cookson
1686:
1680:
1678:phytogeography
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1491:living fossils
1467:Main article:
1411:
1408:
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1271:
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1222:(before about
1210:
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1155:
1149:
1146:
980:Period of the
966:
963:
912:
909:
865:
862:
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845:organic matter
764:photosynthetic
713:paleophytology
701:paleogeography
676:
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579:Paleolimnology
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554:Palaeoxylology
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18:Palaeobotanist
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3999:Phytochemical
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3637:Transpiration
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3424:Inflorescence
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3394:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3317:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3141:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3109:Ground tissue
3107:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3045:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:Plant anatomy
3029:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2953:Plant ecology
2951:
2949:
2948:Plant anatomy
2946:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2896:Archaeobotany
2894:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2844:
2842:
2837:
2836:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2702:
2697:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2685:10.1038/19516
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2661:Archaeopteris
2657:
2647:
2643:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2466:
2455:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2418:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2383:
2379:
2372:
2369:
2358:
2352:
2349:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2147:
2146:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2122:10.1038/19516
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2098:Archaeopteris
2092:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2035:
2032:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1983:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1935:
1930:
1928:9781862391741
1924:
1920:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1901:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1764:Jack A. Wolfe
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1672:(1875–1945),
1671:
1668:
1667:
1660:
1657:
1649:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1615:This section
1613:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1584:Protosalvinia
1581:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1521:Archaeopteris
1518:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1497:
1496:Ginkgo biloba
1492:
1488:
1487:Pennsylvanian
1484:
1480:
1479:Mississippian
1476:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1452:Lepidodendron
1447:
1440:
1436:
1435:Carboniferous
1432:
1428:
1421:
1416:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1386:
1385:St Louis Code
1382:
1378:
1374:
1373:Thomas (1935)
1370:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1349:Palaeostachya
1346:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1267:
1266:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1243:
1241:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1206:
1203:
1195:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1163:
1154:
1153:
1148:Plant fossils
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1132:Angiosperms (
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:Carboniferous
1108:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1077:Archaeopteris
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1015:from Scotland
1014:
1009:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
964:
962:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
931:
929:
925:
921:
917:
910:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
885:
883:
879:
875:
871:
863:
858:
856:
854:
850:
846:
841:
836:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
793:
791:
787:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
765:
761:
757:
753:
750:
745:
734:
730:
726:
723:. The prefix
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
695:remains from
694:
690:
686:
682:
671:
666:
664:
659:
657:
652:
651:
649:
648:
645:
641:
638:
637:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
599:Paleopedology
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
584:Paleomycology
582:
580:
577:
575:
574:Paleogenetics
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
526:
520:
519:
512:
509:
507:
504:
503:
497:
496:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
465:
459:
458:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
372:
366:
365:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
309:
303:
302:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
259:Geochronology
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
246:
240:
239:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
186:Fossilization
184:
183:
177:
176:
172:
168:
167:
164:
160:
156:
155:
149:
145:
141:
140:
134:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
69:"Paleobotany"
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3994:Horticulture
3984:Floriculture
3886:Correct name
3736:Reproduction
3726:Woody plants
3651:Plant growth
3610:Gas Exchange
3595:Phytomelanin
3473:Plant embryo
3223:Reproductive
3071:Phragmoplast
2920:
2734:
2719:
2711:
2707:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2650:, retrieved
2646:the original
2640:
2623:
2607:
2589:
2573:
2569:
2560:
2556:
2524:(3/4): 351.
2521:
2517:
2507:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2457:. Retrieved
2453:
2444:
2433:. Retrieved
2429:
2420:
2409:. Retrieved
2405:
2396:
2386:, retrieved
2381:
2371:
2360:. Retrieved
2351:
2340:. Retrieved
2336:
2327:
2300:
2296:
2286:
2280:McNeill 2006
2275:
2264:
2253:
2242:
2226:
2220:
2209:
2177:(5): 69–83.
2174:
2170:
2160:
2149:, retrieved
2144:
2137:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2051:
2047:
2034:
2023:. Retrieved
2019:
2016:"Palynology"
2010:
1991:
1985:
1974:. Retrieved
1970:
1961:
1950:. Retrieved
1946:
1937:
1912:
1903:
1891:. Retrieved
1886:
1877:
1868:
1857:. Retrieved
1852:
1842:
1823:
1817:
1783:Cryptospores
1740:Birbal Sahni
1674:paleoecology
1652:
1643:
1628:Please help
1616:
1589:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1554:
1547:
1542:Glossopteris
1540:
1533:
1526:
1519:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1494:
1472:
1450:
1430:
1399:
1391:
1389:
1384:
1368:
1366:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1341:sphenophytes
1338:
1334:
1323:
1316:
1308:
1301:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1273:
1263:
1253:
1247:
1238:
1213:
1198:
1189:
1170:
1131:
1104:
1097:
1075:
1061:
1021:Rhynie chert
1018:
1013:Rhynie Chert
968:
932:
914:
889:paleontology
886:
874:paleoecology
867:
864:Paleoecology
837:
805:paleoecology
799:systems and
794:
728:
724:
721:paleobiology
717:paleontology
712:
685:palaeobotany
684:
680:
679:
609:Paleozoology
569:Paleoecology
563:
559:Paleobiology
312:Avian flight
249:Biogeography
206:Index fossil
191:Trace fossil
163:Paleontology
148:Early Eocene
137:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
4090:Paleobotany
3810:Pollen tube
3805:Pollinators
3795:Pollination
3790:Germination
3605:Respiration
3588:Chlorophyll
3434:Pedicellate
3368:Gametophyte
3287:Aestivation
3238:Antheridium
3233:Archegonium
3081:Plasmodesma
3058:Plant cells
2921:Paleobotany
2916:Ethnobotany
2901:Astrobotany
2610:, Heerlen,
2576:: 261–268,
2485:: 228–260.
1893:22 February
1758:Franz Unger
1685:(1928–2016)
1570:Palaeoraphe
1563:Pachypteris
1400:morphotaxon
1392:Vienna Code
1357:Arthroxylon
1331:Fossil-taxa
1303:Crossotheca
1184:introducing
1119:seed plants
1105:Widespread
943:rock strata
893:methodology
821:archaeology
813:development
803:, known as
756:prehistoric
703:), and the
681:Paleobotany
564:Paleobotany
385:Cephalopods
380:Butterflies
196:Microfossil
4084:Categories
3832:Microspore
3822:Sporangium
3800:Artificial
3488:Sporophyte
3483:Sporophyll
3478:Receptacle
3373:Gynandrium
3243:Androecium
3152:Vegetative
3022:Angiosperm
3017:Gymnosperm
2911:Dendrology
2652:2011-02-20
2518:Darwiniana
2459:2024-01-07
2435:2024-01-07
2411:2024-03-06
2388:2024-01-07
2362:2024-01-07
2342:2024-01-07
2025:2023-11-13
1976:2023-11-13
1952:2023-11-13
1859:2019-07-16
1809:References
1693:palynology
1646:April 2016
1535:Dillhoffia
1493:, such as
1475:Horsetails
1305:hughesiana
1285:pith casts
1240:Ginkgoites
1167:references
1142:Cretaceous
1123:seed ferns
1053:arthropods
1049:lycophytes
1037:hot spring
992:Period in
990:Ordovician
955:extraction
920:palynology
870:plant life
825:phytoliths
797:ecological
779:palynology
762:, such as
735:adjective
697:geological
614:Palynology
483:Cladistics
322:Multicells
80:newspapers
4029:Botanists
3947:Herbarium
3844:Megaspore
3742:Evolution
3685:Subshrubs
3653:and habit
3578:Nutrition
3573:Cellulose
3568:Bulk flow
3551:Materials
3514:Epidermis
3378:Gynoecium
3359:Endosperm
3354:Dispersal
3270:Staminode
3206:Sessility
3194:Cataphyll
3114:Mesophyll
3066:Cell wall
3007:Lycophyte
2987:Bryophyte
2941:Geobotany
2926:Phycology
2632:220069027
2616:700752855
2530:0011-6793
2499:0080-4606
2235:153969885
2193:0006-8098
1849:"παλαιός"
1617:does not
1528:Calamites
1455:from the
1431:Stigmaria
1420:Wisconsin
1353:Calamites
1345:Annularia
1289:Calamites
1057:arachnids
998:liverwort
982:Paleozoic
959:allergies
939:particles
895:from the
878:organisms
817:evolution
624:Taphonomy
534:Ichnology
478:Phylogeny
462:Evolution
450:Tetrapods
395:Dinosaurs
390:Cetaceans
136:A fossil
4069:Category
3989:Forestry
3979:Agronomy
3972:Practice
3923:Cultivar
3918:Cultigen
3778:timeline
3670:Rosettes
3558:Aleurone
3534:Trichome
3451:Perianth
3263:Filament
3121:Meristem
3044:glossary
2906:Bryology
2811:Archived
2770:Archived
2538:23223919
2319:30025163
2201:41762635
2076:13679913
1777:See also
1483:conifers
1242:huttonii
1216:charcoal
1192:May 2023
1138:Mesozoic
1099:Wattieza
1066:trunks,
1035:sinter (
1033:Devonian
1029:Scotland
986:cuticles
978:Silurian
972:of true
771:seaweeds
644:Category
440:Sea cows
435:Reptiles
425:Molluscs
332:Flagella
3747:Ecology
3504:Cuticle
3334:Capsule
3324:Anatomy
3275:Tapetum
3199:Petiole
3174:Rhizome
3169:Rhizoid
3096:Tissues
3086:Vacuole
3076:Plastid
2878:Outline
2873:History
2693:4419663
2673:Bibcode
2130:4419663
2110:Bibcode
2084:4383813
2056:Bibcode
1638:removed
1623:sources
1485:by the
1396:diatoms
1309:in situ
1293:Artisia
1224:3500 BC
1220:history
1180:improve
1090:conifer
882:extinct
831:and in
801:climate
758:marine
752:fossils
744:palaios
738:παλαιός
725:palaeo-
445:Spiders
420:Mammals
415:Insects
180:Fossils
94:scholar
4051:Plants
3954:(IAPT)
3707:Lianas
3675:Shrubs
3627:Starch
3519:Nectar
3439:Raceme
3405:Stigma
3393:Locule
3383:Carpel
3344:Pyrena
3282:Flower
3258:Anther
3253:Stamen
3248:Pollen
2970:groups
2862:Botany
2741:
2726:
2691:
2665:Nature
2630:
2614:
2596:
2536:
2528:
2497:
2317:
2233:
2199:
2191:
2151:12 May
2128:
2102:Nature
2082:
2074:
2048:Nature
1998:
1925:
1830:
1324:Fusain
1265:Rhynia
1169:, but
1092:-like
1086:leaves
1084:-like
1070:, and
1068:fronds
1045:clades
1041:silica
1025:Rhynie
928:spores
924:pollen
790:pollen
786:spores
783:extant
729:paleo-
689:botany
430:Plants
410:Humans
400:Fishes
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
4011:Lists
3928:Group
3851:Spore
3785:Flora
3702:Vines
3697:Trees
3660:Habit
3632:Sugar
3524:Stoma
3466:Sepal
3461:Petal
3456:Tepal
3444:Umbel
3429:Bract
3410:Style
3398:Ovule
3388:Ovary
3329:Berry
3319:Fruit
3312:Whorl
3179:Shoot
2977:Algae
2968:Plant
2714:: 111
2704:(PDF)
2689:S2CID
2570:Taxon
2534:JSTOR
2197:JSTOR
2126:S2CID
2080:S2CID
2044:(PDF)
1320:size.
1094:trunk
1072:roots
1000:- or
935:biome
767:algae
733:Greek
693:plant
405:Fungi
375:Birds
317:Cells
144:birch
101:JSTOR
87:books
3933:Grex
3815:Self
3349:Seed
3211:Stem
3189:Leaf
3164:Root
3159:Bulb
3143:Wood
3104:Cork
3002:Fern
2739:ISBN
2724:ISBN
2628:OCLC
2612:OCLC
2594:ISBN
2526:ISSN
2495:ISSN
2315:PMID
2231:OCLC
2189:ISSN
2153:2012
2072:PMID
1996:ISBN
1923:ISBN
1895:2017
1828:ISBN
1676:and
1621:any
1619:cite
1499:and
1461:Ohio
1439:Ohio
1375:and
1295:).
1107:coal
1082:fern
1064:tree
1055:and
1002:moss
994:Oman
926:and
899:and
815:and
807:and
788:and
775:kelp
719:and
337:Hair
327:Eyes
73:news
3622:Sap
3339:Nut
3184:Bud
2681:doi
2669:398
2578:doi
2487:doi
2305:doi
2301:105
2179:doi
2118:doi
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2064:doi
2052:425
1632:by
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