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245:. He took exception to the Hyatts' claims and pursued the brothers in a number of court cases between 1877 and 1884. Initially the judge found in Spill's favor, but ultimately it was judged that neither party held an exclusive claim and the true inventor of celluloid/xylonite was Alexander Parkes, due to his mention of camphor in his earlier experiments and patents. The judge ruled all manufacturing of celluloid could continue both in Spill's British Xylonite Company and Hyatt's' Celluloid Manufacturing Company.
505:
to wash away any free acids that did not react with the fibers, dried, and kneaded. During this time, a solution of 50% camphor in alcohol is added, which then changes the macromolecule structure of nitrocellulose into a homogeneous gel of nitrocellulose and camphor. The chemical structure is not well understood, but it is determined that it is one molecule of camphor for each unit of glucose. After the mixing, the mass is pressed into blocks at a high pressure and then is fabricated for its specific use.
332:
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Another factor that can cause this is excess moisture, which can accelerate deterioration of nitrocellulose with the presence of nitrate groups, either newly fragmented from heat or still trapped as a free acid from production. Both of these sources allow the accumulation of nitric acid. Another form
450:
Celluloid remains in use for musical instruments, especially accordions and guitars. Celluloid is very robust and easy to mold in difficult forms, and has great acoustic performance as cover for wooden frames since it does not block wood's natural pores. Instruments covered with celluloid can easily
192:
listed camphor during their earlier experiments, calling the resultant mix "xylonite", but it was the Hyatt brothers who recognized the value of camphor and its use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. They used heat and pressure to simplify the manufacture of these compounds. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed
504:
was to be used as well in the reaction in order to first, catalyze the nitric acid groups so it can allow for the substitution onto the cellulose, and second, allow for the groups to easily and uniformly attach to the fibers, creating a better quality nitrocellulose. The product then must be rinsed
228:
The development of celluloid was partially spurred by the desire to reduce reliance on ivory, with its shortages caused by overhunting. An 1883 invention allowed celluloid manufacturers to imitate the distinctive graining of ivory, and by the end of 19th century celluloid was marketed as a lighter
215:
Over the years, celluloid became the common use term used for this type of plastic. In 1878 Hyatt was able to patent a process for injection moulding thermoplastics, although it took another fifty years before it could be realized commercially, and in later years celluloid was used as the base for
363:
in the 1950s were made of celluloid. Its high flammability was legendary since it self-ignites when exposed to temperatures over 150 °C in front of a hot movie-projector beam. While celluloid film was standard for 35mm theatrical productions until around 1950, motion-picture film for amateur
276:
in 1879 with the intention of producing gelatin dry plates. The
Celluloid Manufacturing Company was contracted for this work, which was done by thinly slicing layers out of celluloid blocks and then removing the slice marks with heated pressure plates. After this, the celluloid strips were coated
135:
Parkes patented it as a clothing waterproofer for woven fabrics in the same year. Later Parkes showcased
Parkesine at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where he was awarded a bronze medal for his efforts. The introduction of Parkesine is generally regarded as the birth of the plastics
554:
Among collectors of antiques, the deterioration of celluloid is generally known as "celluloid rot." The chemical processes involved are not perfectly understood, but it is widely believed that the gases released by a piece undergoing celluloid rot can trigger celluloid rot in nearby articles of
375:
Celluloid was useful for producing cheaper jewellery, jewellery boxes, hair accessories and many items that would earlier have been manufactured from ivory, horn or other expensive animal products. In these applications it was often referred to as "Ivorine" or "French Ivory", after a form of
530:
Many sources of deterioration in celluloid exist, such as thermal, chemical, photochemical, and physical. The most inherent flaw is as celluloid ages, the camphor molecules are âsqueezedâ out of the mass due to the unsustainable pressure used in the production. That pressure causes the
500:) on the cellulose chain. The reaction can produce mixed products, depending on the degree of substitution of nitrogen, or the percent nitrogen content on each cellulose molecule; cellulose nitrate has 2.8 molecule of nitrogen per molecule of cellulose. It was determined that
132:, who was never able to see his invention reach full fruition, after his firm went bankrupt due to scale-up costs. Parkes patented his discovery as Parkesine in 1862 after realising a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion.
491:
Celluloid is made from a mixture of chemicals such as nitrocellulose, camphor, alcohol, as well as colorants and fillers depending on the desired product. The first step is transforming raw cellulose into nitrocellulose by conducting a
419:
clock company bought rights for its use as a durable coating from
Celluloid Manufacturing Company in September, 1880 and marketed it as, "Adamantine". Celluloid enabled clockmakers to make the typical late Victorian style of black
508:
Nitrating cellulose is an extremely flammable process in which even factory explosions are not uncommon. Many western celluloid factories closed after hazardous explosions, and only two factories in China remain in business.
277:
with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. It is not certain exactly how long it took for
Carbutt to standardize his process, but it occurred no later than 1888. A 15-inch-wide (380 mm) sheet of Carbutt's film was used by
188:, to manufacture the product. In 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a "horn-like material" with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Alexander Parkes and Daniel Spill
531:
nitrocellulose molecules to bind back to each other or crystallize, and this results in the camphor molecules being shoved out of the material. Once exposed to the environment, camphor can undergo
961:
Springate, Megan E. (1997) "Cellulose
Nitrate Plastic (Celluloid) in Archaeological Assemblages: Identification and Care,"Northeast Historical Archaeology: Vol. 26 26: Iss. 1, Article 5.
535:
at room temperature, and the plastic reverts to brittle nitrocellulose. Also, with exposure to excess heat, the nitrate groups can break off and expose nitrogen gases, such as
180:, and on April 6, 1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the
496:
reaction. This is achieved by exposing the cellulose fibers to an aqueous solution of nitric acid; the hydroxyl groups (-OH) will then be replaced with nitrate groups (-ONO
311:, which purchased Goodwin's patent after he died, was eventually successful in a patent-infringement suit against Kodak). This ability to produce photographic images on a
594:
424:
in such a way that the wooden case appeared to be black marble, and the various pillars and other decorative elements of the case looked like semi-precious stone.
229:(and three times cheaper) ivory substitute under the names "Ivarine", "Ivaleur", "French Ivory", "Parisian Ivory", "Grained Ivory", and "Ivory Pyralin".
1029:
844:
1057:
948:"JAIC 1991, Volume 30, Number 2, Article 3 (pp. 145 to 162)." JAIC 1991, Volume 30, Number 2, Article 3 (pp. 145 to 162). Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <
592:
Balser, Klaus; Hoppe, Lutz; Eicher, Theo; Wandel, Martin; Astheimer, HansâJoachim; Steinmeier, Hans; Allen, John M. (2004). "Cellulose Esters".
384:, fountain pens, cutlery handles and kitchen items. The main disadvantage the material had was that it was flammable. It was soon overtaken by
347:
black mantel clock, a typical late 19th century
American style. The "serpentine" and "stone" of the pillars are made of celluloid glued to wood.
775:
694:
1067:
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930:
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which turns them into a leather-like substance. Panels are then turned on a mold and allowed to harden for as long as three months.
380:. It was also used for dressing table sets, dolls, picture frames, charms, hat pins, buttons, buckles, stringed instrument parts,
367:
1032:
153:
971:
871:
649:
532:
278:
116:, invented in 1848 and used as a wound dressing and an emulsion for photographic plates, is dried to a celluloid like film.
1021:
732:. Albany, NY, US: New York State Library, NYS Education Dept. "Manuscripts and Special Collections" section. Archived from
193:
the material "celluloid" in 1872. The Hyatts later moved their company, now called the
Celluloid Manufacturing Company, to
725:
256:
The main use was in movie and photography film industries, which used only celluloid film stock prior to the adoption of
241:
had worked with Parkes and formed the
Xylonite Co. to take over Parkes' patents, describing the new plastic products as
181:
260:
safety film in the 1950s. Celluloid is highly flammable, difficult and expensive to produce and no longer widely used.
200:
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149:
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831:
Daniel Spill, Celluloid
Manufacturing Company, United States. Circuit Court (New York : Southern District)
315:(as opposed to a glass or metal plate) was a crucial step toward making possible the advent of motion pictures.
416:
344:
273:
408:] out of hollow Celluloid--which, because of its 'frictionless' properties, spun even faster than steel."
168:, acquired Parkes's patent and began experimenting with cellulose nitrate with the intention of manufacturing
1077:
1072:
248:
360:
522:
415:. This celluloid was printed to look like expensive woods, or materials like marble or granite. The
989:
Beaujot, Ariel (2012), ""The Real Thing": The
Celluloid Vanity Set and the Search for Authenticity",
949:
908:
331:
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produced by this means was still considered too stiff for the needs of motion-picture photography.
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Shelf clocks and other furniture items were often covered with celluloid in a manner similar to
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before the advent of safer methods, celluloid's common present-day uses are for manufacturing
72:
46:
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185:
129:
50:
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100:
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of deterioration, photochemical deterioration, is severe in celluloid because it absorbs
998:
972:"Ask the Expert: All About Celluloid Rotâand What to do About It | Acoustic Guitar"
569:
468:
285:
64:
148:. The Parkesine company ceased trading in 1868. Pictures of Parkesine are held by the
1041:
536:
501:
440:
393:
282:
169:
888:
The Game Makers: The Story of Parker Brothers from Tiddledy Winks to Trivial Pursuit
540:
483:, plus stabilizers and other agents to increase stability and reduce flammability.
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364:
use, such as 16mm and 8mm film, were on acetate "safety base", at least in the US.
312:
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80:
76:
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141:
84:
27:
Class of highly reactive materials produced by mixing nitrocellulose and camphor
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152:
of London. There is a plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works in
124:
The first celluloid as a bulk material for forming objects was made in 1855 in
71:, often with added dyes and other agents. Once much more common for its use as
456:
381:
351:
125:
31:
755:
493:
289:
204:
Newark, New Jersey, industrial production complex of the Celluloid Company (
137:
113:
39:
35:
427:
439:. It was primarily used to coat wooden slide rule faces, such as in early
472:
385:
60:
17:
626:
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light well. The absorbed light leads to chain-breakage and stiffening.
480:
476:
405:
389:
177:
145:
68:
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celluloid developed in France with grain lines in made to resemble
95:
288:
experiments on a cylinder drum Kinetograph. However, the celluloid
950:
http://cool.conservation-us.org/jaic/articles/jaic30-02-003_3.html
909:
https://clockhistory.com/sethThomas/products/adamantine/index.html
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173:
94:
726:"Albany Billiard Ball Company Records, 1894-1944; Bulk 1915-1944"
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Most movie and photography films prior to the widespread move to
467:
A typical formulation of celluloid might contain 70 to 80 parts
833:
Spill vs. Celluloid Manufacturing Company litigation documents
564:
455:-like flaming pattern. Thick celluloid panels are cooked in a
435:
Celluloid was also a popular material in the construction of
944:
942:
112:
Nitrocellulose-based plastics slightly predate celluloid.
400:
plants until 1996, and table tennis balls â until 2014. "
643:
641:
845:"John Carbutt at Historic Camera - History Librarium"
443:rules, as well as cursor end pieces, such as in
79:, musical instruments, combs, office equipment,
993:, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, pp. 139â178,
695:"Hackney Council - First Plastic in the World"
648:Painter, Paul C.; Coleman, Michael M. (2008).
595:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
355:Assorted tortoiseshell celluloid guitar picks.
654:Essentials of Polymer Science and Engineering
8:
371:A late Soviet roly-poly doll from celluloid
431:Flaming celluloid pattern on an accordion.
756:"US patent #105,338 issued July 12, 1870"
555:celluloid which were previously intact.
451:be recognized by the material's typical
819:
807:
795:
581:
172:, which until that time were made from
864:Bakelite Jewellery A Collector's guide
307:obtained patents for a film product. (
295:By 1889, more flexible celluloids for
587:
585:
7:
627:Andrea Picks: The Saga of Cellulose
526:A fungus-damaged photographic slide
923:Seth Thomas Clocks & Movements
479:, 0 to 14 parts dye, 1 to 5 parts
396:dolls were made from celluloid on
136:industry. Parkesine was made from
25:
999:10.2752/9781472504517/Beaujot0006
176:. He used cloth, ivory dust, and
45:For the French record label, see
1033:Society of the Plastics Industry
683:. UK Patent office. p. 255.
866:. The Apple Press. p. 16.
650:"The Early History of Polymers"
404:... made some versions [of
233:Daniel Spill and legal disputes
1058:1862 establishments in England
49:. For the Malayalam film, see
1:
991:Victorian Fashion Accessories
776:"Plastics Historical Society"
656:. DEStech>. pp. 7â9.
604:10.1002/14356007.a05_419.pub2
205:
182:Albany Billiard Ball Company
1025:Plastics Historical Society
890:, p. 48. Harvard Business.
724:Bassett, Fred, ed. (2009).
164:In the 1860s, an American,
150:Plastics Historical Society
1094:
44:
29:
1068:Film and video technology
677:UK Patent office (1857).
632:January 24, 2010, at the
327:An antique celluloid doll
299:were developed, and both
886:Orbanes, Philip (2004).
274:Keystone Dry Plate Works
252:Old celluloid film rolls
30:Not to be confused with
598:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
701:. 2012. Archived from
680:Patents for inventions
527:
432:
372:
356:
348:
336:
328:
253:
212:
104:
1030:"History of Plastics"
921:Ly, Tran Duy (1996).
862:Grasso, Tony (1996).
525:
513:Environmental hazards
430:
370:
354:
342:
334:
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305:Eastman Kodak Company
268:English photographer
251:
203:
98:
974:. 9 September 2021.
778:. Plastiquarian.com
63:produced by mixing
1063:English inventions
1053:1870 introductions
849:historiccamera.com
736:on January 5, 2013
528:
471:, nitrated to 11%
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373:
357:
349:
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335:Table tennis balls
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254:
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195:Newark, New Jersey
105:
77:table tennis balls
445:Keuffel and Esser
313:flexible material
297:photographic film
237:English inventor
218:photographic film
166:John Wesley Hyatt
160:John Wesley Hyatt
73:photographic film
47:Celluloid Records
16:(Redirected from
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398:smokeless powder
301:Hannibal Goodwin
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186:Albany, New York
130:Alexander Parkes
120:Alexander Parkes
51:Celluloid (film)
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705:on 4 March 2016
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402:Parker Brothers
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279:William Dickson
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224:Imitating ivory
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184:(1868â1986) in
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101:sterling silver
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59:are a class of
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286:motion picture
281:for the early
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170:billiard balls
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128:, England, by
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518:Deterioration
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481:ethyl alcohol
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796:Beaujot 2012
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780:. Retrieved
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759:. Retrieved
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738:. Retrieved
734:the original
729:
719:
707:. Retrieved
703:the original
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545:
541:nitric oxide
529:
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422:mantel clock
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272:founded the
270:John Carbutt
267:
255:
242:
239:Daniel Spill
236:
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189:
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134:
123:
111:
85:guitar picks
83:bodies, and
81:fountain pen
56:
55:
1022:"Celluloid"
549:ultraviolet
533:sublimation
475:, 30 parts
463:Formulation
437:slide rules
417:Seth Thomas
345:Seth Thomas
264:Photography
209: 1890
190:(see below)
142:nitric acid
1042:Categories
873:1850766134
782:2014-05-07
761:2014-05-07
740:January 5,
576:References
487:Production
457:bain-marie
441:A.W. Faber
382:accordions
156:, London.
126:Birmingham
57:Celluloids
32:Celluloide
1048:Cellulose
709:9 January
494:nitration
394:roly-poly
392:. Soviet
290:film base
138:cellulose
114:Collodion
61:materials
40:Cellulite
36:Cellulose
18:Parkesine
630:Archived
559:See also
473:nitrogen
406:diabolos
386:Bakelite
303:and the
243:Xylonite
983:Sources
477:camphor
447:rules.
390:Catalin
258:acetate
178:shellac
154:Hackney
146:solvent
91:History
69:camphor
1005:
929:
894:
870:
660:
610:
413:veneer
283:Edison
144:and a
952:>.
911:>.
453:nacre
378:ivory
309:Ansco
174:ivory
38:, or
1003:ISBN
927:ISBN
907:<
892:ISBN
868:ISBN
742:2013
711:2012
658:ISBN
608:ISBN
539:and
388:and
319:Uses
103:pen.
67:and
995:doi
600:doi
565:Cel
197:.
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