Pharmacogenomics - Knowledge (XXG)

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standards to hold other sensitive information such as social security numbers and that the fundamental nature of an EHR is to house highly personal information. Similarly, a systematic review reported that the public had concern over privacy of genetic information, with 60% agreeing that maintaining privacy was not possible; however, 96% agreed that a direct-to-consumer testing company had protected their privacy, with 74% saying their information would be similarly or better protected in an EHR. With increasing technological capabilities in EHRs, it is possible to mask or hide genetic data from subsets of providers and there is not consensus on how, when, or from whom genetic information should be masked. Rigorous protection and masking of genetic information is argued to impede further scientific progress and clinical translation into routine clinical practices.

920:(CPIC) is "an international consortium of individual volunteers and a small dedicated staff who are interested in facilitating use of pharmacogenetic tests for patient care. CPIC’s goal is to address barriers to clinical implementation of pharmacogenetic tests by creating, curating, and posting freely available, peer-reviewed, evidence-based, updatable, and detailed gene/drug clinical practice guidelines. CPIC guidelines follow standardized formats, include systematic grading of evidence and clinical recommendations, use standardized terminology, are peer-reviewed, and are published in a journal (in partnership with Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics) with simultaneous posting to cpicpgx.org, where they are regularly updated." 945:"The information in this Table is intended primarily for prescribers, and patients should not adjust their medications without consulting their prescriber. This version of the table is limited to pharmacogenetic associations that are related to drug metabolizing enzyme gene variants, drug transporter gene variants, and gene variants that have been related to a predisposition for certain adverse events. The FDA recognizes that various other pharmacogenetic associations exist that are not listed here, and this table will be updated periodically with additional pharmacogenetic associations supported by sufficient scientific evidence." 1308:. The patient experienced dizziness and sedation, so they were tapered off ziprasidone and olanzapine, and transitioned to quetiapine. Trazodone was discontinued. The patient then experienced excessive sweating, tachycardia and neck pain, gained considerable weight and had hallucinations. Five months later, quetiapine was tapered and discontinued, with ziprasidone re-introduced into their treatment, due to the excessive weight gain. Although the patient lost the excessive weight they had gained, they then developed muscle stiffness, 1312:, tremors and night sweats. When benztropine was added they experienced blurry vision. After an additional five months, the patient was switched from ziprasidone to aripiprazole. Over the course of 8 months, patient A gradually experienced more weight gain and sedation, and developed difficulty with their gait, stiffness, cogwheeling and dyskinetic ocular movements. A pharmacogenomics test later proved the patient had a CYP2D6 *1/*41, which has a predicted phenotype of IM and CYP2C19 *1/*2 with a predicted phenotype of IM as well. 109: 278: 1341:(surgery to remove the tonsils and/or adenoids). They released their strongest Boxed Warning to elucidate the dangers of CYP2D6 UMs consuming codeine. Codeine is converted to morphine by CYP2D6, and those who have UM phenotypes are in danger of producing large amounts of morphine due to the increased function of the gene. The morphine can elevate to life-threatening or fatal amounts, as became evident with the death of three children in August 2012. 1321:

poorly. When the patient mentioned these symptoms to her physician, they recommended that she discontinue codeine use. Within a few days, both the patient's and her infant's symptoms were no longer present. It is assumed that if the patient had undergone a pharmacogenomic test, it would have revealed she may have had a duplication of the gene CYP2D6, placing her in the Ultra-rapid metabolizer (UM) category, explaining her reactions to codeine use.

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recognize a fundamental duality of genetic information. This allows room in the argument for different types of genetic information to be handled differently while acknowledging that genomic information is similar and yet distinct from other health-related information. Genomic contextualism would allow for a case-by-case analysis of the technology and the context of its use (e.g., clinical practice, research, secondary findings).

6927: 5741: 392: 1814: 1802: 5729: 982:. The tests offered can vary significantly from one lab to another, including genes and alleles tested for, phenotype assignment, and any clinical annotations provided. With the exception of a few direct-to-consumer tests, all pharmacogenetic testing requires an order from an authorized healthcare professional. In order for the results to be used in a clinical setting in the 1350: 43: 1826: 1567:. Privacy and confidentiality are major concerns. The evidence of benefit or risk from a genetic test may only be suggestive, which could cause dilemmas for providers. Drug development may be affected, with rare genetic variants possibly receiving less research. Access and patient autonomy are also open to discussion. 941:

published the Table of Pharmacogenetic Associations. For the gene-drug pairs included in the table, "the FDA has evaluated and believes there is sufficient scientific evidence to suggest that subgroups of patients with certain genetic variants, or genetic variant-inferred phenotypes (such as affected

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treatments can deviate from what is dubbed as the "one-dose-fits-all" approach. Pharmacogenomics also attempts to eliminate trial-and-error in prescribing, allowing physicians to take into consideration their patient's genes, the functionality of these genes, and how this may affect the effectiveness

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The CPIC guidelines are "designed to help clinicians understand HOW available genetic test results should be used to optimize drug therapy, rather than WHETHER tests should be ordered. A key assumption underlying the CPIC guidelines is that clinical high-throughput and pre-emptive (pre-prescription)

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chips that are used in GWAS studies and provide customers with a write-up of individual risk for various traits and diseases and testing for 500,000 known SNPs. Costs range from $ 995 to $ 2500 and include updates with new data from studies as they become available. The more expensive packages even

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from February 1998 to April 2007. The study elucidated that an average of 82% of adults in the United States are taking at least one medication (prescription or nonprescription drug, vitamin/mineral, herbal/natural supplement), and 29% are taking five or more. The study suggested that those aged 65

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Drug targets are the specific sites where a medication carries out its pharmacological activity. The interaction between the drug and this site results in a modification of the target that may include inhibition or potentiation. Most of the pharmacogenetic interactions that involve drug targets are

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Whether used to explain a patient's response (or lack of it) to a treatment, or to act as a predictive tool, it hopes to achieve better treatment outcomes and greater efficacy, and reduce drug toxicities and adverse drug reactions (ADRs). For patients who do not respond to a treatment, alternative

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is past its expiration date as we move into a blended genomic/big data era of medicine, yet exceptionalism practices continue to permeate clinical healthcare today. Garrison et al. recently relayed a call to action to update verbiage from genetic exceptionalism to genomic contextualism in that we

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As the cost per genetic test decreases, the development of personalized drug therapies will increase. Technology now allows for genetic analysis of hundreds of target genes involved in medication metabolism and response in less than 24 hours for under $ 1,000. This a huge step towards bringing

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Others argue that genetic information is indeed distinct from other health-related information but not to the extent of requiring legal/regulatory protections, similar to other sensitive health-related data such as HIV status. Additionally, Evans et al. argue that the EHR has sufficient privacy

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The FDA Table of Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labeling lists FDA-approved drugs with pharmacogenomic information found in the drug labeling. "Biomarkers in the table include but are not limited to germline or somatic gene variants (polymorphisms, mutations), functional deficiencies with a

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Patient B is a woman who gave birth by caesarian section. Her physician prescribed codeine for post-caesarian pain. She took the standard prescribed dose, but she experienced nausea and dizziness while she was taking codeine. She also noticed that her breastfed infant was lethargic and feeding

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involves the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of pharmaceutics. These processes are often facilitated by enzymes such as drug transporters or drug metabolizing enzymes (discussed in-depth below). Variation in DNA loci responsible for producing these enzymes can alter their

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Although other factors contribute to the slow progression of pharmacogenomics (such as developing guidelines for clinical use), the above factors appear to be the most prevalent. Increasingly substantial evidence and industry body guidelines for clinical use of pharmacogenetics have made it a

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Although there appears to be a general acceptance of the basic tenet of pharmacogenomics amongst physicians and healthcare professionals, several challenges exist that slow the uptake, implementation, and standardization of pharmacogenomics. Some of the concerns raised by physicians include:

1146:. Beside efficacy, germline pharmacogenetics can help to identify patients likely to undergo severe toxicities when given cytotoxics showing impaired detoxification in relation with genetic polymorphism, such as canonical 5-FU. In particular, genetic deregulations affecting genes coding for 924:

genotyping will become more widespread, and that clinicians will be faced with having patients’ genotypes available even if they have not explicitly ordered a test with a specific drug in mind. CPIC's guidelines, processes and projects have been endorsed by several professional societies."

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Medications can have off-target effects (typically unfavorable) that arise from an interaction between the medication and/or its metabolites and a site other than the intended target. Genetic variation in the off-target sites can influence this interaction. The main example of this type of

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In the early 2000s, handling genetic information as exceptional, including legal or regulatory protections, garnered strong support. It was argued that genomic information may need special policy and practice protections within the context of electronic health records (EHRs). In 2008, the

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expression or activity so that their functional status changes. An increase, decrease, or loss of function for transporters or metabolizing enzymes can ultimately alter the amount of medication in the body and at the site of action. This may result in deviation from the medication's

1421:. As a result, some disease-specific guidelines only recommend pharmacogenetic testing for populations where high-risk alleles are more common and, similarly, certain insurance companies will only pay for pharmacogenetic testing for beneficiaries of high-risk populations. 1130:. In behavioral health, pharmacogenomic tests provide tools for physicians and care givers to better manage medication selection and side effect amelioration. Pharmacogenomics is also known as companion diagnostics, meaning tests being bundled with drugs. Examples include 2330:

Cooper-DeHoff, Rhonda M.; Niemi, Mikko; Ramsey, Laura B.; Luzum, Jasmine A.; Tarkiainen, E. Katriina; Straka, Robert J.; Gong, Li; Tuteja, Sony; Wilke, Russell A.; Wadelius, Mia; Larson, Eric A.; Roden, Dan M.; Klein, Teri E.; Yee, Sook Wah; Krauss, Ronald M. (May 2022).

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Gammal, Roseann S.; Pirmohamed, Munir; Somogyi, Andrew A.; Morris, Sarah A.; Formea, Christine M.; Elchynski, Amanda L.; Oshikoya, Kazeem A.; McLeod, Howard L.; Haidar, Cyrine E.; Whirl-Carrillo, Michelle; Klein, Teri E.; Caudle, Kelly E.; Relling, Mary V. (May 2023).

970:-funded resource that provides information about how human genetic variation affects response to medications. PharmGKB collects, curates and disseminates knowledge about clinically actionable gene-drug associations and genotype-phenotype relationships." 2129:

Squassina A, Manchia M, Manolopoulos VG, Artac M, Lappa-Manakou C, Karkabouna S, et al. (August 2010). "Realities and expectations of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine: impact of translating genetic knowledge into clinical practice".

879:, in which cells are more susceptible to oxidative stress. When medications that have a significant oxidative effect are administered to individuals who are G6PD deficient, they are at an increased risk of erythrocyte lysis that presents as 1009:(DTC) pharmacogenetic tests allow consumers to obtain pharmacogenetic testing without an order from a prescriber. DTC pharmacogenetic tests are generally reviewed by the FDA to determine the validity of test claims. The FDA maintains a 5664: 1502:

supported the inference of genetic involvement in drug metabolism, with identical twins sharing remarkable similarities in drug response compared to fraternal twins. The term pharmacogenomics first began appearing around the 1990s.

1482:. Although the first official publication was not until 1961, the unofficial beginnings of this science were around the 1950s. Reports of prolonged paralysis and fatal reactions linked to genetic variants in patients who lacked 3227:"Medical education in pharmacogenomics-results from a survey on pharmacogenetic knowledge in healthcare professionals within the European pharmacogenomics clinical implementation project Ubiquitous Pharmacogenomics (U-PGx)" 1291:

years or older continue to be the biggest consumers of medications, with 17-19% in this age group taking at least ten medications in a given week. Polypharmacy has also shown to have increased since 2000 from 23% to 29%.

1385:: Although there are a considerable number of drug-metabolizing enzymes involved in the metabolic pathways of drugs, only a fraction have sufficient scientific data to validate their use within a clinical setting; and 3025:

Yang CG, Ciccolini J, Blesius A, Dahan L, Bagarry-Liegey D, Brunet C, et al. (January 2011). "DPD-based adaptive dosing of 5-FU in patients with head and neck cancer: impact on treatment efficacy and toxicity".

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in drug targets can also influence response to medications, though this is an emerging subfield within pharmacogenomics. One well-established gene-drug interaction involving a germline mutation to a drug target is

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and the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) in the United States. In a 2017 survey of European clinicians, in the prior year two-thirds had not ordered a pharmacogenetic test.

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are major CYP enzymes involved in drug metabolism and are all known to be highly polymorphic. Additional drug-metabolizing enzymes that have been implicated in pharmacogenetic interactions include

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Ciccolini J, Gross E, Dahan L, Lacarelle B, Mercier C (October 2010). "Routine dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase testing for anticipating 5-fluorouracil-related severe toxicities: hype or hope?".

1275:: it is theorized that with tailored drug treatments, patients will not need to take several medications to treat the same condition. Thus they could potentially reduce the occurrence of 699:

to cross cellular membranes in order to move between body fluid compartments such as the blood, gut lumen, bile, urine, brain, and cerebrospinal fluid. The major transporters include the

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are now considered as critical issues for patients treated with 5-FU/capecitabine, irinotecan, mercaptopurine/azathioprine, gemcitabine/capecitabine/AraC and tamoxifen, respectively.

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Containing 1170 drugs with more than 3800 interactions, and approximately 2000 known SNPs. These SNPs are listed and ordered according to their effect on expression and/or activity.

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subgroup in the table below), are likely to have altered drug metabolism, and in certain cases, differential therapeutic effects, including differences in risks of adverse events."

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Stanek EJ, Sanders CL, Taber KA, Khalid M, Patel A, Verbrugge RR, et al. (March 2012). "Adoption of pharmacogenomic testing by US physicians: results of a nationwide survey".

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therapies can be prescribed that would best suit their requirements. In order to provide pharmacogenomic recommendations for a given drug, two possible types of input can be used:

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genetic etiology, gene expression differences, and chromosomal abnormalities; selected protein biomarkers that are used to select treatments for patients are also included."

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launched Pharmacogenomic Resource for Enhanced Decisions in Care and Treatment (PREDICT); in 2015 survey, two-thirds of the clinicians had ordered a pharmacogenetic test.

1263:, announced that it would pay for pharmacogenetic testing and its associated clinical decision support software to optimize and personalize mental health prescriptions. 3510:"FDA Drug Safety Communication: Safety review update of codeine use in children; new Boxed Warning and Contraindication on use after tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy" 543:

of the patient's current or future treatments (and where applicable, provide an explanation for the failure of past treatments). Such approaches promise the advent of

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population wide approach to precision medicine. Cost, reimbursement, education, and easy use at the point of care remain significant barriers to widescale adoption.

4942: 1486:('pseudocholinesterase') following succinylcholine injection during anesthesia were first reported in 1956. The term pharmacogenetics was first coined in 1959 by 1333:

released a statement addressing a serious concern regarding the connection between children who are known as CYP2D6 UM, and fatal reactions to codeine following

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of pharmacogenomics are scarce, therefore sufficient evidence does not at this time exist to validate the cost-effectiveness and cost-consequences of the test.

876: 5659: 2333:"The Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline for SLCO1B1, ABCG2, and CYP2C9 genotypes and Statin-Associated Musculoskeletal Symptoms" 3623: 643:

The majority of clinically actionable pharmacogenetic variation occurs in genes that code for drug-metabolizing enzymes, including those involved in both

987: 423: 903:. Mutations in the HLA complex have been associated with an increased risk of developing hypersensitivity reactions in response to certain medications. 1431: 3364: 6910: 6667: 2918:"Standardizing terms for clinical pharmacogenetic test results: consensus terms from the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC)" 680: 488: 4674:

Breckenridge A, Lindpaintner K, Lipton P, McLeod H, Rothstein M, Wallace H (September 2004). "Pharmacogenetics: ethical problems and solutions".

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The Pharmacogenomics Knowledge Base (PharmGKB) is an interactive tool for researchers investigating how genetic variation affects drug response.

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There has been call to move away from race and ethnicity in medicine and instead use genetic ancestry as a way to categorize patients. Some

1279:, improve treatment outcomes, and save costs by avoiding purchase of some medications. For example, maybe due to inappropriate prescribing, 5871: 5836: 1242: 1201:(Hp) genotyping shows an effect on cardiovascular disease, with Hp2-2 at higher risk and supplemental vitamin E reducing risk by affecting 551:, in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for narrow subsets of patients or even for each individual's unique genetic makeup. 2758:"FDA Announces Collaborative Review of Scientific Evidence to Support Associations Between Genetic Information and Specific Medications" 570:. Sequencing provides many more data points, including detection of mutations that prematurely terminate the synthesized protein (early 4718: 1286:

The need for pharmacogenomically tailored drug therapies may be most evident in a survey conducted by the Slone Epidemiology Center at

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Dressler LG, Terry SF (November 2009). "How will GINA influence participation in pharmacogenomics research and clinical testing?".

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was enacted to protect patients from health insurance companies discriminating against an individual based on genetic information.

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to standardize terms related to clinical pharmacogenetic test results. Consensus for terms to describe allele functional status,

896: 762: 704: 3796: 1349: 467:. Pharmacogenomics analyzes how the genetic makeup of a patient affects their response to drugs. It deals with the influence of 6905: 6495: 5988: 5733: 5679: 2202:"Cytochrome P450 enzymes in drug metabolism: Regulation of gene expression, enzyme activities, and impact of genetic variation" 2170:

Huser V, Cimino JJ (2013). "Providing pharmacogenomics clinical decision support using whole genome sequencing data as input".

1147: 708: 6023: 1115:, in which pharmacogenomics can be used to determine the cause of death in drug-related deaths where no findings emerge using 6550: 6246: 6157: 1634: 1417:

that vary in frequency between specific populations have been shown to be associated with differential responses to specific

1043: 416: 2785: 2666:"Expanded Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline for Medication Use in the Context of G6PD Genotype" 1637:

and other variants that have been reported after discovery, compiled and officially named. These are SNPs across the board.

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The PGRN hosts resources and information to stimulate collaborative research in pharmacogenomics and precision medicine.

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for drug metabolizing enzymes, phenotype for drug transporters, and phenotype for high-risk genotype status was reached.

6028: 938: 798:. Warfarin binds to and inhibits VKOR, which is an important enzyme in the vitamin K cycle. Inhibition of VKOR prevents 684: 6880: 6218: 5623: 4844:"SuperCYP: a comprehensive database on Cytochrome P450 enzymes including a tool for analysis of CYP-drug interactions" 1010: 795: 500: 5300:. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Center for Pharmacogenomics and Individualized Therapy. Archived from 5953: 5772: 4556:

Paul NW, Fangerau H (December 2006). "Why should we bother? Ethical and social issues in individualized medicine".

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Caudle KE, Dunnenberger HM, Freimuth RR, Peterson JF, Burlison JD, Whirl-Carrillo M, et al. (February 2017).

590:. Although both terms relate to drug response based on genetic influences, there are differences between the two. 6465: 6213: 6207: 5713: 4369:

Kalow W (2006). "Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics: origin, status, and the hope for personalized medicine".

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Becquemont L (June 2009). "Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives".

1531: 1190: 979: 852: 535: 409: 3154: 6875: 6716: 6530: 6232: 5669: 5514: 5446: 3872: 1766: 1202: 1046:(SNPs) may be described using their assignment reference SNP cluster ID (rsID) or based on the location of the 203: 2440: 2098: 1304:

Patient A has schizophrenia. Their treatment included a combination of ziprasidone, olanzapine, trazodone and

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Papadopoulos P, Viennas E, Gkantouna V, Pavlidis C, Bartsakoulia M, Ioannou ZM, et al. (January 2014).

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Johnson JA (November 2003). "Pharmacogenetics: potential for individualized drug therapy through genetics".

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FitzGerald JD, Dalbeth N, Mikuls T, Brignardello-Petersen R, Guyatt G, Abeles AM, et al. (June 2020).

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Swen JJ, Huizinga TW, Gelderblom H, de Vries EG, Assendelft WJ, Kirchheiner J, Guchelaar HJ (August 2007).

108: 6600: 6417: 6178: 6153: 6088: 5977: 5861: 5695: 5611: 5414: 5379: 5025:"Developments in FINDbase worldwide database for clinically relevant genomic variation allele frequencies" 1438: 1170: 900: 819: 4764:. Statistics for Biology and Health. Los Angeles: Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 285–327. 3492: 1597:

A central repository for pharmacogene variation that focuses on haplotype structure and allelic variation

6956: 6832: 6817: 6525: 6317: 6119: 5796: 5765: 5674: 5628: 3443:"Pharmacogenetics of antipsychotic adverse effects: Case studies and a literature review for clinicians" 1483: 1276: 700: 548: 484: 376: 356: 321: 233: 228: 3680:

Borrell LN, Elhawary JR, Fuentes-Afflick E, Witonsky J, Bhakta N, Wu AH, et al. (February 2021).

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AMIA Joint Summits on Translational Science Proceedings. AMIA Joint Summits on Translational Science

6847: 6779: 6762: 6741: 6662: 6635: 6470: 6358: 6327: 5973: 5933: 5856: 5644: 5618: 5476: 5463: 5424: 4143:"Integrating pharmacogenomics into the electronic health record by implementing genomic indicators" 3104:"Precision Healthcare of Type 2 Diabetic Patients Through Implementation of Haptoglobin Genotyping" 2721:

Pavlos R, Mallal S, Phillips E (August 2012). "HLA and pharmacogenetics of drug hypersensitivity".

1751: 1714: 1260: 1126:, pharmacogenomics tests are used to identify which patients are most likely to respond to certain 867:. Glutathione and catalase protect cells from oxidative stress that would otherwise result in cell 648: 539: 351: 331: 296: 266: 223: 217: 208: 180: 6842: 6805: 6774: 6440: 6390: 6291: 6104: 6083: 5983: 5904: 5816: 5598: 5409: 4936: 4742: 4699: 4538: 4394: 4123: 4022: 3973: 3921: 3854: 3778: 3662: 3605: 3207: 3051: 2588: 1910: 1249: 1159: 1112: 644: 544: 346: 341: 316: 238: 4141:

Caraballo PJ, Sutton JA, Giri J, Wright JA, Nicholson WT, Kullo IJ, et al. (January 2020).

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Peterson JF, Field JR, Shi Y, Schildcrout JS, Denny JC, McGregor TL, et al. (August 2016).

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Gaedigk A, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Miller NA, Leeder JS, Whirl-Carrillo M, Klein TE (March 2018).

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The Creative Destruction of Medicine: How the Digital Revolution Will Create Better Health Care

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Tailor treatments to meet patients' unique genetic pre-disposition, identifying optimal dosing;

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There are many commercial laboratories around the world who offer pharmacogenomic testing as a

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Vogel F (1959). "Moderne probleme der humangenetik" [Modern human genetics problems].

4386: 4351: 4316: 4275: 4223: 4172: 4115: 4094:"Naked bodies, naked genomes: the special (but not exceptional) nature of genomic information" 4074: 4014: 3965: 3913: 3846: 3770: 3711: 3654: 3597: 3559: 3493:"Pharmacogenetics: increasing the safety and effectiveness of drug therapy [Brochure]" 3474: 3407: 3346: 3297: 3256: 3199: 3135: 3084: 3043: 3007: 2970: 2947: 2898: 2738: 2703: 2685: 2645: 2627: 2580: 2572: 2533: 2525: 2494: 2486: 2476: 2401: 2370: 2352: 2312: 2231: 2223: 2179: 2147: 2080: 2031: 1990: 1902: 1862: 1818: 1736: 1392: 1287: 1189:. In patients with CYP2C19, who take clopidogrel, cardiovascular risk is elevated, leading to 780: 696: 632: 516: 472: 396: 281: 160: 4842:

Preissner S, Kroll K, Dunkel M, Senger C, Goldsobel G, Kuzman D, et al. (January 2010).

4192:"Regulating the Secondary Use of Data for Research: Arguments Against Genetic Exceptionalism" 2049:

Hauser AS, Chavali S, Masuho I, Jahn LJ, Martemyanov KA, Gloriam DE, Babu MM (January 2018).

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A table that identifies which FDA-approved drugs have pharmacogenomics-related warning labels

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McGuire AL, Fisher R, Cusenza P, Hudson K, Rothstein MA, McGraw D, et al. (July 2008).

3760: 3750: 3742: 3701: 3693: 3646: 3589: 3549: 3539: 3464: 3454: 3336: 3328: 3287: 3246: 3238: 3189: 3125: 3115: 3035: 2999: 2937: 2929: 2888: 2878: 2730: 2693: 2677: 2635: 2619: 2564: 2468: 2411: 2393: 2360: 2344: 2302: 2294: 2213: 2139: 2070: 2062: 2021: 1982: 1894: 1467: 1463: 1252:, announced that it would pay for genetic testing to predict response to psychiatric drugs. 1123: 880: 754: 750: 733: 627: 512: 492: 468: 288: 3993:"Is Genetic Exceptionalism Past Its Sell-By Date? On Genomic Diaries, Context, and Content" 2606:

Recht, Judith; Chansamouth, Vilada; White, Nicholas J.; Ashley, Elizabeth A. (2022-05-03).

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Computational advances have enabled cheaper and faster sequencing. Research has focused on

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enzyme family is responsible for metabolism of 70-80% of all medications used clinically.

652: 527: 5248:. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), U.S. National Library of Medicine 3427: 5282: 5201: 3765: 3730: 3365:"Pharmacogenetic test makers cheer UnitedHealth coverage. Other payers aren't there yet" 3194: 3177: 2698: 2665: 6870: 6769: 6510: 6490: 6409: 6251: 5993: 5938: 5745: 5583: 5486: 5429: 5245: 5220: 5185: 5130: 5105: 5049: 5024: 4919: 4891:

Thorn CF, Klein TE, Altman RB (2013). "PharmGKB: The Pharmacogenomics Knowledge Base".

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Oldenburg, Johannes; Marinova, Milka; Müller-Reible, Clemens; Watzka, Matthias (2008).

2416: 2365: 2332: 2307: 2282: 2075: 2050: 2026: 2009: 1806: 1719: 860: 520: 480: 336: 261: 5000: 4975: 4627:"Pharmacogenetics, ethical issues: review of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Report" 2472: 6945: 6726: 6721: 6515: 6002: 5909: 5558: 5504: 5468: 4482: 4261: 3925: 3782: 3509: 2218: 2201: 1704: 1538:

pharmacogenetic technology into everyday medical decisions. Likewise, companies like

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patients tend to receive more medications than age-matched non-psychiatric patients.

983: 603: 449: 5106:"SNPedia: a wiki supporting personal genome annotation, interpretation and analysis" 4746: 4398: 4127: 4026: 3977: 3858: 3609: 3211: 3055: 2592: 1914: 1649:

Repository of allele frequencies of pharmacogenetic markers in different populations

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The list below provides a few more commonly known applications of pharmacogenomics:

6683: 6485: 6445: 6346: 6270: 6148: 5831: 5788: 5548: 5509: 5441: 4703: 4542: 3666: 3225:

Just KS, Steffens M, Swen JJ, Patrinos GP, Guchelaar HJ, Stingl JC (October 2017).

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Pharmacogenomics and Personalized Medicine (Methods in Pharmacology and Toxicology)

1731: 1305: 1272: 1182: 1127: 1031: 855:

which generates NADPH (from NADP). NADPH is required for the production of reduced

611: 460: 326: 4060: 4009: 3992: 2608:"Nitrofurantoin and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: a safety review" 1928: 5210: 4900: 3960: 3943: 3841: 3824: 3637:

Ma JD, Lee KC, Kuo GM (August 2012). "Clinical application of pharmacogenomics".

3544: 1371:

Combining test results with other patient data for prescription optimization; and

711:. Transporters that have been shown to influence response to medications include 6630: 6570: 6057: 6033: 5521: 5453: 4961:

National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine

4769: 2512:

Mijares, M. E.; Nagy, E.; Guerrero, B.; Arocha-Piñango, C. L. (September 1998).

2397: 1746: 1309: 1198: 1178: 856: 811: 4895:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1015. Clifton, N.J. pp. 311–20. 4569: 3317:"Attitudes of clinicians following large-scale pharmacogenomics implementation" 3074: 3070: 2883: 2066: 1801: 1555:

included a telephone session with a genetics counselor to discuss the results.

736:

refers to the impact a medication has on the body, or its mechanism of action.

17: 6757: 6709: 6647: 6450: 6382: 6274: 6049: 5606: 5553: 5543: 5538: 4728: 3242: 3039: 1898: 1813: 1551: 1543: 1499: 1491: 1455: 1280: 1108: 1100: 1051: 607: 571: 567: 556: 504: 256: 170: 150: 125: 5357: 5337: 4208: 3650: 3404:

Polypharmacy in Psychiatry Practice, Volume I. Multiple Medication Strategies

2689: 2631: 2623: 2576: 2568: 2529: 2490: 2356: 2227: 6228: 5665:

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer

5533: 4642: 4448: 4295:"Role of regulatory agencies in translating pharmacogenetics to the clinics" 4190:

Martani A, Geneviève LD, Pauli-Magnus C, McLennan S, Elger BS (2019-12-20).

3731:"2020 American College of Rheumatology Guideline for the Management of Gout" 3120: 2552: 2456: 1761: 1709: 1564: 1459: 1143: 1135: 1067: 1047: 1035: 835: 831: 823: 803: 770: 766: 213: 5229: 5139: 5090: 5058: 5009: 4991: 4928: 4877: 4828: 4695: 4660: 4577: 4534: 4526: 4466: 4390: 4382: 4355: 4320: 4279: 4227: 4176: 4158: 4119: 4078: 4018: 3969: 3917: 3850: 3774: 3715: 3658: 3601: 3563: 3478: 3350: 3301: 3260: 3203: 3139: 3088: 3047: 3011: 3003: 2951: 2902: 2742: 2707: 2649: 2584: 2513: 2498: 2441:

https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2016/021743s025lbl.pdf

2388:

Zanders, Edward D. (2011-03-21). "Introduction to Drugs and Drug Targets".

2374: 2316: 2235: 2183: 2151: 2084: 2035: 1994: 1906: 5040: 4717:

Barh D, Dhawan D, Ganguly NK (2013). Barh D, Dhawan D, Ganguly NK (eds.).

3909: 3755: 3697: 3682:"Race and Genetic Ancestry in Medicine - A Time for Reckoning with Racism" 3593: 2537: 1362:

Limitation on how to apply the test into clinical practices and treatment;

6657: 6616: 6350: 6322: 6309: 6078: 5998: 5395: 5121: 4859: 4513:

Thorpe DS (2001). "Combinatorial chemistry: starting the second decade".

4110: 4093: 1699: 1209: 1174: 1104: 1027: 963: 864: 827: 815: 785: 746: 531: 476: 464: 455: 272: 155: 145: 100: 5321: 4045:"Genomic Contextualism: Shifting the Rhetoric of Genetic Exceptionalism" 3332: 2933: 1095:

Pharmacogenomics may be applied to several areas of medicine, including

773:(Tarceva) are only indicated in patients carrying specific mutations to 5811: 5494: 5345: 2734: 1547: 1498:(although some papers suggest it was 1957 or 1958). In the late 1960s, 1495: 1116: 1039: 712: 664: 5281:. University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center. Archived from 3746: 3459: 2143: 1986: 4762:

Design, Analysis, and Interpretation of Genome-Wide Association Scans

2681: 2514:"[Vitamin K: biochemistry, function, and deficiency. Review]" 2348: 1507: 1479: 1414: 1271:

A potential role for pharmacogenomics is to reduce the occurrence of

1256: 1235: 1186: 1163: 1151: 790: 672: 668: 660: 656: 564: 440: 165: 140: 5329: 4956: 4810: 4687: 3528:"Translating pharmacogenomics: challenges on the road to the clinic" 3178:"Early Lessons from the Implementation of Genomic Medicine Programs" 2298: 1474:, this identification was validated and attributed to deficiency of 3441:

Foster A, Wang Z, Usman M, Stirewalt E, Buckley P (December 2007).

4043:

Garrison NA, Brothers KB, Goldenberg AJ, Lynch JA (January 2019).

1756: 1506:

The first FDA approval of a pharmacogenetic test was in 2005 (for

1471: 1418: 1348: 868: 799: 721: 560: 2822: 1563:

Pharmacogenetics has become a controversial issue in the area of

1353:

Consecutive phases and associated challenges in Pharmacogenomics.

6203: 6096: 6092: 5894: 1783: 1475: 1368:

The understanding and interpretation of evidence-based research;

1208:

In psychiatry, as of 2010, research has focused particularly on

1155: 1131: 997:

Final consensus terms for allele functional status and phenotype

444: 6589: 5761: 5757: 5368: 5173:"A Drug to Call One's Own: Will medicine finally get personal?" 1458:

around 510 BC when he made a connection between the dangers of

1778: 1330: 135: 130: 36: 4974:

Smigielski EM, Sirotkin K, Ward M, Sherry ST (January 2000).

3073:. In Pratt VM, McLeod HL, Rubinstein WS, et al. (eds.). 990:-certified. Other regulations may vary by country and state. 602:

refers to polygenic drug response phenotypes and encompasses

526:

Pharmacogenomics aims to develop rational means to optimize

6585: 5364: 2439:

Tarceva . Northbrook, IL: OSI Pharmaceuticals, LLC; 2016.

439:, often abbreviated "PGx," is the study of the role of the 4334:

Evans DA, Clarke CA (September 1961). "Pharmacogenetics".

912:

Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC)

3512:. United States Food and Drug Administration. 2013-02-20. 2784:

Center for Devices and Radiological Health (2022-10-26).

1378:

Issues surrounding the availability of the test include:

5298:"Center for Pharmacogenomics and Individualized Therapy" 4420:] (in German). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer: 52–125. 2099:"Guidance for Industry Pharmacogenomic Data Submissions" 1929:"Center for Pharmacogenomics and Individualized Therapy" 1389:

Demonstrating the cost-effectiveness of pharmacogenomics

635:

and result in either toxicity or loss of effectiveness.

5153: 4147:

Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association

3873:"The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008" 2254: 1230:

Initiatives to spur adoption by clinicians include the

1026:

There are multiple ways to represent a pharmacogenomic

851:. G6PD is the enzyme involved in the first step of the 475:

genetic variation on drug response, by correlating DNA

57: 5073:"Table of Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labeling" 4976:"dbSNP: a database of single nucleotide polymorphisms" 3389:"Personalized drug treatment through pharmacogenetics" 2867:"UASIS: Universal Automatic SNP Identification System" 2846:

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (2021-06-25).

2805:"Table of Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labeling" 2803:

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (2022-08-11).

1365:

A general feeling of lack of availability of the test;

3430:. Boston University, Slone Epidemiology Center. 2006. 2255:"Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium" 1790: 1088:

Improve drug discovery targeted to human disease; and

4433:"Pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics and ecogenetics" 2553:"On-target and off-target-based toxicologic effects" 1325:

Case C – FDA Warning on Codeine Overdose for Infants

949:

Table of Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labeling

6856: 6793: 6750: 6676: 6623: 6543: 6503: 6459: 6408: 6381: 6345: 6308: 6269: 6260: 6196: 6141: 6132: 6071: 6016: 5965: 5927: 5918: 5849: 5804: 5795: 5688: 5637: 5597: 5485: 5402: 3944:"Genetic exceptionalism. Too much of a good thing?" 1231: 918:

Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium

52:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

4592: 4414:Ergebnisse der Inneren Medizin und Kinderheilkunde 3406:. Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business Media. 2200:Zanger, Ulrich M.; Schwab, Matthias (2013-04-01). 1173:, the main concern is response to drugs including 598:phenotypes (i.e., single gene-drug interactions). 3428:"Patterns of Medication Use in the United States" 1432:Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) 27:Study of the role of the genome in drug response 5266:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2010-09-24 4239: 4237: 3797:"LCD - Molecular Pathology Procedures (L35000)" 3575: 3573: 2124: 2122: 2010:"Clinical use of pharmacogenomic tests in 2009" 1550:offer genome scans. The companies use the same 1091:Improve proof of principle for efficacy trials. 974:Commercial Pharmacogenetic Testing Laboratories 899:(MHC), is a complex of genes important for the 719:) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) ( 5184:Karczewski KJ, Daneshjou R, Altman RB (2012). 1880: 1878: 538:. It is hoped that by using pharmacogenomics, 6601: 5773: 5380: 4299:Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism 3081:National Center for Biotechnology Information 1657:Pharmacogenomics Biomarkers in Drug Labelling 1248:In 2019, the largest private health insurer, 986:, the laboratory performing the test much be 534:, to achieve maximum efficiency with minimal 417: 8: 5352:. Nature Publishing Group. 20 October 2021. 3182:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 2430:Iressa . Wilmington, DE: Astra Zeneca; 2021. 1673:A wiki-based bioinformatics database of SNPs 1062:In 2017 CPIC published results of an expert 1017:Common Pharmacogenomic-Specific Nomenclature 5660:Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization 4620: 4618: 4616: 4488:. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 4418:Results of internal medicine and pediatrics 3521: 3519: 1383:The lack of availability of scientific data 6608: 6594: 6586: 6540: 6500: 6405: 6378: 6342: 6305: 6266: 6193: 6138: 6068: 6013: 5962: 5924: 5846: 5801: 5780: 5766: 5758: 5728: 5387: 5373: 5365: 5279:"Personalized Medicine (Pharmacogenetics)" 4941:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4437:Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B 3071:"Clopidogrel Therapy and CYP2C19 Genotype" 2390:The Science and Business of Drug Discovery 1002:Direct-to-Consumer Pharmacogenetic Testing 618:Mechanisms of pharmacogenetic interactions 424: 410: 91: 5219: 5209: 5129: 5048: 4999: 4918: 4867: 4818: 4650: 4456: 4310: 4269: 4217: 4207: 4166: 4109: 4068: 4008: 3959: 3840: 3764: 3754: 3705: 3553: 3543: 3468: 3458: 3340: 3291: 3250: 3231:European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 3193: 3129: 3119: 2941: 2892: 2882: 2756:Office of the Commissioner (2020-03-24). 2697: 2639: 2415: 2364: 2306: 2217: 2074: 2025: 1530:, genomic mining, omic technologies, and 1454:Pharmacogenomics was first recognized by 964:Pharmacogenomics Knowledgebase (PharmGKB) 80:Learn how and when to remove this message 64:, without removing the technical details. 6668:Separation of prescribing and dispensing 5264:"Pharmacogenomics Education Initiatives" 5257:a quick introduction to customised drugs 5154:"Pharmacogenomics Research Network PGRN" 4250:British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 3102:Bale BF, Doneen AL, Vigerust DJ (2018). 2670:Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2008:Sheffield LJ, Phillimore HE (May 2009). 1681:Pharmacogenomics Research Network (PGRN) 1574: 1193:updates by regulators. In patients with 992: 863:and it is essential for the function of 849:glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase (G6PD) 4246:"Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics" 2969:. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 6. 2865:Poo DC, Cai S, Mah JT (November 2011). 2786:"Table of Pharmacogenetic Associations" 2165: 2163: 2161: 2051:"Pharmacogenomics of GPCR Drug Targets" 1849: 1797: 1300:Case A – Antipsychotic adverse reaction 1259:4th largest health and dental insurer, 99: 5324:. Future Medicine Ltd. 24 August 2023. 4934: 4799:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 4760:Stram D (2014). "Post-GWAS Analyses". 3898:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 3582:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 3447:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 3276:"Vanderbilt pioneers bedside genetics" 2337:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2283:"What do drug transporters really do?" 1437:More recently it has been argued that 895:(HLA) system, also referred to as the 5702:European Molecular Biology Laboratory 5332:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 4038: 4036: 3937: 3935: 3818: 3816: 3498:. American Medical Association. 2011. 2779: 2777: 2450: 2448: 2276: 2274: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2195: 2193: 1082:Improve drug safety, and reduce ADRs; 933:Table of Pharmacogenetic Associations 578:Pharmacogenetics vs. pharmacogenomics 62:make it understandable to non-experts 7: 5104:Cariaso M, Lennon G (January 2012). 3108:Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine 3028:Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology 2551:Rudmann, Daniel G. (February 2013). 1243:Vanderbilt University Medical Center 4431:Motulsky AG, Qi M (February 2006). 3686:The New England Journal of Medicine 3195:10.1146/annurev-genom-083118-014924 1576:Web Resources for Pharmacogenomics 1232:Ubiquitous Pharmacogenomics (U-PGx) 907:Clinical pharmacogenomics resources 586:is often used interchangeably with 515:(effects mediated through a drug's 6566:Minimum bactericidal concentration 4348:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a069915 1226:Education in personalized medicine 796:vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) 25: 4049:The American Journal of Bioethics 3997:The American Journal of Bioethics 2106:U.S. Food and Drug Administration 1374:Ethical, legal and social issues. 928:U.S. Food and Drug Administration 6926: 6925: 6886:List of pharmaceutical companies 6556:Minimum inhibitory concentration 5740: 5739: 5727: 4262:10.1046/j.0306-5251.2001.01498.x 2219:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.12.007 2014:The Clinical Biochemist. Reviews 1824: 1812: 1800: 1742:Population groups in biomedicine 980:laboratory developed test (LDTs) 897:major histocompatibility complex 391: 390: 277: 276: 107: 41: 6906:Pharmacies in the United States 6496:WHO list of essential medicines 5989:Non-specific effect of vaccines 5680:Chromosome conformation capture 5330:"Pharmacogenetics and Genomics" 5116:(Database issue): D1308–D1312. 5035:(Database issue): D1020–D1026. 4720:Omics for Personalized Medicine 3942:Evans JP, Burke W (July 2008). 3624:"Center for Genetics Education" 3155:"The state of pharmacogenetics" 2206:Pharmacology & Therapeutics 1933:Unc Eshelman School of Pharmacy 1044:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms 1038:using a star (*) allele (e.g., 847:pharmacogenomic interaction is 530:, with regard to the patients' 6551:Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics 5346:"The Pharmacogenomics Journal" 2287:Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery 1953:"overview of pharmacogenomics" 1: 6476:Functional analog (chemistry) 5708:National Institutes of Health 5186:"Chapter 7: Pharmacogenomics" 4854:(Database issue): D237–D243. 4244:Pirmohamed M (October 2001). 4061:10.1080/15265161.2018.1544304 4010:10.1080/15265161.2018.1552038 3735:Arthritis Care & Research 2473:10.1016/S0083-6729(07)00003-9 1859:Emerging Medical Technologies 810:required in the formation of 6029:Hill equation (biochemistry) 5350:The Pharmacogenomics Journal 5246:"Pharmacogenomics Factsheet" 5211:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002817 5171:Katsnelson A (August 2005). 4901:10.1007/978-1-62703-435-7_20 4515:The Pharmacogenomics Journal 4371:The Pharmacogenomics Journal 3961:10.1097/GIM.0b013e31817f280a 3842:10.1097/gim.0b013e31817a8aaa 3639:Journal of Pharmacy Practice 3545:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040209 3321:The Pharmacogenomics Journal 2612:JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance 1605:SuperCYP Bioinformatics Tool 1542:, MD Labs Pharmacogenetics, 1111:. A place may also exist in 459:) reflects its combining of 6881:Pharmacy benefit management 5624:Structure-based drug design 4770:10.1007/978-1-4614-9443-0_8 3176:Williams MS (August 2019). 2398:10.1007/978-1-4419-9902-3_2 677:UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 6978: 6544:Antimicrobial pharmacology 6024:Dose–response relationship 5954:Desensitization (medicine) 5190:PLOS Computational Biology 4625:Corrigan OP (March 2005). 4570:10.2174/138945006779025428 3991:Murray TH (January 2019). 3076:Medical Genetics Summaries 2992:Clinical Colorectal Cancer 2884:10.1186/1471-2164-12-S3-S9 2848:"Direct-to-Consumer Tests" 2067:10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.033 1955:. Up-to-Date. May 16, 2014 1329:On February 20, 2013, the 1223: 709:organic anion transporters 32:Pharmacogenomics (journal) 29: 6921: 6466:Coinduction (anesthetics) 5723: 5714:Wellcome Sanger Institute 4729:10.1007/978-81-322-1184-6 4723:. India: Springer Media. 4631:Journal of Medical Ethics 4599:. New York: Basic Books. 4293:Prasad K (January 2009). 3243:10.1007/s00228-017-2292-5 3091:. Bookshelf ID: NBK84114. 3040:10.1007/s00280-010-1282-4 2965:Cohen N (November 2008). 2281:Nigam SK (January 2015). 1899:10.1016/j.tig.2003.09.008 1532:high throughput screening 1267:Reduction of polypharmacy 1191:medication package insert 1013:that have been approved. 1011:list of DTC genetic tests 853:pentose phosphate pathway 695:Many medications rely on 639:Drug-metabolizing enzymes 6876:Investigational New Drug 6717:Pharmaceutical chemistry 6663:Pharmacological activity 6531:Multiple drug resistance 6504:Tolerance and resistance 5872:Physiological antagonist 5670:Microfluidic-based tools 5515:Human Connectome Project 5447:Human Microbiome Project 4676:Nature Reviews. Genetics 4336:British Medical Bulletin 4209:10.3389/fgene.2019.01254 3651:10.1177/0897190012448309 3280:Biotechnology Healthcare 2569:10.1177/0192623312464311 1316:Case B – Pain Management 1171:cardiovascular disorders 6858:Pharmaceutical industry 6677:Pharmaceutical sciences 6282:Neuropsychopharmacology 6044:Cheng-Prussoff Equation 6039:Del Castillo Katz model 5966:Other effects of ligand 5949:Receptor (biochemistry) 5867:Irreversible antagonist 5655:Electrospray ionization 5527:Human Epigenome Project 4643:10.1136/jme.2004.007229 4449:10.1631/jzus.2006.B0169 4092:Sulmasy DP (May 2015). 3121:10.3389/fcvm.2018.00141 1725:Cancer pharmacogenomics 1528:combinatorial chemistry 1391:: Publications for the 1220:Clinical implementation 893:human leukocyte antigen 759:Cancer Pharmacogenomics 6418:Classical pharmacology 6179:Plasma protein binding 6154:Volume of distribution 5862:Competitive antagonist 5696:DNA Data Bank of Japan 5612:Human proteome project 5415:Computational genomics 5110:Nucleic Acids Research 5029:Nucleic Acids Research 4980:Nucleic Acids Research 4848:Nucleic Acids Research 4527:10.1038/sj.tpj.6500045 4383:10.1038/sj.tpj.6500361 3004:10.3816/CCC.2010.n.033 2624:10.1093/jacamr/dlac045 1439:genetic exceptionalism 1425:Genetic exceptionalism 1354: 1277:adverse drug reactions 998: 901:adaptive immune system 871:. Certain variants in 485:copy number variations 6833:Pharmacist prescriber 6818:Consultant pharmacist 6526:Antibiotic resistance 6318:Clinical pharmacology 5837:Physiological agonist 5797:Ligand (biochemistry) 5675:Isotope affinity tags 5629:Expression proteomics 4196:Frontiers in Genetics 3910:10.1038/clpt.2009.146 3698:10.1056/NEJMms2029562 3594:10.1038/clpt.2011.306 2557:Toxicologic Pathology 2518:Investigacion Clinica 2461:Vitamins and Hormones 2457:"The vitamin K cycle" 1484:butyrylcholinesterase 1352: 1224:Further information: 996: 937:In February 2020 the 751:targeted therapeutics 549:personalized medicine 489:structural variations 377:Personalized medicine 371:Personalized medicine 234:Quantitative genetics 229:Mendelian inheritance 30:For the journal, see 6901:Pharmacies of Norway 6838:Pharmacy informatics 6732:Pharmacoepidemiology 6641:Prehistoric medicine 6423:Reverse pharmacology 6333:Pharmacoepidemiology 6174:Biological half-life 6054:Ligand binding assay 5928:Activity at receptor 5822:Irreversible agonist 5435:Human Genome Project 5420:Comparative genomics 4992:10.1093/nar/28.1.352 4558:Current Drug Targets 4159:10.1093/jamia/ocz177 4111:10.1038/gim.2014.111 4098:Genetics in Medicine 3948:Genetics in Medicine 3829:Genetics in Medicine 3153:Malhotra AK (2010). 2922:Genetics in Medicine 1861:. World Scientific. 1295:Example case studies 1034:system is to report 753:designed to address 745:within the field of 705:ATP-binding cassette 447:response. Its name ( 297:Branches of genetics 6848:Veterinary pharmacy 6780:Pharmacy technician 6742:Pharmacocybernetics 6636:History of pharmacy 6471:Combination therapy 6359:Pharmacoinformatics 6328:Medicinal chemistry 5934:Mechanism of action 5645:2-D electrophoresis 5619:Call-map proteomics 5477:Structural genomics 5464:Population genomics 5425:Functional genomics 5202:2012PLSCB...8E2817K 5177:Scientific American 5041:10.1093/nar/gkt1125 3333:10.1038/tpj.2015.57 2934:10.1038/gim.2016.87 1752:Medical terminology 1715:Genetic engineering 1577: 1571:Web-based resources 1409:Race-based medicine 1261:Green Shield Canada 540:pharmaceutical drug 267:Genetic engineering 224:Population genetics 95:Part of a series on 6843:Specialty pharmacy 6806:Community pharmacy 6775:Pharmacy residency 6441:Immunopharmacology 6391:Pharmacotoxicology 6292:Psychopharmacology 6084:Intrinsic activity 5984:Pleiotropy (drugs) 5905:Agonist-antagonist 5817:Endogenous agonist 5599:Structural biology 5410:Cognitive genomics 5322:"Pharmacogenomics" 5122:10.1093/nar/gkr798 4860:10.1093/nar/gkp970 3402:Ritsner M (2013). 3274:Carlson B (2012). 2735:10.2217/pgs.12.108 2392:. pp. 11–27. 2061:(1–2): 41–54.e19. 1887:Trends in Genetics 1575: 1355: 1113:forensic pathology 1030:. A commonly used 1007:Direct-to-consumer 999: 794:, which codes for 781:Germline mutations 633:therapeutic window 545:precision medicine 517:biological targets 239:Molecular genetics 198:History and topics 6939: 6938: 6896:Pharmacy in China 6823:Hospital pharmacy 6801:Clinical pharmacy 6737:Pharmacovigilance 6653:Prescription drug 6583: 6582: 6579: 6578: 6539: 6538: 6436:Photopharmacology 6431: 6430: 6404: 6403: 6377: 6376: 6341: 6340: 6304: 6303: 6297:Electrophysiology 6287:Neuropharmacology 6242: 6241: 6192: 6191: 6128: 6127: 6115:Therapeutic index 6067: 6066: 6012: 6011: 5961: 5960: 5890: 5889: 5845: 5844: 5755: 5754: 5650:Mass spectrometer 5459:Personal genomics 5079:. 18 August 2021. 4957:"DBSNP Home Page" 4910:978-1-62703-434-0 4779:978-1-4614-9442-3 4738:978-81-322-1183-9 4606:978-0-465-02550-3 4564:(12): 1721–1727. 4499:978-1-57444-878-8 3747:10.1002/acr.24180 3460:10.2147/ndt.s1752 3413:978-94-007-5804-9 3237:(10): 1247–1252. 2729:(11): 1285–1306. 2407:978-1-4419-9901-6 2144:10.2217/pgs.10.97 1987:10.2217/pgs.09.37 1868:978-981-4675-80-2 1737:Pharmacovigilance 1691: 1690: 1393:pharmacoeconomics 1288:Boston University 830:, and inhibitors 755:somatic mutations 691:Drug transporters 434: 433: 161:Genetic variation 90: 89: 82: 16:(Redirected from 6969: 6929: 6928: 6891:Medication costs 6866:Drug development 6828:Nuclear pharmacy 6705:Pharmacogenomics 6693:Pharmacodynamics 6689:Pharmacokinetics 6610: 6603: 6596: 6587: 6541: 6501: 6481:Polypharmacology 6406: 6379: 6369:Pharmacogenomics 6364:Pharmacogenetics 6343: 6306: 6267: 6194: 6164:Rate of infusion 6139: 6134:Pharmacokinetics 6069: 6014: 5963: 5925: 5920:Pharmacodynamics 5900:Neurotransmitter 5882:Enzyme inhibitor 5847: 5802: 5782: 5775: 5768: 5759: 5743: 5742: 5731: 5730: 5574:Pharmacogenomics 5569:Pharmacogenetics 5389: 5382: 5375: 5366: 5361: 5341: 5325: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5293: 5291: 5290: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5259: 5254: 5253: 5233: 5223: 5213: 5196:(12): e1002817. 5180: 5158: 5157: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5133: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5052: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5003: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4940: 4932: 4922: 4893:Pharmacogenomics 4888: 4882: 4881: 4871: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4822: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4654: 4622: 4611: 4610: 4598: 4591:Topol E (2012). 4588: 4582: 4581: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4510: 4504: 4503: 4487: 4484:Pharmacogenomics 4480:Kalow W (2005). 4477: 4471: 4470: 4460: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4314: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4273: 4241: 4232: 4231: 4221: 4211: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4170: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4113: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4072: 4040: 4031: 4030: 4012: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3963: 3939: 3930: 3929: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3883: 3869: 3863: 3862: 3844: 3820: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3807: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3768: 3758: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3709: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3577: 3568: 3567: 3557: 3547: 3523: 3514: 3513: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3497: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3472: 3462: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3376: 3375: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3344: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3295: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3254: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3197: 3173: 3167: 3166: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3133: 3123: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3022: 3016: 3015: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2945: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2896: 2886: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2843: 2837: 2836: 2834: 2833: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2781: 2772: 2771: 2769: 2768: 2753: 2747: 2746: 2723:Pharmacogenomics 2718: 2712: 2711: 2701: 2682:10.1002/cpt.2735 2660: 2654: 2653: 2643: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2452: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2368: 2349:10.1002/cpt.2557 2343:(5): 1007–1021. 2327: 2321: 2320: 2310: 2278: 2269: 2268: 2266: 2265: 2251: 2240: 2239: 2221: 2197: 2188: 2187: 2167: 2156: 2155: 2138:(8): 1149–1167. 2132:Pharmacogenomics 2126: 2117: 2116: 2114: 2113: 2103: 2095: 2089: 2088: 2078: 2046: 2040: 2039: 2029: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1975:Pharmacogenomics 1970: 1964: 1963: 1961: 1960: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1939: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1882: 1873: 1872: 1857:Ermak G (2015). 1854: 1829: 1828: 1827: 1817: 1816: 1805: 1804: 1796: 1633:A repository of 1578: 1468:oxidative stress 1464:hemolytic anemia 1250:UnitedHealthcare 1124:cancer treatment 881:hemolytic anemia 842:Off-target sites 765:inhibitors like 761:). For example, 734:Pharmacodynamics 729:Pharmacodynamics 651:metabolism. The 628:Pharmacokinetics 623:Pharmacokinetics 600:Pharmacogenomics 592:Pharmacogenetics 588:pharmacogenetics 584:pharmacogenomics 437:Pharmacogenomics 426: 419: 412: 399: 394: 393: 289:Medical genetics 285: 280: 279: 111: 92: 85: 78: 74: 71: 65: 45: 44: 37: 21: 6977: 6976: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6942: 6941: 6940: 6935: 6917: 6852: 6789: 6785:Pharmacy school 6746: 6698:Pharmacometrics 6672: 6619: 6614: 6584: 6575: 6535: 6521:Drug resistance 6499: 6455: 6427: 6400: 6396:Neurotoxicology 6373: 6337: 6300: 6262: 6256: 6238: 6188: 6184:Bioavailability 6169:Onset of action 6124: 6063: 6008: 5957: 5914: 5886: 5877:Inverse agonist 5841: 5827:Partial agonist 5791: 5786: 5756: 5751: 5719: 5684: 5633: 5593: 5589:Transcriptomics 5579:Systems biology 5564:Paleopolyploidy 5500:Cheminformatics 5481: 5398: 5393: 5344: 5328: 5320: 5307: 5305: 5296: 5288: 5286: 5277: 5269: 5267: 5262: 5251: 5249: 5244: 5241: 5236: 5183: 5170: 5166: 5164:Further reading 5161: 5152: 5151: 5147: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5089: 5088: 5084: 5071: 5070: 5066: 5022: 5021: 5017: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4933: 4911: 4890: 4889: 4885: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4811:10.1002/cpt.910 4792: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4739: 4716: 4715: 4711: 4688:10.1038/nrg1431 4673: 4672: 4668: 4624: 4623: 4614: 4607: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4500: 4479: 4478: 4474: 4430: 4429: 4425: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4368: 4367: 4363: 4333: 4332: 4328: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4243: 4242: 4235: 4189: 4188: 4184: 4140: 4139: 4135: 4091: 4090: 4086: 4042: 4041: 4034: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3941: 3940: 3933: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3881: 3879: 3871: 3870: 3866: 3822: 3821: 3814: 3805: 3803: 3795: 3794: 3790: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3636: 3635: 3631: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3579: 3578: 3571: 3525: 3524: 3517: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3440: 3439: 3435: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3401: 3400: 3396: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3373: 3371: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3273: 3272: 3268: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3175: 3174: 3170: 3165:(4): 38–41, 62. 3159:Psychiatr Times 3152: 3151: 3147: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3069:Dean L (2012). 3068: 3067: 3063: 3024: 3023: 3019: 2989: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2877:(Suppl 3): S9. 2864: 2863: 2859: 2845: 2844: 2840: 2831: 2829: 2821: 2820: 2816: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2783: 2782: 2775: 2766: 2764: 2755: 2754: 2750: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2550: 2549: 2545: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2483: 2454: 2453: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2408: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2329: 2328: 2324: 2299:10.1038/nrd4461 2280: 2279: 2272: 2263: 2261: 2253: 2252: 2243: 2199: 2198: 2191: 2169: 2168: 2159: 2128: 2127: 2120: 2111: 2109: 2101: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1972: 1971: 1967: 1958: 1956: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1937: 1935: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1893:(11): 660–666. 1884: 1883: 1876: 1869: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1839:Genetic testing 1835: 1825: 1823: 1811: 1799: 1791: 1696: 1573: 1561: 1540:deCODE genetics 1524: 1488:Friedrich Vogel 1462:ingestion with 1452: 1427: 1411: 1406: 1347: 1297: 1269: 1228: 1222: 1195:type 2 diabetes 1097:pain management 1076: 1060: 1024: 1019: 1004: 976: 960: 951: 935: 930: 914: 909: 889: 877:G6PD deficiency 844: 788:(Coumadin) and 742: 731: 693: 653:cytochrome P450 641: 625: 620: 604:transcriptomics 580: 536:adverse effects 513:pharmacodynamic 493:pharmacokinetic 481:point mutations 430: 389: 382: 381: 372: 364: 363: 362: 361: 310: 302: 301: 293: 271: 252: 244: 243: 199: 191: 190: 177: 176: 175: 119: 86: 75: 69: 66: 58:help improve it 55: 46: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Pharmacogenetic 15: 12: 11: 5: 6975: 6973: 6965: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6944: 6943: 6937: 6936: 6934: 6933: 6922: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6913: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6871:Drug discovery 6868: 6862: 6860: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6814: 6813: 6803: 6797: 6795: 6794:Practice areas 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6770:Pharmaconomist 6767: 6766: 6765: 6754: 6752: 6748: 6747: 6745: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6713: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6680: 6678: 6674: 6673: 6671: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6633: 6627: 6625: 6621: 6620: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6605: 6598: 6590: 6581: 6580: 6577: 6576: 6574: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6561:Bacteriostatic 6558: 6553: 6547: 6545: 6537: 6536: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6511:Drug tolerance 6507: 6505: 6498: 6493: 6491:Lists of drugs 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6461: 6457: 6456: 6454: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6425: 6420: 6414: 6412: 6410:Drug discovery 6402: 6401: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6387: 6385: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6355: 6353: 6339: 6338: 6336: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6314: 6312: 6302: 6301: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6277: 6264: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6254: 6252:Bioequivalence 6249: 6243: 6240: 6239: 6237: 6236: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6200: 6198: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6151: 6145: 6143: 6136: 6130: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6086: 6081: 6075: 6073: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6061: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6020: 6018: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6006: 5996: 5994:Adverse effect 5991: 5986: 5981: 5969: 5967: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5939:Mode of action 5936: 5931: 5929: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5891: 5888: 5887: 5885: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5853: 5851: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5808: 5806: 5799: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5777: 5770: 5762: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5737: 5724: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5699: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5685: 5683: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5639: 5638:Research tools 5635: 5634: 5632: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5615: 5614: 5603: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5591: 5586: 5584:Toxicogenomics 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5530: 5529: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5491: 5489: 5487:Bioinformatics 5483: 5482: 5480: 5479: 5474: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5450: 5449: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5430:Genome project 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5406: 5404: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5384: 5377: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5342: 5326: 5314: 5313: 5294: 5275: 5260: 5240: 5239:External links 5237: 5235: 5234: 5181: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5145: 5096: 5082: 5064: 5015: 4986:(1): 352–355. 4966: 4948: 4909: 4883: 4834: 4805:(3): 399–401. 4785: 4778: 4752: 4737: 4709: 4682:(9): 676–680. 4666: 4637:(3): 144–148. 4612: 4605: 4583: 4548: 4521:(4): 229–232. 4505: 4498: 4472: 4443:(2): 169–170. 4423: 4404: 4377:(3): 162–165. 4361: 4342:(3): 234–240. 4326: 4285: 4256:(4): 345–347. 4233: 4182: 4153:(1): 154–158. 4133: 4104:(5): 331–336. 4084: 4032: 3983: 3954:(7): 500–501. 3931: 3904:(5): 472–475. 3888: 3864: 3835:(7): 495–499. 3812: 3788: 3756:2027.42/155497 3741:(6): 744–760. 3721: 3692:(5): 474–480. 3672: 3645:(4): 417–427. 3629: 3615: 3588:(3): 450–458. 3569: 3515: 3501: 3484: 3453:(6): 965–973. 3433: 3419: 3412: 3394: 3380: 3356: 3327:(4): 393–398. 3307: 3266: 3217: 3188:(1): 389–411. 3168: 3145: 3094: 3061: 3017: 2998:(4): 224–228. 2982: 2976:978-1934115046 2975: 2957: 2928:(2): 215–223. 2908: 2857: 2838: 2814: 2795: 2773: 2748: 2713: 2676:(5): 973–985. 2655: 2618:(3): dlac045. 2598: 2563:(2): 310–314. 2543: 2524:(3): 213–229. 2504: 2481: 2444: 2432: 2423: 2406: 2380: 2322: 2270: 2241: 2212:(1): 103–141. 2189: 2157: 2118: 2090: 2041: 2000: 1981:(6): 961–969. 1965: 1944: 1920: 1874: 1867: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1834: 1833: 1821: 1809: 1789: 1788: 1787: 1786: 1776: 1775: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1722: 1720:Toxicogenomics 1717: 1712: 1707: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1665: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1641: 1640: 1638: 1631: 1629:dbSNP database 1625: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1613: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1601: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1572: 1569: 1560: 1557: 1523: 1520: 1478:and is called 1451: 1448: 1426: 1423: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1397: 1396: 1386: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1346: 1343: 1296: 1293: 1268: 1265: 1221: 1218: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1075: 1072: 1059: 1056: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1003: 1000: 975: 972: 959: 956: 950: 947: 934: 931: 929: 926: 913: 910: 908: 905: 888: 885: 843: 840: 741: 738: 730: 727: 701:solute carrier 692: 689: 640: 637: 624: 621: 619: 616: 594:is limited to 579: 576: 432: 431: 429: 428: 421: 414: 406: 403: 402: 401: 400: 384: 383: 380: 379: 373: 370: 369: 366: 365: 360: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 337:Immunogenetics 334: 329: 324: 319: 313: 312: 311: 308: 307: 304: 303: 300: 299: 292: 291: 286: 269: 264: 262:DNA sequencing 259: 253: 250: 249: 246: 245: 242: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 211: 206: 200: 197: 196: 193: 192: 189: 188: 183: 174: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 122: 121: 120: 118:Key components 117: 116: 113: 112: 104: 103: 97: 96: 88: 87: 49: 47: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6974: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6932: 6924: 6923: 6920: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6859: 6855: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6792: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6764: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6756: 6755: 6753: 6749: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6727:Pharmacognosy 6725: 6723: 6722:Pharmaceutics 6720: 6718: 6715: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6687: 6686: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6675: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6611: 6606: 6604: 6599: 6597: 6592: 6591: 6588: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6542: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6516:Tachyphylaxis 6514: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6502: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6458: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6413: 6411: 6407: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6384: 6380: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6265: 6259: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6244: 6234: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6209: 6205: 6202: 6201: 6199: 6195: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6159: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6146: 6144: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6131: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6070: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6015: 6004: 6003:Neurotoxicity 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5979: 5975: 5972:Selectivity ( 5971: 5970: 5968: 5964: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5911: 5910:Pharmacophore 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5848: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5778: 5776: 5771: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5760: 5748: 5747: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5726: 5725: 5722: 5715: 5712: 5709: 5706: 5703: 5700: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5689:Organizations 5687: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5636: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5559:Nutrigenomics 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5524: 5523: 5520: 5516: 5513: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5505:Chemogenomics 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5444: 5443: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5385: 5383: 5378: 5376: 5371: 5370: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5304:on 2014-08-06 5303: 5299: 5295: 5285:on 2011-05-19 5284: 5280: 5276: 5265: 5261: 5258: 5247: 5243: 5242: 5238: 5231: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5169: 5168: 5163: 5155: 5149: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5097: 5092: 5086: 5083: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5065: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5016: 5011: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4970: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4944: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4887: 4884: 4879: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4838: 4835: 4830: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4789: 4786: 4781: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4721: 4713: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4670: 4667: 4662: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4613: 4608: 4602: 4597: 4596: 4587: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4552: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4506: 4501: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4485: 4476: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4427: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4362: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4289: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4240: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4137: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3984: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3889: 3878: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3802: 3798: 3792: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3633: 3630: 3625: 3619: 3616: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3532:PLOS Medicine 3529: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3434: 3429: 3423: 3420: 3415: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3395: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3311: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3172: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3077: 3072: 3065: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2986: 2983: 2978: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2861: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2842: 2839: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2763: 2759: 2752: 2749: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2717: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2659: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2508: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2482:9780123741134 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2442: 2436: 2433: 2427: 2424: 2418: 2413: 2409: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2384: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2326: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2260: 2256: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2107: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2045: 2042: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2004: 2001: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1969: 1966: 1954: 1948: 1945: 1934: 1930: 1924: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1864: 1860: 1853: 1850: 1844: 1840: 1837: 1836: 1832: 1822: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1705:Chemogenomics 1703: 1702: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1440: 1435: 1433: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1408: 1404:Controversies 1403: 1401: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1359: 1351: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1339:adenoidectomy 1336: 1335:tonsillectomy 1332: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1301: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1266: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1251: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1227: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1183:beta blockers 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1073: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1001: 995: 991: 989: 985: 984:United States 981: 973: 971: 969: 965: 957: 955: 948: 946: 943: 940: 932: 927: 925: 921: 919: 911: 906: 904: 902: 898: 894: 886: 884: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 841: 839: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 806:, which is a 805: 801: 797: 793: 792: 787: 782: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 739: 737: 735: 728: 726: 725: 723: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 690: 688: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 638: 636: 634: 629: 622: 617: 615: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 577: 575: 573: 569: 566: 562: 558: 552: 550: 546: 541: 537: 533: 529: 524: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457: 452: 451: 446: 442: 438: 427: 422: 420: 415: 413: 408: 407: 405: 404: 398: 388: 387: 386: 385: 378: 375: 374: 368: 367: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 314: 306: 305: 298: 295: 294: 290: 287: 283: 274: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 254: 248: 247: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 219: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 201: 195: 194: 187: 184: 182: 179: 178: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 115: 114: 110: 106: 105: 102: 98: 94: 93: 84: 81: 73: 63: 59: 53: 50:This article 48: 39: 38: 33: 19: 6957:Pharmacology 6704: 6684:Pharmacology 6486:Chemotherapy 6446:Cell biology 6368: 6347:Biochemistry 6271:Neuroscience 6219:Distribution 6149:Loading dose 5832:Superagonist 5789:Pharmacology 5744: 5732: 5573: 5554:Microbiomics 5549:Metabolomics 5510:Connectomics 5469: 5442:Metagenomics 5349: 5315: 5306:. 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Retrieved 3369:MedTech Dive 3368: 3359: 3324: 3320: 3310: 3286:(2): 31–32. 3283: 3279: 3269: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3185: 3181: 3171: 3162: 3158: 3148: 3111: 3107: 3097: 3075: 3064: 3034:(1): 49–56. 3031: 3027: 3020: 2995: 2991: 2985: 2966: 2960: 2925: 2921: 2911: 2874: 2871:BMC Genomics 2870: 2860: 2851: 2841: 2830:. Retrieved 2826: 2817: 2808: 2798: 2789: 2765:. Retrieved 2761: 2751: 2726: 2722: 2716: 2673: 2669: 2658: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2560: 2556: 2546: 2521: 2517: 2507: 2464: 2460: 2435: 2426: 2389: 2383: 2340: 2336: 2325: 2293:(1): 29–44. 2290: 2286: 2262:. Retrieved 2258: 2209: 2205: 2175: 2171: 2135: 2131: 2110:. Retrieved 2108:. March 2005 2093: 2058: 2054: 2044: 2020:(2): 55–65. 2017: 2013: 2003: 1978: 1974: 1968: 1957:. Retrieved 1947: 1936:. Retrieved 1932: 1923: 1890: 1886: 1858: 1852: 1732:Metabolomics 1680: 1668: 1656: 1644: 1628: 1616: 1604: 1592: 1562: 1536: 1525: 1515: 1511: 1505: 1500:twin studies 1453: 1444: 1436: 1428: 1412: 1398: 1388: 1382: 1377: 1356: 1328: 1324: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1314: 1303: 1299: 1298: 1285: 1273:polypharmacy 1270: 1254: 1247: 1240: 1229: 1207: 1168: 1128:cancer drugs 1121: 1094: 1077: 1074:Applications 1061: 1032:nomenclature 1025: 1005: 977: 961: 952: 944: 936: 922: 915: 890: 872: 861:erythrocytes 845: 789: 779: 774: 769:(Iressa) or 749:and include 743: 740:Drug targets 732: 720: 716: 697:transporters 694: 642: 626: 612:metabolomics 599: 591: 587: 583: 581: 553: 528:drug therapy 525: 501:distribution 461:pharmacology 454: 448: 436: 435: 357:Quantitative 327:Cytogenetics 322:Conservation 204:Introduction 76: 67: 51: 6751:Professions 6631:Compounding 6571:Bactericide 6247:Compartment 6058:Patch clamp 6034:Schild plot 5522:Epigenomics 5454:Pangenomics 3801:www.cms.gov 3538:(8): e209. 2259:cpicpgx.org 1747:Toxgnostics 1581:Data source 1310:cogwheeling 1306:benztropine 1281:psychiatric 1234:program in 1199:haptoglobin 1179:clopidogrel 887:Immunologic 857:glutathione 812:coagulation 523:endpoints. 521:immunogenic 509:elimination 479:(including 6946:Categories 6758:Pharmacist 6710:Toxicology 6648:Medication 6451:Physiology 6383:Toxicology 6275:psychology 6224:Metabolism 6214:Absorption 6208:Liberation 6050:Organ bath 5978:Functional 5857:Antagonist 5850:Inhibitory 5805:Excitatory 5607:Proteomics 5544:Lipidomics 5539:Immunomics 5316:Journals: 5308:2014-06-25 5289:2011-07-11 5270:2011-07-11 5252:2011-07-11 3882:2022-12-13 3806:2022-12-13 3374:2019-12-29 2832:2022-12-13 2823:"PharmGKB" 2767:2022-12-13 2264:2022-12-13 2112:2008-08-27 1959:2014-06-25 1938:2014-06-25 1845:References 1819:Technology 1552:genotyping 1544:Navigenics 1492:Heidelberg 1456:Pythagoras 1345:Challenges 1142:test with 1134:test with 1109:psychiatry 1101:cardiology 1054:impacted. 1052:amino acid 1036:haplotypes 875:result in 757:(see also 608:proteomics 572:stop codon 568:sequencing 557:genotyping 519:), and/or 505:metabolism 497:absorption 352:Population 332:Ecological 257:Geneticist 171:Amino acid 151:Nucleotide 126:Chromosome 6233:Clearance 6229:Excretion 6048:Methods ( 5534:Glycomics 5358:1470-269X 5338:1744-6872 5091:"SNPedia" 4937:cite book 3926:205121202 3783:218583019 2690:0009-9236 2632:2632-1823 2577:1533-1601 2530:0535-5133 2491:0083-6729 2467:: 35–62. 2357:1532-6535 2228:0163-7258 1762:SNOMED CT 1710:Clinomics 1587:Citation 1565:bioethics 1470:. In the 1460:fava bean 1255:In 2020, 1241:In 2010, 1144:gefitinib 1136:cetuximab 1068:phenotype 1058:Phenotype 1048:base pair 832:protein C 804:vitamin K 800:reduction 771:erlotinib 767:gefitinib 596:monogenic 582:The term 563:or whole 547:and even 477:mutations 473:inherited 450:pharmaco- 347:Molecular 342:Microbial 317:Classical 218:molecular 214:Evolution 6962:Pharmacy 6952:Genomics 6931:Category 6658:Pharmacy 6617:Pharmacy 6351:genetics 6323:Pharmacy 6310:Medicine 6120:Affinity 6079:Efficacy 6017:Analysis 5999:Toxicity 5746:Category 5472:genomics 5396:Genomics 5230:23300409 5140:22140107 5059:24234438 5010:10592272 4929:23824865 4878:19934256 4829:29134625 4747:46120003 4696:15372090 4661:15738433 4578:17168846 4535:11908762 4467:16421980 4399:21761285 4391:16415920 4356:13697554 4321:22461095 4280:11678777 4228:31956328 4202:: 1254. 4177:31591640 4128:34092673 4120:25232853 4079:30676903 4027:59250873 4019:30676900 3978:32998031 3970:18580684 3918:19844223 3859:29833634 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