Phonetics - Knowledge (XXG)

1684:

reference to a given speech-relevant goal (e.g., a bilabial closure)." These groups represent coordinative structures or "synergies" which view movements not as individual muscle movements but as task-dependent groupings of muscles which work together as a single unit. This reduces the degrees of freedom in articulation planning, a problem especially in intrinsic coordinate models, which allows for any movement that achieves the speech goal, rather than encoding the particular movements in the abstract representation. Coarticulation is well described by gestural models as the articulations at faster speech rates can be explained as composites of the independent gestures at slower speech rates.

1693: 1139:, is influential in modern linguistics and still represents "the most complete generative grammar of any language yet written". His grammar formed the basis of modern linguistics and described several important phonetic principles, including voicing. This early account described resonance as being produced either by tone, when vocal folds are closed, or noise, when vocal folds are open. The phonetic principles in the grammar are considered "primitives" in that they are the basis for his theoretical analysis rather than the objects of theoretical analysis themselves, and the principles can be inferred from his system of phonology. 3231:

to as the Symmetry Condition. The second universal constraint is the Dominance Condition, which holds that when two handshapes are involved, one hand will remain stationary and have a more limited set of handshapes compared to the dominant, moving hand. Additionally, it is common for one hand in a two-handed sign to be dropped during informal conversations, a process referred to as weak drop. Just like words in spoken languages, coarticulation may cause signs to influence each other's form. Examples include the handshapes of neighboring signs becoming more similar to each other (

1801:

segments show a voicing bar, a region of high acoustic energy, in the low frequencies of voiced segments. In examining a spectral splice, the acoustic spectrum at a given point in time a model of the vowel pronounced reverses the filtering of the mouth producing the spectrum of the glottis. A computational model of the unfiltered glottal signal is then fitted to the inverse filtered acoustic signal to determine the characteristics of the glottis. Visual analysis is also available using specialized medical equipment such as ultrasound and endoscopy.

1181:

which was the driving force behind Pāṇini's account, and began to focus on the physical properties of speech alone. Sustained interest in phonetics began again around 1800 CE with the term "phonetics" being first used in the present sense in 1841. With new developments in medicine and the development of audio and visual recording devices, phonetic insights were able to use and review new and more detailed data. This early period of modern phonetics included the development of an influential phonetic alphabet based on articulatory positions by

1479:, have been referred to using a number of different terms. Apical post-alveolar consonants are often called retroflex, while laminal articulations are sometimes called palato-alveolar; in the Australianist literature, these laminal stops are often described as 'palatal' though they are produced further forward than the palate region typically described as palatal. Because of individual anatomical variation, the precise articulation of palato-alveolar stops (and coronals in general) can vary widely within a speech community. 2542:(also referred to as plosives) are consonants where the airstream is completely obstructed. Pressure builds up in the mouth during the stricture, which is then released as a small burst of sound when the articulators move apart. The velum is raised so that air cannot flow through the nasal cavity. If the velum is lowered and allows for air to flow through the nose, the result in a nasal stop. However, phoneticians almost always refer to nasal stops as just "nasals". 2734:. The noise source in many cases is the larynx during the process of voicing, though other noise sources can be modeled in the same way. The shape of the supraglottal vocal tract acts as the filter, and different configurations of the articulators result in different acoustic patterns. These changes are predictable. The vocal tract can be modeled as a sequence of tubes, closed at one end, with varying diameters, and by using equations for 1597: 2699: 1853: 941: 2378: 2358: 2329: 2287: 2251: 2222: 2193: 2157: 2115: 2079: 2050: 2021: 1985: 1963: 1927: 1898: 1869: 1352:

Unlike most other articulations, both articulators are made from soft tissue, and so bilabial stops are more likely to be produced with incomplete closures than articulations involving hard surfaces like the teeth or palate. Bilabial stops are also unusual in that an articulator in the upper section of the vocal tract actively moves downward, as the upper lip shows some active downward movement.

2680:

air moved in most cases of speech remains about the same as quiet tidal breathing. Increases in speech intensity of 18 dB (a loud conversation) has relatively little impact on the volume of air moved. Because their respiratory systems are not as developed as adults, children tend to use a larger proportion of their vital capacity compared to adults, with more deep inhales.

2411: 6581: 1781:) is less than in modal voicing allowing for air to flow more freely. Both breathy voice and whispery voice exist on a continuum loosely characterized as going from the more periodic waveform of breathy voice to the more noisy waveform of whispery voice. Acoustically, both tend to dampen the first formant with whispery voice showing more extreme deviations. 1464:

can occur in several different locations on the roof of the mouth including alveolar, post-alveolar, and palatal regions. If the underside of the tongue tip makes contact with the roof of the mouth, it is sub-apical though apical post-alveolar sounds are also described as retroflex. Typical examples of sub-apical retroflex stops are commonly found in

51: 1334:. These divisions are not sufficient for distinguishing and describing all speech sounds. For example, in English the sounds and are both coronal, but they are produced in different places of the mouth. To account for this, more detailed places of articulation are needed based upon the area of the mouth in which the constriction occurs. 2766:. To correctly identify and categorize sounds, listeners prioritize certain aspects of the signal that can reliably distinguish between linguistic categories. While certain cues are prioritized over others, many aspects of the signal can contribute to perception. For example, though oral languages prioritize acoustic information, the 1082:. To correctly identify and categorize sounds, listeners prioritize certain aspects of the signal that can reliably distinguish between linguistic categories. While certain cues are prioritized over others, many aspects of the signal can contribute to perception. For example, though oral languages prioritize acoustic information, the 1663:(extrinsic). Intrinsic coordinate systems model the movement of articulators as positions and angles of joints in the body. Intrinsic coordinate models of the jaw often use two to three degrees of freedom representing translation and rotation. These face issues with modeling the tongue which, unlike joints of the jaw and arms, is a 1676:

space, the same one-to-many mapping problem applies as well, with no unique mapping from physical or acoustic targets to the muscle movements required to achieve them. Concerns about the inverse problem may be exaggerated, however, as speech is a highly learned skill using neurological structures which evolved for the purpose.

1680:

using springs, the equilibrium point model can easily account for compensation and response when movements are disrupted. They are considered a coordinate model because they assume that these muscle positions are represented as points in space, equilibrium points, where the spring-like action of the muscles converges.

2965:

effect and case studies from patients with neurological injuries have provided support for motor theory, further experiments have not supported the strong form of motor theory, though there is some support for weaker forms of motor theory which claim a non-deterministic relationship between production and perception.

1757:

articulations. When articulations are voiced, the main source of noise is the periodic vibration of the vocal folds. Articulations like voiceless plosives have no acoustic source and are noticeable by their silence, but other voiceless sounds like fricatives create their own acoustic source regardless of phonation.

1288:. Consonants are pronounced in the vocal tract, usually in the mouth, and the location of this constriction affects the resulting sound. Because of the close connection between the position of the tongue and the resulting sound, the place of articulation is an important concept in many subdisciplines of phonetics. 3219:. Proximal refers to a part closer to the torso whereas a distal part is further away from it. For example, a wrist movement is distal compared to an elbow movement. Due to requiring less energy, distal movements are generally easier to produce. Various factors – such as muscle flexibility and being considered 3078:

consonant chart. Vowels are described by their height, backness, and rounding. Sign language are described using a similar but distinct set of parameters to describe signs: location, movement, hand shape, palm orientation, and non-manual features. In addition to articulatory descriptions, sounds used

2968:

Successor theories of speech perception place the focus on acoustic cues to sound categories and can be grouped into two broad categories: abstractionist theories and episodic theories. In abstractionist theories, speech perception involves the identification of an idealized lexical object based on a

2738:

the acoustic effect of an articulatory posture can be derived. The process of inverse filtering uses this principle to analyze the source spectrum produced by the vocal folds during voicing. By taking the inverse of a predicted filter, the acoustic effect of the supraglottal vocal tract can be undone

2485:

In most languages, the lips during vowel production can be classified as either rounded or unrounded (spread), although other types of lip positions, such as compression and protrusion, have been described. Lip position is correlated with height and backness: front and low vowels tend to be unrounded

1788:

Some languages do not maintain a voicing distinction for some consonants, but all languages use voicing to some degree. For example, no language is known to have a phonemic voicing contrast for vowels with all known vowels canonically voiced. Other positions of the glottis, such as breathy and creaky

1662:

When producing speech, the articulators move through and contact particular locations in space resulting in changes to the acoustic signal. Some models of speech production take this as the basis for modeling articulation in a coordinate system that may be internal to the body (intrinsic) or external

1436:

Crosslinguistically, dental consonants and alveolar consonants are frequently contrasted leading to a number of generalizations of crosslinguistic patterns. The different places of articulation tend to also be contrasted in the part of the tongue used to produce them: most languages with dental stops

1356:

are made with the blade of the tongue approaching or contacting the upper lip. Like in bilabial articulations, the upper lip moves slightly towards the more active articulator. Articulations in this group do not have their own symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet, rather, they are formed by

1180:

Advancements in phonetics after Pāṇini and his contemporaries were limited until the modern era, save some limited investigations by Greek and Roman grammarians. In the millennia between Indic grammarians and modern phonetics, the focus shifted from the difference between spoken and written language,

3230:

Unlike spoken languages, sign languages have two identical articulators: the hands. Signers may use whichever hand they prefer with no disruption in communication. Due to universal neurological limitations, two-handed signs generally have the same kind of articulation in both hands; this is referred

2650:

The lungs drive nearly all speech production, and their importance in phonetics is due to their creation of pressure for pulmonic sounds. The most common kinds of sound across languages are pulmonic egress, where air is exhaled from the lungs. The opposite is possible, though no language is known to

2627:

between two articulatory closures, producing a loud 'click' sound when the anterior closure is released. The release of the anterior closure is referred to as the click influx. The release of the posterior closure, which can be velar or uvular, is the click efflux. Clicks are used in several African

2446:

Vowels are broadly categorized by the area of the mouth in which they are produced, but because they are produced without a constriction in the vocal tract their precise description relies on measuring acoustic correlates of tongue position. The location of the tongue during vowel production changes

1670:

Straight-line movements have been used to argue articulations as planned in extrinsic rather than intrinsic space, though extrinsic coordinate systems also include acoustic coordinate spaces, not just physical coordinate spaces. Models that assume movements are planned in extrinsic space run into an

1620:

are responsible for moving the arytenoid cartilages as well as modulating the tension of the vocal folds. If the vocal folds are not close or tense enough, they will either vibrate sporadically or not at all. If they vibrate sporadically it will result in either creaky or breathy voice, depending on

1424:

are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and the upper teeth. They are divided into two groups based upon the part of the tongue used to produce them: apical dental consonants are produced with the tongue tip touching the teeth; interdental consonants are produced with the blade of the tongue as

1201:

and the IPA still tests and certifies speakers on their ability to accurately produce the phonetic patterns of English (though they have discontinued this practice for other languages). As a revision of his visible speech method, Melville Bell developed a description of vowels by height and backness

2671:

O higher than the pressure above the glottis. However small and fast adjustments are made to the subglottal pressure to modify speech for suprasegmental features like stress. A number of thoracic muscles are used to make these adjustments. Because the lungs and thorax stretch during inhalation, the

2575:

are consonants in which the airstream is obstructed along the center of the vocal tract, allowing the airstream to flow freely on one or both sides. Laterals have also been defined as consonants in which the tongue is contracted in such a way that the airstream is greater around the sides than over

1773:

The normal phonation pattern used in typical speech is modal voice, where the vocal folds are held close together with moderate tension. The vocal folds vibrate as a single unit periodically and efficiently with a full glottal closure and no aspiration. If they are pulled farther apart, they do not

1679:

The equilibrium-point model proposes a resolution to the inverse problem by arguing that movement targets be represented as the position of the muscle pairs acting on a joint. Importantly, muscles are modeled as springs, and the target is the equilibrium point for the modeled spring-mass system. By

1675:

of explaining the muscle and joint locations which produce the observed path or acoustic signal. The arm, for example, has seven degrees of freedom and 22 muscles, so multiple different joint and muscle configurations can lead to the same final position. For models of planning in extrinsic acoustic

1557:

Glottal consonants are those produced using the vocal folds in the larynx. Because the vocal folds are the source of phonation and below the oro-nasal vocal tract, a number of glottal consonants are impossible such as a voiced glottal stop. Three glottal consonants are possible, a voiceless glottal

1246:

to be produced. The phonemes are specified for articulatory features which denote particular goals such as closed lips or the tongue in a particular location. These phonemes are then coordinated into a sequence of muscle commands that can be sent to the muscles, and when these commands are executed

2679:

During speech, the respiratory cycle is modified to accommodate both linguistic and biological needs. Exhalation, usually about 60 percent of the respiratory cycle at rest, is increased to about 90 percent of the respiratory cycle. Because metabolic needs are relatively stable, the total volume of

2597:

gestures where the tongue is thrown against the roof of the mouth, comparable to a very rapid stop. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but some phoneticians make a distinction. In a tap, the tongue contacts the roof in a single motion whereas in a flap the tongue moves tangentially to

1765:

and its harmonics. The fundamental frequency of the acoustic wave can be controlled by adjusting the muscles of the larynx, and listeners perceive this fundamental frequency as pitch. Languages use pitch manipulation to convey lexical information in tonal languages, and many languages use pitch to

1653:

According to the lexical access model two different stages of cognition are employed; thus, this concept is known as the two-stage theory of lexical access. The first stage, lexical selection, provides information about lexical items required to construct the functional-level representation. These

1526:

Consonants made by constrictions of the throat are pharyngeals, and those made by a constriction in the larynx are laryngeal. Laryngeals are made using the vocal folds as the larynx is too far down the throat to reach with the tongue. Pharyngeals however are close enough to the mouth that parts of

1463:

have several different definitions depending on whether the position of the tongue or the position on the roof of the mouth is given prominence. In general, they represent a group of articulations in which the tip of the tongue is curled upwards to some degree. In this way, retroflex articulations

1196:

Before the widespread availability of audio recording equipment, phoneticians relied heavily on a tradition of practical phonetics to ensure that transcriptions and findings were able to be consistent across phoneticians. This training involved both ear training—the recognition of speech sounds—as

1052:

1225:

Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a nonlinguistic message into a spoken or signed linguistic signal. Linguists debate whether the process of language production occurs in a series of stages (serial processing) or whether production processes occur in

2964:

the listener to access the articulatory representation of sounds; to properly categorize a sound, a listener reverse engineers the articulation which would produce that sound and by identifying these gestures is able to retrieve the intended linguistic category. While findings such as the McGurk

1399:

Coronal consonants are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and, because of the agility of the front of the tongue, represent a variety not only in place but in the posture of the tongue. The coronal places of articulation represent the areas of the mouth where the tongue contacts or makes a

1351:

are made with both lips. In producing these sounds the lower lip moves farthest to meet the upper lip, which also moves down slightly, though in some cases the force from air moving through the aperture (opening between the lips) may cause the lips to separate faster than they can come together.

1784:

Holding the vocal folds more tightly together results in a creaky voice. The tension across the vocal folds is less than in modal voice, but they are held tightly together resulting in only the ligaments of the vocal folds vibrating. The pulses are highly irregular, with low pitch and frequency

1734:

Speech sounds are created by the modification of an airstream which results in a sound wave. The modification is done by the articulators, with different places and manners of articulation producing different acoustic results. Because the posture of the vocal tract, not just the position of the

1637:(98.0665 – 196.133 pascals). The pressure differential can fall below levels required for phonation either because of an increase in pressure above the glottis (superglottal pressure) or a decrease in pressure below the glottis (subglottal pressure). The subglottal pressure is maintained by the 2659:

articulations such as affirmations in a number of genetically and geographically diverse languages. Both egressive and ingressive sounds rely on holding the vocal folds in a particular posture and using the lungs to draw air across the vocal folds so that they either vibrate (voiced) or do not

1800:

There are several ways to determine if a segment is voiced or not, the simplest being to feel the larynx during speech and note when vibrations are felt. More precise measurements can be obtained through acoustic analysis of a spectrogram or spectral slice. In a spectrographic analysis, voiced

1747:

both begin with alveolar sounds in English, but differ in how far the tongue is from the alveolar ridge. This difference has large effects on the air stream and thus the sound that is produced. Similarly, the direction and source of the airstream can affect the sound. The most common airstream

1683:

Gestural approaches to speech production propose that articulations are represented as movement patterns rather than particular coordinates to hit. The minimal unit is a gesture that represents a group of "functionally equivalent articulatory movement patterns that are actively controlled with

1508:

with vowels and can be produced as far forward as the hard palate or as far back as the uvula. These variations are typically divided into front, central, and back velars in parallel with the vowel space. They can be hard to distinguish phonetically from palatal consonants, though are produced

1065:

2454:

Vowel height traditionally refers to the highest point of the tongue during articulation. The height parameter is divided into four primary levels: high (close), close-mid, open-mid, and low (open). Vowels whose height are in the middle are referred to as mid. Slightly opened close vowels and

1769:

For the vocal folds to vibrate, they must be in the proper position and there must be air flowing through the glottis. Phonation types are modeled on a continuum of glottal states from completely open (voiceless) to completely closed (glottal stop). The optimal position for vibration, and the

1342:

Articulations involving the lips can be made in three different ways: with both lips (bilabial), with one lip and the teeth, so they have the lower lip as the active articulator and the upper teeth as the passive articulator (labiodental), and with the tongue and the upper lip (linguolabial).

1513:

are made by the tongue body contacting or approaching the uvula. They are rare, occurring in an estimated 19 percent of languages, and large regions of the Americas and Africa have no languages with uvular consonants. In languages with uvular consonants, stops are most frequent followed by

1756:

A major distinction between speech sounds is whether they are voiced. Sounds are voiced when the vocal folds begin to vibrate in the process of phonation. Many sounds can be produced with or without phonation, though physical constraints may make phonation difficult or impossible for some

2781:, listeners are able to reliably perceive categories despite the variability in acoustic instantiation. To do this, listeners rapidly accommodate to new speakers and will shift their boundaries between categories to match the acoustic distinctions their conversational partner is making. 3053:

Human languages use many different sounds and to compare them linguists must be able to describe sounds in a way that is language independent. Speech sounds can be described in a number of ways. Most commonly speech sounds are referred to by the mouth movements needed to produce them.

2800: 2582:

are consonants in which the tongue or lips are set in motion by the airstream. The stricture is formed in such a way that the airstream causes a repeating pattern of opening and closing of the soft articulator(s). Apical trills typically consist of two or three periods of vibration.

3079:

in oral languages can be described using their acoustics. Because the acoustics are a consequence of the articulation, both methods of description are sufficient to distinguish sounds with the choice between systems dependent on the phonetic feature being investigated.

1654:

items are retrieved according to their specific semantic and syntactic properties, but phonological forms are not yet made available at this stage. The second stage, retrieval of wordforms, provides information required for building the positional level representation.

3044:

The mismatch between acoustic analyses and what the listener hears is especially noticeable in speech sounds that have a lot of high-frequency energy, such as certain fricatives. To reconcile this mismatch, functional models of the auditory system have been developed.

2811: 2977:) of previously heard tokens. The problem of perceptual invariance is explained by episodic theories as an issue of familiarity: normalization is a byproduct of exposure to more variable distributions rather than a discrete process as abstractionist theories claim. 1043:

Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a non-linguistic message into a spoken or signed linguistic signal. After identifying a message to be linguistically encoded, a speaker must select the individual words—known as

2535:

Knowing the place of articulation is not enough to fully describe a consonant, the way in which the stricture happens is equally important. Manners of articulation describe how exactly the active articulator modifies, narrows or closes off the vocal tract.

3036:

Auditory phonetics studies how humans perceive speech sounds. Due to the anatomical features of the auditory system distorting the speech signal, humans do not experience speech sounds as perfect acoustic records. For example, the auditory impressions of

2814: 1760:

Phonation is controlled by the muscles of the larynx, and languages make use of more acoustic detail than binary voicing. During phonation, the vocal folds vibrate at a certain rate. This vibration results in a periodic acoustic waveform comprising a

2812: 2808: 2810: 2809: 1210:

in the 1960s based on experimental evidence where he found that cardinal vowels were auditory rather than articulatory targets, challenging the claim that they represented articulatory anchors by which phoneticians could judge other articulations.

2813: 1441:(ǃXóõ) is a counterexample to this pattern. If a language has only one of a dental stop or an alveolar stop, it will usually be laminal if it is a dental stop, and the stop will usually be apical if it is an alveolar stop, though for example 1716: 1719: 1717: 1718: 1056:

These movements disrupt and modify an airstream which results in a sound wave. The modification is done by the articulators, with different places and manners of articulation producing different acoustic results. For example, the words

1023:

of a language describes the method by which a language produces and perceives languages. Languages with oral-aural modalities such as English produce speech orally and perceive speech aurally (using the ears). Sign languages, such as

2729:

The source–filter model of speech is a theory of speech production which explains the link between vocal tract posture and the acoustic consequences. Under this model, the vocal tract can be modeled as a noise source coupled onto an

1206:. As part of their training in practical phonetics, phoneticians were expected to learn to produce these cardinal vowels to anchor their perception and transcription of these phones during fieldwork. This approach was critiqued by 2822:

Audition, the process of hearing sounds, is the first stage of perceiving speech. Articulators cause systematic changes in air pressure which travel as sound waves to the listener's ear. The sound waves then hit the listener's

2473:

Vowel backness is dividing into three levels: front, central and back. Languages usually do not minimally contrast more than two levels of vowel backness. Some languages claimed to have a three-way backness distinction include

1667:—like an elephant trunk—which lacks joints. Because of the different physiological structures, movement paths of the jaw are relatively straight lines during speech and mastication, while movements of the tongue follow curves. 1770:

phonation type most used in speech, modal voice, exists in the middle of these two extremes. If the glottis is slightly wider, breathy voice occurs, while bringing the vocal folds closer together results in creaky voice.

1491:

are made using the tongue body against the hard palate on the roof of the mouth. They are frequently contrasted with velar or uvular consonants, though it is rare for a language to contrast all three simultaneously, with

3290:). For ease of description, the language production process is described as a series of independent stages, though recent evidence shows this is inaccurate. For further descriptions of interactive activation models see 3398:. The signal can be acoustic for oral speech, visual for signed languages, or tactile for manual-tactile sign languages. For simplicity acoustic speech is described here; for sign language perception specifically, see 3121:

speech sounds that are pronounced without any obstruction in the vocal tract. Unlike consonants, which usually have definite places of articulation, vowels are defined in relation to a set of reference vowels called

1241:

After an utterance has been planned, it then goes through phonological encoding. In this stage of language production, the mental representation of the words are assigned their phonological content as a sequence of

2753:

Language perception is the process by which a linguistic signal is decoded and understood by a listener. To perceive speech, the continuous acoustic signal must be converted into discrete linguistic units such as

1069:

2806: 2805: 2802: 2801: 1628:

In addition to correctly positioning the vocal folds, there must also be air flowing across them or they will not vibrate. The difference in pressure across the glottis required for voicing is estimated at 1 – 2

5453:

Feldman, Anatol G. (1966). "Functional tuning of the nervous system with control of movement or maintenance of a steady posture, III: Mechanographic analysis of the execution by man of the simplest motor task".

2807: 2605:, the glottis is closed, trapping a body of air. This allows for the remaining air in the vocal tract to be moved separately. An upward movement of the closed glottis will move this air out, resulting in it an 3210:

are perceived with the eyes instead of the ears. Signs are articulated with the hands, upper body and head. The main articulators are the hands and arms. Relative parts of the arm are described with the terms

1645:. However, because articulations—especially consonants—represent constrictions of the airflow, the pressure in the cavity behind those constrictions can increase resulting in a higher supraglottal pressure. 3138:, the vowels are represented on a trapezoid shape representing the human mouth: the vertical axis representing the mouth from floor to roof and the horizontal axis represents the front-back dimension. 1032:(ASL), have a manual-visual modality, producing speech manually (using the hands) and perceiving speech visually. ASL and some other sign languages have in addition a manual-manual dialect for use in 1777:

If the vocal folds are held slightly further apart than in modal voicing, they produce phonation types like breathy voice (or murmur) and whispery voice. The tension across the vocal ligaments (

3171:(IPA), provides a standardized set of symbols for oral phones. The standardized nature of the IPA enables its users to transcribe accurately and consistently the phones of different languages, 2960:

attempted to solve the problem of perceptual invariance by arguing that speech perception and production were closely linked. In its strongest form, motor theory argues that speech perception

2804: 2676:

are used to "check" the elastic forces of the thorax to maintain a stable pressure differential. Below that volume, they are used to increase the subglottal pressure by actively exhaling air.

1048:—to represent that message in a process called lexical selection. During phonological encoding, the mental representation of the words are assigned their phonological content as a sequence of 2672:

elastic forces of the lungs alone can produce pressure differentials sufficient for phonation at lung volumes above 50 percent of vital capacity. Above 50 percent of vital capacity, the

5424:

Eklund, Robert (2008). "Pulmonic ingressive phonation: Diachronic and synchronic characteristics, distribution and function in animal and human sound production and in human speech".

996:. The field of phonetics is traditionally divided into three sub-disciplines based on the research questions involved such as how humans plan and execute movements to produce speech ( 2455:

slightly closed open vowels are referred to as near-close and near-open respectively. The lowest vowels are not just articulated with a lowered tongue, but also by lowering the jaw.

1504:. They are incredibly common cross-linguistically; almost all languages have a velar stop. Because both velars and vowels are made using the tongue body, they are highly affected by 6183:

Motley, Michael; Camden, Carl; Baars, Bernard (1982). "Covert formulation and editing of anomalies in speech production: Evidence from experimentally elicited slips of the tongue".

2773:

While listeners can use a variety of information to segment the speech signal, the relationship between acoustic signal and category perception is not a perfect mapping. Because of

2667:

The lungs are used to maintain two kinds of pressure simultaneously to produce and modify phonation. To produce phonation at all, the lungs must maintain a pressure of 3–5 cm H

1578:

of the following vowel in this language. Glottal stops, especially between vowels, do usually not form a complete closure. True glottal stops normally occur only when they are

1437:

have laminal dentals, while languages with apical stops usually have apical stops. Languages rarely have two consonants in the same place with a contrast in laminality, though

1472:

the contrastive difference between dental and alveolar stops is a slight retroflexion of the alveolar stop. Acoustically, retroflexion tends to affect the higher formants.

6392:

Schiller, Niels; Bles, Mart; Jansma, Bernadette (2003). "Tracking the time course of phonological encoding in speech production: an event-related brain potential study".

3008:

to move. The ear transforms this movement into neural signals that the brain registers as sound. Acoustic waveforms are records that measure these pressure fluctuations.

3194:

were designed for use in dictionaries; they also make use of alphabetic letters in the local language for handshapes whereas HamNoSys represents the handshape directly.

3227:

is not as focused as the center of the visual field, signs articulated near the face allow for more subtle differences in finger movement and location to be perceived.

1612:. The vocal folds (chords) are held together so that they vibrate, or held apart so that they do not. The positions of the vocal folds are achieved by movement of the 3186:

While no sign language has a standardized writing system, linguists have developed their own notation systems that describe the handshape, location and movement. The

2562:(sometimes referred to as nasal stops) are consonants in which there's a closure in the oral cavity and the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose. 5174:

Bizzi, E.; Hogan, N.; Mussa-Ivaldi, F.; Giszter, S. (1992). "Does the nervous system use equilibrium-point control to guide single and multiple joint movements?".

3126:. Three properties are needed to define vowels: tongue height, tongue backness, and lip roundedness. Vowels that are articulated with a stable quality are called 3062:

are two gross categories that phoneticians define by the movements in a speech sound. More fine-grained descriptors are parameters such as place of articulation.

3223:– restrict what can be considered a sign. Native signers do not look at their conversation partner's hands. Instead, their gaze is fixated on the face. Because 1318:

Constrictions made with the tongue can be made in several parts of the vocal tract, broadly classified into coronal, dorsal and radical places of articulation.

1016:; the phoneme is an abstract categorization of phones and it is also defined as the smallest unit that discerns meaning between sounds in any given language. 2803: 1715: 3102:(into the vocal tract). In pulmonic sounds, the airstream is produced by the lungs in the subglottal system and passes through the larynx and vocal tract. 1291:

Sounds are partly categorized by the location of a constriction as well as the part of the body doing the constricting. For example, in English the words

1487:

Dorsal consonants are those consonants made using the tongue body rather than the tip or blade and are typically produced at the palate, velum or uvula.

3090:

exhaled from the lungs. The respiratory organs used to create and modify airflow are divided into three regions: the vocal tract (supralaryngeal), the

2843:. The basilar membrane increases in thickness as it travels through the cochlea causing different frequencies to resonate at different locations. This 2486:

whereas back and high vowels are usually rounded. Paired vowels on the IPA chart have the spread vowel on the left and the rounded vowel on the right.

5677:

Hall, Tracy Alan (2001). "Introduction: Phonological representations and phonetic implementation of distinctive features". In Hall, Tracy Alan (ed.).

68: 60: 2458:

While the IPA implies that there are seven levels of vowel height, it is unlikely that a given language can minimally contrast all seven levels.

1230:—to represent that message in a process called lexical selection. The words are selected based on their meaning, which in linguistics is called 1357:

combining an apical symbol with a diacritic implicitly placing them in the coronal category. They exist in a number of languages indigenous to

2660:

vibrate (voiceless). Pulmonic articulations are restricted by the volume of air able to be exhaled in a given respiratory cycle, known as the

1019:

Phonetics deals with two aspects of human speech: production (the ways humans make sounds) and perception (the way speech is understood). The

6562: 6539: 6517: 6459: 6382: 6253: 6109: 6043: 6002: 5977: 5914: 5836: 5790: 5724: 5347: 5314: 5271: 5212: 5155: 4698: 4679: 4660: 2420: 1954: 1714: 1449:

do not follow this pattern. If a language has both an apical and laminal stop, then the laminal stop is more likely to be affricated like in

1247:

properly the intended sounds are produced. Thus the process of production from message to sound can be summarized as the following sequence:

1197:

well as production training—the ability to produce sounds. Phoneticians were expected to learn to recognize by ear the various sounds on the

968: 2777:, noisy environments, and individual differences, there is a high degree of acoustic variability within categories. Known as the problem of 6024: 1469: 1384: 858: 1692: 5752:

Jaeger, Florian; Furth, Katrina; Hilliard, Caitlin (2012). "Phonological overlap affects lexical selection during sentence production".

1970: 499: 2969:

signal reduced to its necessary components and normalizing the signal to counteract speaker variability. Episodic theories such as the

6440: 6357: 6234: 6146: 5128: 3510: 3198:

aims to be an easy-to-learn writing system for sign languages, although it has not been officially adopted by any deaf community yet.

1992: 5659: 3248: 2556:

are a special type of fricative where the turbulent airstream is directed towards the teeth, creating a high-pitched hissing sound.

2041: 462: 6597: 6633: 6628: 2862:

of the hair cells and ultimately a conversion of the acoustic signal into a neuronal signal. While the hair cells do not produce

2213: 1566:, are notably common in the world's languages. While many languages use them to demarcate phrase boundaries, some languages like 1433:

are made with the tip or blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth and can similarly be apical or laminal.

6307: 3168: 3135: 3075: 2278: 2057: 2012: 1812: 1706: 1198: 818: 596: 5809: 5231: 3190:(HamNoSys) is similar to the IPA in that it allows for varying levels of detail. Some notation systems such as KOMVA and the 2229: 2184: 2070: 1425:

the tip of the tongue sticks out in front of the teeth. No language is known to use both contrastively though they may exist

878: 823: 2552:

are consonants where the airstream is made turbulent by partially, but not completely, obstructing part of the vocal tract.

1400:

constriction, and include dental, alveolar, and post-alveolar locations. Tongue postures using the tip of the tongue can be

6471:"The hearing ear is always found close to the speaking tongue: Review of the role of the motor system in speech perception" 2870:, which does produce action potentials. In this way, the patterns of oscillations on the basilar membrane are converted to 1696:

A waveform (top), spectrogram (middle), and transcription (bottom) of a woman saying "Knowledge (XXG)" displayed using the

3436: 2602: 2242: 2028: 1889: 853: 544: 2739:

giving the acoustic spectrum produced by the vocal folds. This allows quantitative study of the various phonation types.

3179:. The IPA is a useful tool not only for the study of phonetics but also for language teaching, professional acting, and 2349: 2200: 2086: 1226:

parallel. After identifying a message to be linguistically encoded, a speaker must select the individual words—known as

798: 664: 5467:

Fujimura, Osamu (1961). "Bilabial stop and nasal consonants: A motion picture study and its acoustical implications".

2258: 1905: 1860: 918: 624: 5591:

Goldinger, Stephen (1996). "Words and voices: episodic traces in spoken word identification and recognition memory".

1412:

if the tongue tip is curled back and the bottom of the tongue is used. Coronals are unique as a group in that every

2794: 2415: 2410: 2320: 1918: 1343:

Depending on the definition used, some or all of these kinds of articulations may be categorized into the class of

39: 2770:

shows that visual information is used to distinguish ambiguous information when the acoustic cues are unreliable.

1086:

shows that visual information is used to distinguish ambiguous information when the acoustic cues are unreliable.

6601: 2929: 2369: 2106: 1876: 1311:

is a linguodental articulation made with the tongue against the teeth. Constrictions made by the lips are called

1235: 961: 908: 808: 634: 1379:

occur in any natural language, though a number of languages are reported to have labiodental plosives including

3232: 2933: 2336: 2148: 1934: 1025: 813: 756: 571: 431: 2948:

is more consistently correlated with pitch than duration and stress in Thai is only correlated with duration.

2689: 1420:

are well known for the large number of coronal contrasts exhibited within and across languages in the region.

2466:

suggest that there are only three levels, although four levels of vowel height seem to be needed to describe

1303:

differing only in the organ making the construction rather than the location of the construction. The "f" in

992:, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are 3187: 2489:

Together with the universal vowel features described above, some languages have additional features such as

2385: 2298: 2122: 1476: 1182: 913: 751: 728: 492: 209: 2892:

Besides consonants and vowels, phonetics also describes the properties of speech that are not localized to

1066:

mechanism is pulmonic (using the lungs) but the glottis and tongue can also be used to produce airstreams.

3258: 3152: 3147: 3067: 3017: 3001: 2871: 2530: 2164: 1736: 1413: 1353: 1093: 1029: 1020: 997: 863: 830: 783: 699: 679: 659: 561: 539: 534: 421: 180: 131: 1748:

mechanism is pulmonic—using the lungs—but the glottis and tongue can also be used to produce airstreams.

3640: 3063: 2893: 2887: 1762: 1368: 1279: 639: 436: 329: 156: 6585: 1774:

vibrate and so produce voiceless phones. If they are held firmly together they produce a glottal stop.

1375:

while labiodental nasals are also typologically common. There is debate as to whether true labiodental

5582:

Gobl, Christer; Ní Chasaide, Ailbhe (2010). "Voice source variation and its communicative functions".

1546:

are made with the epiglottis and the back wall of the pharynx. Epiglottal stops have been recorded in

5291: 3236: 2925: 2731: 2569:, the articulators come close together, but not to such an extent that allows a turbulent airstream. 2510: 1642: 1543: 1535: 1417: 1149: 954: 883: 793: 674: 619: 516: 291: 112: 5394:

Dell, Gary; Reich, Peter (1981). "Stages in sentence production: An analysis of speech error data".

3087: 3071: 2673: 2610: 2425: 1638: 1630: 1613: 1465: 1460: 1409: 1220: 724: 654: 629: 601: 349: 281: 267: 200: 2619:

are stops in which tongue movement causes air to be sucked in the mouth, this is referred to as a

940: 6623: 6591: 6130:

Forschungberichte des Intituts für Phonetik und Sprachliche Kommunikation der Universität München

6088: 5950: 5893: 5703: 5441: 5382: 3031: 2991: 2905: 2735: 2606: 2479: 1664: 1488: 1446: 1430: 1348: 1105: 1099: 1005: 1001: 944: 923: 893: 848: 803: 771: 761: 649: 644: 485: 475: 452: 354: 276: 136: 126: 96: 2576:

the center of the tongue. The first definition does not allow for air to flow over the tongue.

6558: 6550: 6535: 6513: 6492: 6455: 6436: 6419: 6378: 6353: 6290: 6249: 6230: 6128:

Maddieson, Ian (1993). "Investigating Ewe articulations with electromagnetic articulography".

6105: 6080: 6039: 6020: 5998: 5994: 5973: 5969: 5910: 5885: 5832: 5815: 5805: 5786: 5769: 5720: 5665: 5655: 5608: 5570: 5527: 5484: 5374: 5343: 5320: 5310: 5267: 5237: 5227: 5208: 5191: 5151: 5134: 5124: 3506: 3395: 3369: 3224: 3156: 2974: 2941: 2937: 2848: 2748: 2629: 2620: 2572: 2514: 2135: 1510: 1327: 1319: 1009: 788: 766: 709: 398: 319: 253: 185: 175: 145: 5868:

Keating, Patricia; Lahiri, Aditi (1993). "Fronted Velars, Palatalized Velars, and Palatals".

5224:

Functional phonology: Formalizing the interactions between articulatory and perceptual drives

2609:. Alternatively, the glottis can lower, sucking more air into the mouth, which results in an 1542:. Due to production difficulties, only fricatives and approximants can be produced this way. 6482: 6409: 6401: 6322: 6213: 6192: 6169: 6070: 6062: 5942: 5877: 5761: 5695: 5629: 5600: 5560: 5552: 5517: 5509: 5476: 5433: 5403: 5366: 5302: 5183: 3180: 3082:

Consonants are speech sounds that are articulated with a complete or partial closure of the

2917: 2863: 2840: 2652: 2594: 1945: 1575: 1497: 1421: 1401: 1344: 1323: 888: 719: 714: 689: 684: 669: 248: 195: 170: 165: 5357:

Dell, Gary; O'Seaghdha, Padraig (1992). "Stages of lexical access in language production".

3282:

Linguists debate whether these stages can interact or whether they occur serially (compare

3106:

sounds use an airstream created by movements of the larynx without airflow from the lungs.

1371:

are made by the lower lip rising to the upper teeth. Labiodental consonants are most often

6414: 6075: 6012: 5620:

Gordon, Matthew; Ladefoged, Peter (2001). "Phonation types: a cross-linguistic overview".

3253: 3191: 3123: 3107: 2970: 2945: 2633: 2616: 2579: 2467: 2269: 2003: 1672: 1571: 1362: 1207: 1132:

is among the most well known of these early investigators. His four-part grammar, written

1033: 457: 286: 238: 190: 1538:

are made by retracting the root of the tongue far enough to almost touch the wall of the

5048: 5046: 5044: 6506: 5988: 5963: 5686:

Halle, Morris (1983). "On Distinctive Features and their articulatory implementation".

5565: 5540: 5522: 5497: 5108: 3394:

As with speech production, the nature of the linguistic signal varies depending on the

3041:, measured in decibels (dB), does not linearly match the difference in sound pressure. 2867: 2859: 2836: 2774: 2661: 2656: 2590: 2586: 2539: 2518: 2175: 1790: 1505: 1450: 1442: 1388: 1203: 1186: 1040:

speakers where signs are produced with the hands and perceived with the hands as well.

733: 6405: 6217: 6196: 6174: 6157: 5407: 2698: 1307:

is a labiodental articulation made with the bottom lip against the teeth. The "th" in

1284:

Sounds which are made by a full or partial constriction of the vocal tract are called

1129: 6617: 6264: 6092: 5707: 5445: 5370: 5260: 3399: 3207: 3164: 3160: 2909: 2767: 1834: 1622: 1550:. Voiced epiglottal consonants are not deemed possible due to the cavity between the 1380: 1083: 989: 411: 385: 359: 339: 6330: 6204:

Munhall, K.; Ostry, D; Flanagan, J. (1991). "Coordinate spaces in speech planning".

5386: 5905:

Kingston, John (2007). "The Phonetics-Phonology Interface". In DeLacy, Paul (ed.).

5897: 2957: 2506: 2502: 2494: 2463: 2447:

the frequencies at which the cavity resonates, and it is these resonances—known as

1641:. Supraglottal pressure, with no constrictions or articulations, is equal to about 1604:

The larynx, commonly known as the "voice box", is a cartilaginous structure in the

1559: 1300: 1227: 1045: 776: 566: 380: 344: 3114:

of air using the tongue, followed by releasing the forward closure of the tongue.

1574:

have them as contrastive phonemes. Additionally, glottal stops can be realized as

6369: 3712: 3710: 3708: 1713: 1164:

Balancing (Saman) and connection (of sounds), So much about the study of Shiksha.

1160:

Sounds and accentuation, Quantity (of vowels) and the expression (of consonants),

6527: 6487: 6470: 5604: 3195: 3127: 3111: 3083: 2566: 2490: 2433: 1846: 1829: 1778: 1596: 1563: 1501: 985: 928: 903: 524: 375: 243: 6326: 5783:

Preliminaries to Speech Analysis: The Distinctive Features and their Correlates

5306: 1108:, which addresses the way listeners perceive and understand linguistic signals. 6066: 5556: 5437: 5187: 3099: 2855: 2835:. The cochlea is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled tube divided lengthwise by the 2549: 2543: 2311: 1839: 1531: 1515: 1312: 1285: 898: 581: 6504:

Stearns, Peter; Adas, Michael; Schwartz, Stuart; Gilbert, Marc Jason (2001).

5669: 5324: 5146:

Baker, Anne; van den Bogaerde, Beppie; Pfau, Roland; Schermer, Trude (2016).

2866:

themselves, they release neurotransmitter at synapses with the fibers of the

5819: 5241: 5138: 3131: 3103: 3095: 3055: 3022:

Articulatory phonetics deals with the ways in which speech sounds are made.

2997: 2913: 2875: 2844: 2759: 2645: 2498: 2097: 1609: 1579: 1558:

stop and two glottal fricatives, and all are attested in natural languages.

1426: 1372: 1075: 1037: 873: 868: 694: 586: 576: 315: 304: 233: 228: 218: 31: 6496: 6423: 6084: 5773: 5633: 5574: 5541:"On the give and take between event apprehension and utterance formulation" 5531: 5488: 5195: 2827:

causing it to vibrate. The vibration of the ear drum is transmitted by the

1238:, which contains both semantic and grammatical information about the word. 6580: 6053:

Levelt, Willem (1999). "A theory of lexical access in speech production".

5889: 5612: 5480: 5378: 1012:—a speech sound in a language which differs from the phonological unit of 3212: 3176: 3118: 3038: 2973:

argue that speech perception involves accessing detailed memories (i.e.,

2921: 2897: 2828: 2824: 2755: 2624: 2553: 2475: 2448: 2404: 1794: 1231: 1125: 1071: 5539:

Gleitman, Lila; January, David; Nappa, Rebecca; Trueswell, John (2007).

17: 5699: 5513: 3359:

Hawaiian, for example, does not contrast voiced and voiceless plosives.

3307:

for evidence of production before a message has been completely planned

3172: 3005: 2832: 2790: 2459: 1605: 1551: 1539: 1405: 1376: 1358: 1331: 1243: 1190: 1144: 1049: 1013: 1000:), how various movements affect the properties of the resulting sound ( 988:

that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds or, in the case of

426: 416: 334: 223: 35: 5954: 5881: 4854: 4852: 6119:

Löfqvist, Anders (2010). "Theories and Models of Speech Production".

5924:

Kiparsky, Paul (1993). "Pāṇinian linguistics". In Asher, R.E. (ed.).

5765: 3216: 3091: 2901: 2559: 1617: 1591: 1567: 1547: 1534:

during production and are produced very far back in the vocal tract.

1493: 1457:

show the opposite pattern with alveolar stops being more affricated.

1454: 591: 2847:

design allows for the ear to analyze sound in a manner similar to a

2651:

have pulmonic ingressive sounds as phonemes. Many languages such as

1475:

Articulations taking place just behind the alveolar ridge, known as

1128:

grammarians as early as the 6th century BCE. The Hindu scholar

5946: 5754:

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

5593:

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

4015: 4013: 4000: 3998: 3889: 3887: 3802: 3800: 3751: 3749: 2924:. Languages use these properties to different degrees to implement 2546:

are a sequence of stops followed by a fricative in the same place.

1797:

while in other languages, like English, they exist allophonically.

4996: 4491: 4489: 3716: 3220: 3074:

are used to describe consonants and are the main divisions of the

3059: 2763: 1816: 1697: 1691: 1595: 1169:

Taittiriya Upanishad 1.2, Shikshavalli, translated by Paul Deussen

1102:, which addresses the acoustic results of different articulations. 1079: 1008:). Traditionally, the minimal linguistic unit of phonetics is the 258: 5088: 5076: 5064: 5052: 5035: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4411: 4409: 4407: 3130:; a combination of two separate vowels in the same syllable is a 30:

For the study of phonemes, or how languages organize sounds, see

6607: 6308:"Dynamical Approach to Gestural Patterning in Speech Production" 6269:

Proceedings of the Seoul International Conference on Linguistics

1096:, which addresses the way sounds are made with the articulators. 1004:) or how humans convert sound waves to linguistic information ( 6151:. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 5715:

Hardcastle, William; Laver, John; Gibbon, Fiona, eds. (2010).

4231: 4229: 3167:. The most widely known system of phonetic transcription, the 2693: 1808: 1438: 1124:

The first known study of phonetics phonetic was undertaken by

44: 6142: 5933:

Ladefoged, Peter (1960). "The Value of Phonetic Statements".

5419:. Bantu Studies. Johannesburg: Wiwatersrand University Press. 5150:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 4980: 4978: 4160: 3372:, where vowels are produced as voiceless in certain contexts. 3304: 2874:

of firings which transmit information about the sound to the

2470:

and it is possible that some languages might even need five.

1509:

slightly behind the area of prototypical palatal consonants.

6450:

Seikel, J. Anthony; Drumright, David; King, Douglas (2016).

5340:

Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Linguistics

5203:

Bock, Kathryn; Levelt, Willem (2002). Atlmann, Gerry (ed.).

3004:

of sound is caused by pressure fluctuations which cause the

1530:

Radical consonants either use the root of the tongue or the

4282: 4280: 3437:"The Differences Between a Phone, Phoneme And an Allophone" 6367:

Schacter, Daniel; Gilbert, Daniel; Wegner, Daniel (2011).

5496:

Galantucci, Bruno; Fowler, Carol; Turvey, Michael (2006).

4117: 4115: 2944:

is correlated with changes in pitch and duration, whereas

6469:

Skipper, Jeremy; Devlin, Joseph; Lametti, Daniel (2017).

5007: 5005: 4893: 4891: 4578: 4576: 3611: 3609: 3525: 3094:, and the subglottal system. The airstream can be either 1621:

the degree; if do not vibrate at all, the result will be

6452:

Anatomy and Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing

5846:

Jones, Daniel (1948). "The London school of phonetics".

5121:

Psycholinguistics : critical concepts in psychology

3086:. They are generally produced by the modification of an 2521:

and frication are required to describe a certain vowel.

1739:

is important for describing the speech sound. The words

1326:

articulations are made with the back of the tongue, and

6610:, an interactive articulation simulator by Neil Thapen. 2710: 72: 6433:

Language in Mind: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics

6104:. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. 5207:. Vol. 5. New York: Routledge. pp. 405–407. 4858: 2818:

How sounds make their way from the source to the brain

34:. For the method of teaching reading and writing, see 5781:

Jakobson, Roman; Fant, Gunnar; Halle, Morris (1976).

4807: 4078: 4076: 3460: 3458: 3456: 2854:

The differential vibration of the basilar causes the

2505:. Sometimes more specialized tongue gestures such as 2451:—which are measured and used to characterize vowels. 1322:

articulations are made with the front of the tongue,

1315:

while those made with the tongue are called lingual.

4882: 4133: 3350:

for further information on the anatomy of phonation.

3303:

or after part of an utterance has been planned; see

1234:

information. Lexical selection activates the word's

6145:. In Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). 5654:(Fourth ed.). London and New York: Routledge. 4642: 4630: 4618: 4067: 3536: 3534: 3291: 2268: 2096: 1944: 1470:

languages indigenous to the southwest United States

1257:

Retrieval and assignment of phonological word forms

6505: 6368: 5736:Handbook of the International Phonetic Association 5342:(12th ed.). The Ohio State University Press. 5259: 5205:Psycholinguistics: Critical Concepts in Psychology 5107: 5023: 4945: 4567: 4555: 4531: 4519: 4507: 4480: 4468: 4439: 4398: 4374: 4362: 4350: 4314: 4043: 4031: 4019: 4004: 3977: 3941: 3929: 3917: 3905: 3893: 3878: 3866: 3854: 3830: 3818: 3806: 3791: 3755: 3740: 3728: 3699: 3663: 3627: 3576: 1554:and epiglottis being too small to permit voicing. 5426:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 4957: 3287: 5498:"The motor theory of speech perception reviewed" 4543: 4495: 4456: 4427: 4415: 6555:Handbook of Psychology: Experimental psychology 6553:. In Alice F. Healy; Robert W. Proctor (eds.). 4298: 4271: 4259: 4247: 4235: 4184: 2858:within the organ of Corti to move. This causes 2598:the roof of the mouth, striking it in passing. 1789:voice, are used in a number of languages, like 1496:as a possible example of a three-way contrast. 6185:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6148:The World Atlas of Language Structures Online 5297:. In Pisoni, David B.; Remez, Robert (eds.). 3953: 3385:for further information on acoustic modeling. 962: 493: 8: 5338:Dawson, Hope; Phelan, Michael, eds. (2016). 4338: 4286: 4094: 2956:Early theories of speech perception such as 2831:—three small bones of the middle ear—to the 6158:"The global character of phonetic gestures" 5743:International Phonetic Association (2015). 5734:International Phonetic Association (1999). 5650:Gussenhoven, Carlos; Jacobs, Haike (2017). 4984: 3422: 1735:tongue can affect the resulting sound, the 1500:are made using the tongue body against the 1053:properly the intended sounds are produced. 4697:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2008 ( 4678:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2008 ( 4659:sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2008 ( 1823: 1142:The Sanskrit study of phonetics is called 969: 955: 511: 500: 486: 405: 311: 152: 91: 6486: 6435:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 6413: 6306:Saltzman, Elliot; Munhall, Kevin (1989). 6246:Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction 6173: 6074: 6034:Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). 5926:Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics 5643:The classification of the Bantu languages 5564: 5521: 5266:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 5011: 4897: 4582: 4196: 4055: 3965: 3675: 3615: 3564: 3552: 3283: 2497:and different types of phonation such as 1408:if made with the blade of the tongue, or 5226:. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics. 4220: 4208: 4172: 4148: 4121: 3687: 3488: 3476: 3382: 2798: 1766:mark prosodic or pragmatic information. 1189:, it gained prominence as a tool in the 6532:A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology 6350:A reference grammar of modern Bulgarian 5169:. Pretoria: University of South Africa. 4997:International Phonetic Association 1999 4933: 4921: 4909: 4795: 4783: 4692: 4673: 4654: 4106: 3842: 3779: 3717:International Phonetic Association 2015 3600: 3464: 3415: 3334: 3321: 3275: 3110:consonants are articulated through the 1811: 523: 444: 397: 367: 314: 303: 266: 208: 155: 144: 118: 103: 6248:(5th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. 5858:Jones, W. E.; Laver, J., eds. (1973). 5688:Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 5469:Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 4870: 4843: 4831: 4771: 4759: 4747: 4735: 4723: 4711: 4606: 4594: 3588: 3503:Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume I 3317: 5747:. International Phonetic Association. 5281:Chomsky, Noam; Halle, Morris (1968). 5262:A Practical Introduction to Phonetics 5114:. Edinburgh: Chicago, Aldine Pub. Co. 4969: 4386: 4326: 4082: 3989: 3540: 3505:. Motilal Banarasidass. p. 222. 2896:but greater units of speech, such as 1089:Modern phonetics has three branches: 27:Study of the sounds of human language 7: 6598:"A Little Encyclopedia of Phonetics" 6557:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 130. 6102:A Critical Introduction to Phonetics 4859:Galantucci, Fowler & Turvey 2006 4819: 3767: 2623:. During the click, the air becomes 1404:if using the top of the tongue tip, 859:Conservative and innovative language 73:move details into the article's body 6594:by the University of North Carolina 6512:(3rd ed.). New York: Longman. 6036:The Sounds of the World's Languages 5907:The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology 5249:Caffrey, Cait (2017). "Phonetics". 4808:Schacter, Gilbert & Wegner 2011 3292:Jaeger, Furth & Hilliard (2012) 5645:. London: Oxford University Press. 5417:The Phonetics of the Zulu Language 4883:Skipper, Devlin & Lametti 2017 4134:Munhall, Ostry & Flanagan 1991 3206:Unlike spoken languages, words in 3159:that occur in a language, whether 2996:Acoustic phonetics deals with the 25: 6592:Collection of phonetics resources 5831:(3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 5719:(2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 5717:The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences 5586:(2nd ed.). pp. 378–424. 5584:The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences 5502:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 5299:The Handbook of Speech Perception 5148:The Linguistics of Sign Languages 4643:Seikel, Drumright & King 2016 4631:Seikel, Drumright & King 2016 4619:Seikel, Drumright & King 2016 4068:Seikel, Drumright & King 2016 3288:Motley, Camden & Baars (1982) 3249:Motor theory of speech perception 3000:properties of speech sounds. The 2384: 2368: 2348: 2335: 2319: 2297: 2277: 2257: 2241: 2228: 2212: 2199: 2183: 2163: 2147: 2134: 2121: 2105: 2085: 2069: 2056: 2040: 2027: 2011: 1991: 1969: 1953: 1933: 1917: 1904: 1888: 1875: 1859: 1700:software for linguistic analysis 6579: 6284:. Oxford University Press. 2018. 6282:Oxford English Dictionary Online 6123:(2nd ed.). pp. 353–78. 2697: 2409: 2376: 2356: 2327: 2285: 2249: 2220: 2191: 2155: 2113: 2077: 2048: 2019: 1983: 1961: 1925: 1896: 1867: 1851: 1711: 1156:Om! We will explain the Shiksha. 939: 49: 6373:. In Charles Linsmeiser (ed.). 5829:Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics 5804:(2nd ed.). Blackwell Pub. 5802:Acoustic and auditory phonetics 5745:International Phonetic Alphabet 5301:. Blackwell. pp. 264–289. 3347: 3235:) or weak drop (an instance of 3169:International Phonetic Alphabet 3076:International Phonetic Alphabet 2640:Pulmonary and subglottal system 2628:language families, such as the 1199:International Phonetic Alphabet 1191:oral education of deaf children 1148:, which the 1st-millennium BCE 6415:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-17B1-A 6076:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-3E7A-A 5909:. Cambridge University Press. 5545:Journal of Memory and Language 5396:Journal of Memory and Language 5024:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4946:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4568:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4556:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4532:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4520:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4508:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4481:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4469:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4440:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4399:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4375:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4363:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4351:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4315:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4044:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4032:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4020:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 4005:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3978:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3942:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3930:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3918:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3906:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3894:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3879:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3867:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3855:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3831:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3819:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3807:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3792:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3756:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3741:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3729:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3700:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3664:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3628:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996 3526:Oxford English Dictionary 2018 2793:; for further information see 1330:articulations are made in the 1: 6406:10.1016/s0926-6410(03)00204-0 6291:"Practical Phonetic Training" 6218:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30346-8 6197:10.1016/S0022-5371(82)90791-5 6175:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30372-9 6121:Handbook of Phonetic Sciences 6055:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5738:. Cambridge University Press. 5408:10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90202-4 5176:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5110:Elements of General Phonetics 4958:Gussenhoven & Jacobs 2017 3435:Lynch, Matthew (2021-04-07). 3400:Sign language#Sign perception 3155:is a system for transcribing 2952:Theories of speech perception 2603:glottalic airstream mechanism 1600:A top-down view of the larynx 1133: 445:Theories of speech perception 6156:Mattingly, Ignatius (1990). 5862:. Longman. pp. 180–186. 5681:. de Gruyter. pp. 1–40. 5371:10.1016/0010-0277(92)90046-k 4544:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011 4496:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011 4457:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011 4428:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011 4416:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011 3098:(out of the vocal tract) or 799:Functional discourse grammar 665:Ethnography of communication 6488:10.1016/j.bandl.2016.10.004 6265:"Aerodynamics of phonology" 6229:. Pelican. pp. 16–17. 6019:(6th ed.). Wadsworth. 5605:10.1037/0278-7393.22.5.1166 4299:Gobl & Ní Chasaide 2010 4272:Gobl & Ní Chasaide 2010 4260:Gobl & Ní Chasaide 2010 4248:Gobl & Ní Chasaide 2010 4236:Gordon & Ladefoged 2001 4185:Saltzman & Munhall 1989 2593:are single, rapid, usually 1752:Voicing and phonation types 1618:intrinsic laryngeal muscles 1527:the tongue can reach them. 919:Second-language acquisition 6650: 6370:"Sensation and Perception" 6327:10.1207/s15326969eco0104_2 5679:Distinctive Feature Theory 5307:10.1002/9780470757024.ch11 5165:Baumbach, E. J. M (1987). 3577:Dell & O'Seaghdha 1992 3368:There are languages, like 3337:for the original proposal. 3145: 3029: 3015: 2989: 2885: 2795:Neuronal encoding of sound 2788: 2746: 2687: 2643: 2528: 1589: 1562:, produced by closing the 1277: 1260:Articulatory specification 1218: 597:Syntax–semantics interface 40:Phonetics (disambiguation) 29: 6454:(5th ed.). Cengage. 6244:O'Grady, William (2005). 6067:10.1017/s0140525x99001776 6015:; Johnson, Keith (2011). 5987:Ladefoged, Peter (2005). 5962:Ladefoged, Peter (2001). 5641:Guthrie, Malcolm (1948). 5557:10.1016/j.jml.2007.01.007 5438:10.1017/S0025100308003563 5188:10.1017/S0140525X00072538 5167:Analytical Tsonga Grammar 3954:Keating & Lahiri 1993 2310: 2174: 2002: 1845: 1838: 1833: 1828: 909:Philosophy of linguistics 809:Interactional linguistics 6394:Cognitive Brain Research 6348:Scatton, Ernest (1984). 5993:(5th ed.). Boston: 5968:(4th ed.). Boston: 5860:Phonetics in Linguistics 5848:Zeitschrift für Phonetik 5415:Doke, Clement M (1926). 5283:Sound Pattern of English 5251:Salem Press Encyclopedia 5106:Abercrombie, D. (1967). 4339:Chomsky & Halle 1968 4287:Dawson & Phelan 2016 4095:Chomsky & Halle 1968 2906:auditory characteristics 1522:Pharyngeal and laryngeal 1477:post-alveolar consonants 1026:Australian Sign Language 432:Neural encoding of sound 6634:Linguistics terminology 6629:Branches of linguistics 6534:. Abingdon: Routledge. 6225:O'Connor, J.D. (1973). 6141:Maddieson, Ian (2013). 5827:Johnson, Keith (2011). 5800:Johnson, Keith (2003). 5652:Understanding phonology 5258:Catford, J. C. (2001). 5119:Altmann, Gerry (2002). 3284:Dell & Reich (1981) 3188:Hamburg Notation System 2872:spatiotemporal patterns 1354:Linguolabial consonants 1183:Alexander Melville Bell 210:Manners of articulation 6549:Yost, William (2003). 6431:Sedivy, Julie (2019). 5634:10.1006/jpho.2001.0147 5222:Boersma, Paul (1998). 3501:Deussen, Paul (1980). 3305:Gleitman et al. (2007) 3259:Articulatory phonology 3153:Phonetic transcription 3148:Phonetic transcription 3068:manner of articulation 3018:Articulatory phonetics 3012:Articulatory phonetics 2819: 2531:Manner of articulation 2525:Manner of articulation 1737:manner of articulation 1731: 1725:The accompanying audio 1601: 1414:manner of articulation 1369:Labiodental consonants 1094:Articulatory phonetics 1030:American Sign Language 1021:communicative modality 998:articulatory phonetics 746:Theoretical frameworks 700:Philosophy of language 680:History of linguistics 422:Categorical perception 157:Places of articulation 38:. For other uses, see 6315:Ecological Psychology 6289:Roach, Peter (2015). 6038:. Oxford: Blackwell. 6017:A Course in Phonetics 5990:A Course in Phonetics 5965:A Course in Phonetics 5481:10.1044/jshr.0403.233 5290:Cutler, Anne (2005). 5123:. London: Routledge. 3064:Place of articulation 2888:Prosody (linguistics) 2817: 2779:perceptual invariance 2644:Further information: 1763:fundamental frequency 1695: 1599: 1590:Further information: 1544:Epiglottal consonants 1536:Pharyngeal consonants 1280:Place of articulation 1274:Place of articulation 640:Conversation analysis 330:Fundamental frequency 6588:at Wikimedia Commons 6377:. Worth Publishers. 6263:Ohala, John (1997). 6206:Journal of Phonetics 6162:Journal of Phonetics 5622:Journal of Phonetics 3881:, pp. 25, 27–8. 3833:, pp. 20, 40–1. 3645:home.cc.umanitoba.ca 3383:#Articulatory models 2684:Source–filter theory 2511:advanced tongue root 1643:atmospheric pressure 1614:arytenoid cartilages 1518:(including nasals). 1461:Retroflex consonants 1418:Australian languages 1345:labial articulations 1152:defines as follows: 1150:Taittiriya Upanishad 884:Internet linguistics 794:Construction grammar 350:Source–filter theory 268:Airstream mechanisms 6508:World Civilizations 6143:"Uvular Consonants" 6100:Lodge, Ken (2009). 5928:. Oxford: Pergamon. 4097:, pp. 300–301. 3641:"IPA: Labiodentals" 3320:, p. 411) and 2904:. Prosody includes 2839:which contains the 2690:Source–filter model 2674:respiratory muscles 2611:implosive consonant 1658:Articulatory models 1639:respiratory muscles 1466:Dravidian languages 1431:Alveolar consonants 1349:Bilabial consonants 1221:Language production 1137: 350 BCE 819:Systemic functional 614:Applied linguistics 556:General linguistics 6475:Brain and Language 5700:10.1007/BF00210377 5514:10.3758/BF03193857 5055:, p. 229-235. 5038:, p. 242-244. 4645:, pp. 168–77. 4570:, p. 246-247. 4534:, p. 230-231. 4377:, p. 292-295. 4262:, p. 400-401. 3491:, pp. 2922–3. 3032:Auditory phonetics 3026:Auditory phonetics 2992:Acoustic phonetics 2986:Acoustic phonetics 2820: 2736:acoustic resonance 2709:. You can help by 2607:ejective consonant 1732: 1665:muscular hydrostat 1602: 1489:Palatal consonants 1106:Auditory phonetics 1100:Acoustic phonetics 1006:auditory phonetics 1002:acoustic phonetics 924:Theory of language 894:Origin of language 849:Autonomy of syntax 804:Grammaticalization 650:Discourse analysis 645:Corpus linguistics 476:Linguistics portal 453:Acoustic landmarks 113:Linguistics Series 6584:Media related to 6564:978-0-471-39262-0 6541:978-0-415-11261-1 6519:978-0-321-04479-2 6461:978-1-285-19824-8 6384:978-1-4292-3719-2 6280:"Phonetics, n.". 6255:978-0-312-41936-3 6111:978-0-8264-8873-2 6045:978-0-631-19815-4 6004:978-1-413-00688-9 5995:Thomson/Wadsworth 5979:978-1-413-00688-9 5970:Thomson/Wadsworth 5916:978-0-521-84879-4 5882:10.1159/000261928 5838:978-1-444-34308-3 5792:978-0-262-60001-9 5726:978-1-405-14590-9 5349:978-0-8142-5270-3 5316:978-0-631-22927-8 5285:. Harper and Row. 5273:978-0-19-924635-9 5214:978-0-415-26701-4 5157:978-90-272-1230-6 5089:Baker et al. 2016 5077:Baker et al. 2016 5065:Baker et al. 2016 5053:Baker et al. 2016 5036:Baker et al. 2016 4774:, p. 274–85. 4714:, p. 259–60. 4211:, pp. 362–4. 4161:Bizzi et al. 1992 3944:, pp. 33–34. 3821:, pp. 19–25. 3794:, pp. 19–31. 3743:, pp. 17–18. 3702:, pp. 16–17. 3396:language modality 3225:peripheral vision 3049:Describing sounds 2975:episodic memories 2938:stress in English 2864:action potentials 2849:Fourier transform 2815: 2749:Speech perception 2727: 2726: 2621:velaric airstream 2515:pharyngealization 2444: 2443: 2395: 2394: 1720: 1511:Uvular consonants 1422:Dental consonants 979: 978: 767:Distributionalism 710:Psycholinguistics 510: 509: 470: 469: 393: 392: 299: 298: 90: 89: 69:length guidelines 16:(Redirected from 6641: 6583: 6568: 6545: 6523: 6511: 6500: 6490: 6465: 6446: 6427: 6417: 6388: 6372: 6363: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6335: 6329:. Archived from 6312: 6302: 6300: 6298: 6285: 6276: 6259: 6240: 6221: 6212:(3–4): 293–307. 6200: 6179: 6177: 6152: 6137: 6124: 6115: 6096: 6078: 6049: 6030: 6026:978-1-42823126-9 6013:Ladefoged, Peter 6008: 5983: 5958: 5929: 5920: 5901: 5863: 5855: 5842: 5823: 5796: 5777: 5766:10.1037/a0027862 5760:(5): 1439–1449. 5748: 5739: 5730: 5711: 5682: 5673: 5646: 5637: 5616: 5587: 5578: 5568: 5535: 5525: 5492: 5463: 5449: 5420: 5411: 5390: 5365:(1–3): 287–314. 5353: 5334: 5332: 5331: 5296: 5292:"Lexical Stress" 5286: 5277: 5265: 5254: 5245: 5218: 5199: 5170: 5161: 5142: 5115: 5113: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5039: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5015: 5009: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4973: 4967: 4961: 4960:, p. 26-27. 4955: 4949: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4925: 4924:, p. 46-49. 4919: 4913: 4907: 4901: 4895: 4886: 4880: 4874: 4873:, p. 292–3. 4868: 4862: 4856: 4847: 4841: 4835: 4829: 4823: 4817: 4811: 4810:, p. 158–9. 4805: 4799: 4793: 4787: 4781: 4775: 4769: 4763: 4757: 4751: 4745: 4739: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4676:, p. 104–5. 4671: 4665: 4664: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4580: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4523: 4517: 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4484: 4478: 4472: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4443: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4419: 4413: 4402: 4396: 4390: 4384: 4378: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4318: 4312: 4306: 4301:, pp. 388, 4296: 4290: 4284: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4239: 4233: 4224: 4218: 4212: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4188: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4164: 4158: 4152: 4146: 4140: 4131: 4125: 4119: 4110: 4104: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4008: 4002: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3951: 3945: 3939: 3933: 3927: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3908:, pp. 27–8. 3903: 3897: 3891: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3869:, pp. 23–5. 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3795: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3753: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3651: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3498: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3447: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3403: 3392: 3386: 3379: 3373: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3351: 3344: 3338: 3331: 3325: 3314: 3308: 3301: 3295: 3280: 3181:speech pathology 2841:basilar membrane 2816: 2722: 2719: 2701: 2694: 2437: 2413: 2389: 2388: 2380: 2379: 2373: 2372: 2360: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2340: 2339: 2331: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2302: 2301: 2289: 2288: 2282: 2281: 2262: 2261: 2253: 2252: 2246: 2245: 2233: 2232: 2224: 2223: 2217: 2216: 2204: 2203: 2195: 2194: 2188: 2187: 2168: 2167: 2159: 2158: 2152: 2151: 2139: 2138: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2116: 2110: 2109: 2090: 2089: 2081: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2061: 2060: 2052: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2032: 2031: 2023: 2022: 2016: 2015: 1996: 1995: 1987: 1986: 1974: 1973: 1965: 1964: 1958: 1957: 1938: 1937: 1929: 1928: 1922: 1921: 1909: 1908: 1900: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1880: 1879: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1863: 1855: 1854: 1824: 1809: 1722: 1721: 1608:responsible for 1576:laryngealization 1498:Velar consonants 1251:Message planning 1138: 1135: 971: 964: 957: 943: 889:LGBT linguistics 879:Internationalism 854:Compositionality 715:Sociolinguistics 690:Neurolinguistics 685:Interlinguistics 670:Ethnomethodology 512: 502: 495: 488: 406: 312: 153: 92: 85: 82: 76: 67:Please read the 53: 52: 45: 21: 6649: 6648: 6644: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6614: 6613: 6576: 6571: 6565: 6548: 6542: 6526: 6520: 6503: 6468: 6462: 6449: 6443: 6430: 6391: 6385: 6366: 6360: 6347: 6339: 6337: 6333: 6310: 6305: 6296: 6294: 6288: 6279: 6262: 6256: 6243: 6237: 6224: 6203: 6182: 6155: 6140: 6127: 6118: 6112: 6099: 6052: 6046: 6033: 6027: 6011: 6005: 5986: 5980: 5961: 5932: 5923: 5917: 5904: 5867: 5857: 5854:(3/4): 127–135. 5845: 5839: 5826: 5812: 5799: 5793: 5780: 5751: 5742: 5733: 5727: 5714: 5685: 5676: 5662: 5649: 5640: 5619: 5590: 5581: 5538: 5495: 5466: 5452: 5423: 5414: 5393: 5356: 5350: 5337: 5329: 5327: 5317: 5294: 5289: 5280: 5274: 5257: 5248: 5234: 5221: 5215: 5202: 5173: 5164: 5158: 5145: 5131: 5118: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5095: 5087: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5063: 5059: 5051: 5042: 5034: 5030: 5022: 5018: 5010: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4983: 4976: 4968: 4964: 4956: 4952: 4944: 4940: 4932: 4928: 4920: 4916: 4908: 4904: 4896: 4889: 4881: 4877: 4869: 4865: 4857: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4830: 4826: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4794: 4790: 4786:, p. 46–7. 4782: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4758: 4754: 4746: 4742: 4734: 4730: 4722: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4696: 4691: 4687: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4658: 4657:, p. 83–5. 4653: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4617: 4613: 4605: 4601: 4593: 4589: 4581: 4574: 4566: 4562: 4554: 4550: 4542: 4538: 4530: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4494: 4487: 4479: 4475: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4446: 4438: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4414: 4405: 4397: 4393: 4385: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4313: 4309: 4297: 4293: 4285: 4278: 4270: 4266: 4258: 4254: 4246: 4242: 4234: 4227: 4219: 4215: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4191: 4183: 4179: 4171: 4167: 4159: 4155: 4147: 4143: 4136:, p. 299, 4132: 4128: 4120: 4113: 4105: 4101: 4093: 4089: 4081: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4054: 4050: 4042: 4038: 4030: 4026: 4018: 4011: 4003: 3996: 3988: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3960: 3952: 3948: 3940: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3916: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3892: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3798: 3790: 3786: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3754: 3747: 3739: 3735: 3727: 3723: 3715: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3686: 3682: 3674: 3670: 3662: 3658: 3649: 3647: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3626: 3622: 3614: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3500: 3499: 3495: 3487: 3483: 3479:, p. 2918. 3475: 3471: 3463: 3454: 3445: 3443: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3406: 3393: 3389: 3380: 3376: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3345: 3341: 3332: 3328: 3315: 3311: 3302: 3298: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3267: 3254:Exemplar theory 3245: 3204: 3150: 3144: 3124:cardinal vowels 3051: 3034: 3028: 3020: 3014: 2994: 2988: 2983: 2954: 2946:stress in Welsh 2936:— for example, 2890: 2884: 2799: 2797: 2787: 2751: 2745: 2732:acoustic filter 2723: 2717: 2714: 2707:needs expansion 2692: 2686: 2670: 2648: 2642: 2533: 2527: 2435: 2434:unrounded 2430: 2400: 2391: 2390: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2374: 2367: 2362: 2361: 2357: 2354: 2347: 2342: 2341: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2325: 2318: 2304: 2303: 2296: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2276: 2264: 2263: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2247: 2240: 2235: 2234: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2211: 2206: 2205: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2189: 2182: 2170: 2169: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2146: 2141: 2140: 2133: 2128: 2127: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2111: 2104: 2092: 2091: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2068: 2063: 2062: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2046: 2039: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2010: 1998: 1997: 1990: 1988: 1984: 1976: 1975: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1952: 1940: 1939: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1923: 1916: 1911: 1910: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1887: 1882: 1881: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1858: 1852: 1807: 1754: 1730: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1712: 1709: 1690: 1673:inverse problem 1660: 1651: 1634: 1594: 1588: 1524: 1485: 1397: 1340: 1282: 1276: 1263:Muscle commands 1254:Lemma selection 1223: 1217: 1208:Peter Ladefoged 1204:cardinal vowels 1202:resulting in 9 1178: 1162: 1158: 1136: 1122: 1115: 1034:tactile signing 984:is a branch of 975: 934: 933: 844: 836: 835: 747: 739: 738: 734:Writing systems 625:Anthropological 615: 607: 606: 557: 549: 506: 458:Exemplar theory 368:Phonation types 86: 80: 77: 66: 63:may be too long 58:This article's 54: 50: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6647: 6645: 6637: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6616: 6615: 6612: 6611: 6605: 6595: 6589: 6575: 6574:External links 6572: 6570: 6569: 6563: 6546: 6540: 6524: 6518: 6501: 6466: 6460: 6447: 6442:978-1605357058 6441: 6428: 6400:(3): 819–831. 6389: 6383: 6364: 6359:978-0893571238 6358: 6345: 6303: 6286: 6277: 6260: 6254: 6241: 6236:978-0140215601 6235: 6222: 6201: 6191:(5): 578–594. 6180: 6153: 6138: 6125: 6116: 6110: 6097: 6050: 6044: 6031: 6025: 6009: 6003: 5984: 5978: 5959: 5947:10.2307/410966 5930: 5921: 5915: 5902: 5865: 5856:(Reprinted in 5843: 5837: 5824: 5810: 5797: 5791: 5778: 5749: 5740: 5731: 5725: 5712: 5683: 5674: 5660: 5647: 5638: 5628:(4): 383–406. 5617: 5599:(5): 1166–83. 5588: 5579: 5551:(4): 544–569. 5536: 5508:(3): 361–377. 5493: 5464: 5450: 5432:(3): 235–324. 5421: 5412: 5402:(6): 611–629. 5391: 5354: 5348: 5335: 5315: 5287: 5278: 5272: 5255: 5253:. Salem Press. 5246: 5232: 5219: 5213: 5200: 5171: 5162: 5156: 5143: 5130:978-0415229906 5129: 5116: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5091:, p. 239. 5081: 5079:, p. 286. 5069: 5067:, p. 236. 5057: 5040: 5028: 5016: 5012:Ladefoged 2005 5001: 4989: 4974: 4962: 4950: 4948:, p. 281. 4938: 4926: 4914: 4902: 4898:Goldinger 1996 4887: 4875: 4863: 4848: 4846:, p. 289. 4836: 4824: 4822:, p. 130. 4812: 4800: 4788: 4776: 4764: 4762:, p. 260. 4752: 4750:, p. 259. 4740: 4738:, p. 273. 4728: 4726:, p. 269. 4716: 4704: 4695:, p. 157. 4685: 4666: 4647: 4635: 4633:, p. 171. 4623: 4621:, p. 176. 4611: 4599: 4597:, p. 237. 4587: 4583:Ladefoged 2001 4572: 4560: 4548: 4546:, p. 137. 4536: 4524: 4522:, p. 218. 4512: 4510:, p. 217. 4500: 4498:, p. 175. 4485: 4483:, p. 182. 4473: 4471:, p. 102. 4461: 4444: 4442:, p. 145. 4432: 4420: 4403: 4401:, p. 298. 4391: 4379: 4367: 4365:, p. 290. 4355: 4353:, p. 289. 4343: 4331: 4319: 4317:, p. 282. 4307: 4291: 4276: 4274:, p. 401. 4264: 4252: 4250:, p. 399. 4240: 4225: 4223:, p. 364. 4213: 4201: 4197:Mattingly 1990 4189: 4177: 4175:, p. 361. 4165: 4153: 4151:, p. 360. 4141: 4126: 4124:, p. 359. 4111: 4099: 4087: 4072: 4070:, p. 222. 4060: 4058:, p. 123. 4056:Ladefoged 2001 4048: 4036: 4024: 4009: 3994: 3982: 3970: 3966:Maddieson 2013 3958: 3946: 3934: 3922: 3910: 3898: 3883: 3871: 3859: 3847: 3835: 3823: 3811: 3796: 3784: 3772: 3760: 3745: 3733: 3721: 3704: 3692: 3680: 3676:Maddieson 1993 3668: 3656: 3632: 3620: 3616:Ladefoged 2001 3605: 3593: 3591:, p. 439. 3581: 3569: 3565:Ladefoged 1960 3557: 3555:, p. 388. 3553:Ladefoged 1960 3545: 3530: 3518: 3512:978-8120814684 3511: 3493: 3481: 3469: 3452: 3427: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3387: 3374: 3361: 3352: 3339: 3335:Feldman (1966) 3326: 3309: 3296: 3274: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3244: 3241: 3208:sign languages 3203: 3202:Sign languages 3200: 3146:Main article: 3143: 3140: 3050: 3047: 3030:Main article: 3027: 3024: 3016:Main article: 3013: 3010: 2990:Main article: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2981:Subdisciplines 2979: 2971:exemplar model 2953: 2950: 2886:Main article: 2883: 2880: 2868:auditory nerve 2860:depolarization 2837:organ of Corti 2789:Main article: 2786: 2783: 2775:coarticulation 2747:Main article: 2744: 2741: 2725: 2724: 2704: 2702: 2688:Main article: 2685: 2682: 2668: 2662:vital capacity 2657:paralinguistic 2641: 2638: 2529:Main article: 2526: 2523: 2442: 2441: 2429: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2407: 2401: 2397: 2396: 2393: 2392: 2382: 2375: 2366: 2365: 2363: 2355: 2346: 2345: 2343: 2333: 2326: 2317: 2316: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2305: 2295: 2294: 2292: 2284: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2255: 2248: 2239: 2238: 2236: 2226: 2219: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2197: 2190: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2161: 2154: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2132: 2131: 2129: 2119: 2112: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2083: 2076: 2067: 2066: 2064: 2054: 2047: 2038: 2037: 2035: 2025: 2018: 2009: 2008: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1989: 1982: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1967: 1960: 1951: 1950: 1948: 1942: 1941: 1931: 1924: 1915: 1914: 1912: 1902: 1895: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1873: 1866: 1857: 1856: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1820: 1819: 1806: 1803: 1793:, to contrast 1791:Jalapa Mazatec 1753: 1750: 1724: 1710: 1705: 1704: 1703: 1702: 1701: 1689: 1686: 1659: 1656: 1650: 1649:Lexical access 1647: 1632: 1587: 1584: 1572:Huatla Mazatec 1523: 1520: 1506:coarticulation 1484: 1481: 1468:, and in some 1427:allophonically 1396: 1393: 1339: 1336: 1278:Main article: 1275: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1219:Main article: 1216: 1213: 1187:visible speech 1177: 1174: 1121: 1118: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1109: 1103: 1097: 990:sign languages 977: 976: 974: 973: 966: 959: 951: 948: 947: 936: 935: 932: 931: 926: 921: 916: 914:Prescriptivism 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 845: 842: 841: 838: 837: 834: 833: 828: 827: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 781: 780: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 748: 745: 744: 741: 740: 737: 736: 731: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 616: 613: 612: 609: 608: 605: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 558: 555: 554: 551: 550: 548: 547: 542: 537: 531: 528: 527: 521: 520: 508: 507: 505: 504: 497: 490: 482: 479: 478: 472: 471: 468: 467: 466: 465: 460: 455: 447: 446: 442: 441: 440: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 402: 401: 395: 394: 391: 390: 389: 388: 383: 378: 370: 369: 365: 364: 363: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 324: 323: 308: 307: 301: 300: 297: 296: 295: 294: 289: 284: 279: 271: 270: 264: 263: 262: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 213: 212: 206: 205: 204: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 160: 159: 149: 148: 142: 141: 140: 139: 134: 129: 121: 120: 119:Subdisciplines 116: 115: 108: 107: 101: 100: 88: 87: 57: 55: 48: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6646: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6619: 6609: 6608:Pink Trombone 6606: 6603: 6599: 6596: 6593: 6590: 6587: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6573: 6566: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6547: 6543: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6515: 6510: 6509: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6467: 6463: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6434: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6390: 6386: 6380: 6376: 6371: 6365: 6361: 6355: 6351: 6346: 6336:on 2020-10-28 6332: 6328: 6324: 6321:(4): 333–82. 6320: 6316: 6309: 6304: 6293:. Peter Roach 6292: 6287: 6283: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6261: 6257: 6251: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6232: 6228: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6168:(3): 445–52. 6167: 6163: 6159: 6154: 6150: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6126: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6041: 6037: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5991: 5985: 5981: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5966: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5941:(3): 387–96. 5940: 5936: 5931: 5927: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5876:(2): 73–101. 5875: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5853: 5849: 5844: 5840: 5834: 5830: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5803: 5798: 5794: 5788: 5785:. MIT Press. 5784: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5750: 5746: 5741: 5737: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5694:(1): 91–105. 5693: 5689: 5684: 5680: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5661:9781138961418 5657: 5653: 5648: 5644: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5589: 5585: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5475:(3): 233–47. 5474: 5470: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5341: 5336: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5293: 5288: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5269: 5264: 5263: 5256: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5182:(4): 603–13. 5181: 5177: 5172: 5168: 5163: 5159: 5153: 5149: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5111: 5104: 5103: 5098: 5090: 5085: 5082: 5078: 5073: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5032: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4993: 4990: 4987:, p. 17. 4986: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4972:, p. 38. 4971: 4966: 4963: 4959: 4954: 4951: 4947: 4942: 4939: 4936:, p. 53. 4935: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4915: 4911: 4906: 4903: 4899: 4894: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4855: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4825: 4821: 4816: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4801: 4798:, p. 47. 4797: 4792: 4789: 4785: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4729: 4725: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4705: 4700: 4694: 4689: 4686: 4681: 4675: 4670: 4667: 4662: 4656: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4624: 4620: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4564: 4561: 4558:, p. 78. 4557: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4525: 4521: 4516: 4513: 4509: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4462: 4459:, p. 15. 4458: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4436: 4433: 4430:, p. 67. 4429: 4424: 4421: 4418:, p. 14. 4417: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4392: 4389:, p. 40. 4388: 4383: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4344: 4340: 4335: 4332: 4329:, p. 39. 4328: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4221:Löfqvist 2010 4217: 4214: 4210: 4209:Löfqvist 2010 4205: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4173:Löfqvist 2010 4169: 4166: 4162: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4149:Löfqvist 2010 4145: 4142: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4127: 4123: 4122:Löfqvist 2010 4118: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4088: 4084: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4049: 4046:, p. 75. 4045: 4040: 4037: 4034:, p. 74. 4033: 4028: 4025: 4022:, p. 38. 4021: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4007:, p. 37. 4006: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3992:, p. 33. 3991: 3986: 3983: 3980:, p. 11. 3979: 3974: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3959: 3956:, p. 89. 3955: 3950: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3935: 3932:, p. 35. 3931: 3926: 3923: 3920:, p. 32. 3919: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3899: 3896:, p. 27. 3895: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3863: 3860: 3857:, p. 23. 3856: 3851: 3848: 3845:, p. 60. 3844: 3839: 3836: 3832: 3827: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3812: 3809:, p. 28. 3808: 3803: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3788: 3785: 3782:, p. 61. 3781: 3776: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3761: 3758:, p. 17. 3757: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3734: 3731:, p. 18. 3730: 3725: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3688:Fujimura 1961 3684: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3669: 3666:, p. 16. 3665: 3660: 3657: 3646: 3642: 3636: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3519: 3514: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3494: 3490: 3489:Kiparsky 1993 3485: 3482: 3478: 3477:Kiparsky 1993 3473: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3453: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3428: 3425:, p. 15. 3424: 3419: 3416: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3356: 3353: 3349: 3343: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3324:, p. 11) 3323: 3322:Boersma (1998 3319: 3316:adapted from 3313: 3310: 3306: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3276: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3192:Stokoe system 3189: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3142:Transcription 3141: 3139: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3040: 3033: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2972: 2966: 2963: 2959: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2930:pitch accents 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2889: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2796: 2792: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2769: 2768:McGurk effect 2765: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2733: 2721: 2718:February 2020 2712: 2708: 2705:This section 2703: 2700: 2696: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2675: 2665: 2663: 2658: 2655:use them for 2654: 2647: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2599: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2570: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2450: 2440: 2439: 2438: rounded 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2402: 2399: 2398: 2387: 2371: 2364: 2351: 2344: 2338: 2322: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2300: 2293: 2280: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2260: 2244: 2237: 2231: 2215: 2208: 2202: 2186: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2166: 2150: 2143: 2137: 2130: 2124: 2108: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2088: 2072: 2065: 2059: 2043: 2036: 2030: 2014: 2007: 2005: 2001: 1994: 1980: 1978: 1972: 1956: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1936: 1920: 1913: 1907: 1891: 1884: 1878: 1862: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1804: 1802: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1786: 1782: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1758: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1708: 1699: 1694: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1668: 1666: 1657: 1655: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1626: 1624: 1623:voicelessness 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1598: 1593: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1560:Glottal stops 1555: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1528: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1419: 1416:is attested. 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1394: 1392: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1346: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1287: 1281: 1273: 1269:Speech sounds 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1228:lexical items 1222: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1205: 1200: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1175: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1146: 1140: 1131: 1127: 1119: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1084:McGurk effect 1081: 1077: 1073: 1067: 1064: 1060: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1046:lexical items 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1028:(Auslan) and 1027: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 972: 967: 965: 960: 958: 953: 952: 950: 949: 946: 942: 938: 937: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 870: 867: 865: 864:Descriptivism 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 846: 840: 839: 832: 831:Structuralism 829: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 814:Prague circle 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 786: 785: 782: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 754: 753: 750: 749: 743: 742: 735: 732: 730: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 660:Documentation 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 635:Computational 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 617: 611: 610: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 559: 553: 552: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 533: 532: 530: 529: 526: 522: 518: 514: 513: 503: 498: 496: 491: 489: 484: 483: 481: 480: 477: 474: 473: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 450: 449: 448: 443: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 412:Acoustic cues 410: 409: 408: 407: 404: 403: 400: 396: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 373: 372: 371: 366: 361: 360:Voicelessness 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 327: 326: 325: 321: 317: 313: 310: 309: 306: 302: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 274: 273: 272: 269: 265: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 216: 215: 214: 211: 207: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 163: 162: 161: 158: 154: 151: 150: 147: 143: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 124: 123: 122: 117: 114: 110: 109: 106: 102: 98: 94: 93: 84: 81:December 2023 74: 70: 64: 62: 56: 47: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6554: 6531: 6507: 6478: 6474: 6451: 6432: 6397: 6393: 6374: 6349: 6338:. Retrieved 6331:the original 6318: 6314: 6295:. Retrieved 6281: 6272: 6268: 6245: 6226: 6209: 6205: 6188: 6184: 6165: 6161: 6147: 6133: 6129: 6120: 6101: 6058: 6054: 6035: 6016: 5989: 5964: 5938: 5934: 5925: 5906: 5873: 5869: 5859: 5851: 5847: 5828: 5801: 5782: 5757: 5753: 5744: 5735: 5716: 5691: 5687: 5678: 5651: 5642: 5625: 5621: 5596: 5592: 5583: 5548: 5544: 5505: 5501: 5472: 5468: 5459: 5455: 5429: 5425: 5416: 5399: 5395: 5362: 5358: 5339: 5328:. Retrieved 5298: 5282: 5261: 5250: 5223: 5204: 5179: 5175: 5166: 5147: 5120: 5109: 5084: 5072: 5060: 5031: 5019: 4992: 4985:O'Grady 2005 4965: 4953: 4941: 4934:Johnson 2003 4929: 4922:Johnson 2003 4917: 4912:, p. 1. 4910:Johnson 2003 4905: 4878: 4866: 4839: 4827: 4815: 4803: 4796:Johnson 2003 4791: 4784:Johnson 2003 4779: 4767: 4755: 4743: 4731: 4719: 4707: 4693:Johnson 2008 4688: 4674:Johnson 2008 4669: 4655:Johnson 2008 4650: 4638: 4626: 4614: 4602: 4590: 4585:, p. 1. 4563: 4551: 4539: 4527: 4515: 4503: 4476: 4464: 4435: 4423: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4346: 4334: 4322: 4310: 4302: 4294: 4267: 4255: 4243: 4216: 4204: 4192: 4180: 4168: 4156: 4144: 4137: 4129: 4107:Altmann 2002 4102: 4090: 4085:, p. 1. 4063: 4051: 4039: 4027: 3985: 3973: 3961: 3949: 3937: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3874: 3862: 3850: 3843:Scatton 1984 3838: 3826: 3814: 3787: 3780:Guthrie 1948 3775: 3763: 3736: 3724: 3695: 3683: 3671: 3659: 3648:. Retrieved 3644: 3635: 3630:, p. 9. 3623: 3618:, p. 5. 3601:Boersma 1998 3596: 3584: 3572: 3560: 3548: 3521: 3502: 3496: 3484: 3472: 3465:Caffrey 2017 3444:. Retrieved 3441:The Edvocate 3440: 3430: 3423:O'Grady 2005 3418: 3390: 3377: 3364: 3355: 3342: 3329: 3318:Sedivy (2019 3312: 3299: 3278: 3233:assimilation 3229: 3205: 3185: 3151: 3128:monophthongs 3116: 3081: 3052: 3043: 3035: 3021: 2995: 2967: 2961: 2958:motor theory 2955: 2891: 2853: 2821: 2778: 2772: 2752: 2728: 2715: 2711:adding to it 2706: 2678: 2666: 2649: 2615: 2600: 2585: 2578: 2571: 2564: 2558: 2548: 2538: 2534: 2488: 2484: 2472: 2457: 2453: 2445: 2431: 1799: 1787: 1783: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1759: 1755: 1744: 1740: 1733: 1682: 1678: 1669: 1661: 1652: 1627: 1603: 1556: 1529: 1525: 1486: 1474: 1459: 1435: 1398: 1367: 1341: 1317: 1308: 1304: 1301:minimal pair 1296: 1292: 1290: 1283: 1266:Articulation 1240: 1224: 1195: 1179: 1170: 1168: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1143: 1141: 1123: 1116: 1088: 1068: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1042: 1018: 994:phoneticians 993: 981: 980: 777:Glossematics 757:Constituency 729:interpreting 704: 567:Lexicography 463:Motor theory 345:Pitch accent 181:Postalveolar 146:Articulation 132:Articulatory 111:Part of the 104: 78: 61:lead section 59: 6602:Peter Roach 6528:Trask, R.L. 6352:. Slavica. 5099:Works cited 4871:Sedivy 2019 4844:Sedivy 2019 4832:Cutler 2005 4772:Sedivy 2019 4760:Sedivy 2019 4748:Sedivy 2019 4736:Sedivy 2019 4724:Sedivy 2019 4712:Sedivy 2019 4607:Eklund 2008 4595:Eklund 2008 3589:Sedivy 2019 3348:#The larynx 3196:SignWriting 3117:Vowels are 3112:rarefaction 3084:vocal tract 2914:speech rate 2636:languages. 2567:approximant 1785:amplitude. 1779:vocal cords 1564:vocal folds 1516:continuants 1185:. Known as 986:linguistics 929:Terminology 904:Orthography 824:Usage-based 725:Translating 620:Acquisition 525:Linguistics 244:Approximant 6618:Categories 6551:"Audition" 6481:: 77–105. 6375:Psychology 6340:2018-08-23 6136:: 181–214. 6061:(1): 3–6. 5811:1405101229 5462:: 565–578. 5456:Biophysics 5330:2019-12-29 5233:9055690546 4970:Lodge 2009 4387:Lodge 2009 4327:Lodge 2009 4083:Ohala 1997 3990:Lodge 2009 3650:2023-02-06 3541:Roach 2015 3446:2023-02-06 3265:References 3100:ingressive 3056:Consonants 2934:intonation 2856:hair cells 2743:Perception 2550:Fricatives 2544:Affricates 2421:full chart 1946:Near-close 1586:The larynx 1532:epiglottis 1410:sub-apical 1373:fricatives 1286:consonants 1215:Production 899:Orismology 784:Functional 772:Generative 762:Dependency 582:Pragmatics 572:Morphology 562:Diachronic 399:Perception 292:Percussive 6624:Phonetics 6586:Phonetics 6227:Phonetics 6093:152230066 5870:Phonetica 5708:170466631 5670:958066102 5446:146616135 5359:Cognition 5325:749782145 4820:Yost 2003 3768:Doke 1926 3410:Citations 3177:idiolects 3134:. In the 3132:diphthong 3104:Glottalic 3096:egressive 3088:airstream 3002:sensation 2898:syllables 2876:brainstem 2845:tonotopic 2760:morphemes 2646:Breathing 2601:During a 2554:Sibilants 2519:stridency 2507:rhoticity 2499:voiceless 2480:Norwegian 2270:Near-open 2004:Close-mid 1688:Acoustics 1610:phonation 1580:geminated 1453:, though 1447:Bulgarian 1120:Antiquity 1076:morphemes 1038:deafblind 982:Phonetics 874:Iconicity 869:Etymology 789:Cognitive 752:Formalist 705:Phonetics 695:Philology 587:Semantics 577:Phonology 316:Phonation 305:Acoustics 282:Glottalic 234:Fricative 229:Affricate 219:Consonant 201:Laryngeal 105:Phonetics 71:and help 32:Phonology 6530:(1996). 6497:27821280 6424:14561465 6085:11301520 5935:Language 5820:50198698 5774:22468803 5575:18978929 5532:17048719 5489:13702471 5387:37962027 5242:40563066 5196:23302290 5139:48014482 3370:Japanese 3243:See also 3237:deletion 3213:proximal 3173:dialects 3119:syllabic 2998:acoustic 2962:requires 2922:loudness 2918:duration 2908:such as 2894:segments 2829:ossicles 2825:ear drum 2785:Audition 2756:phonemes 2625:rarefied 2573:Laterals 2491:nasality 2476:Nimboran 2449:formants 2432:Legend: 2426:template 2405:IPA help 2176:Open-mid 1795:phonemes 1377:plosives 1361:such as 1244:phonemes 1232:semantic 1126:Sanskrit 1072:phonemes 1050:phonemes 675:Forensic 655:Distance 602:Typology 517:a series 515:Part of 277:Pulmonic 176:Alveolar 137:Auditory 127:Acoustic 97:a series 95:Part of 18:Phonetic 5898:3272781 5890:8316582 5613:8926483 5566:2151743 5523:2746041 5379:1582160 4138:et seq. 3072:voicing 3006:eardrum 2942:Spanish 2902:phrases 2882:Prosody 2833:cochlea 2791:Hearing 2653:Swedish 2630:Khoisan 2460:Chomsky 2436:• 1835:Central 1606:trachea 1552:glottis 1540:pharynx 1406:laminal 1395:Coronal 1359:Vanuatu 1332:pharynx 1328:radical 1320:Coronal 1313:labials 1309:thought 1297:thought 1166:|| 1 | 1145:Shiksha 1113:History 1014:phoneme 630:Applied 540:History 535:Outline 437:Prosody 427:Hearing 417:Aphasia 386:Breathy 335:Glottis 320:Voicing 287:Lingual 254:Lateral 224:Plosive 186:Palatal 36:Phonics 6561: 6538: 6516: 6495: 6458: 6439: 6422: 6381: 6356: 6297:10 May 6252: 6233: 6108: 6091: 6083: 6042: 6023: 6001: 5976: 5955:410966 5953: 5913: 5896: 5888: 5835: 5818: 5808: 5789: 5772: 5723: 5706: 5668: 5658: 5611: 5573: 5563: 5530: 5520: 5487: 5444: 5385: 5377: 5346: 5323: 5313: 5270: 5240: 5230: 5211: 5194: 5154: 5137: 5127: 4303:et seq 3509: 3217:distal 3175:, and 3157:phones 3092:larynx 3070:, and 3060:vowels 3039:volume 2932:, and 2926:stress 2920:, and 2762:, and 2617:Clicks 2595:apical 2580:Trills 2565:In an 2560:Nasals 2503:creaky 2495:length 2468:Danish 2414: 1817:Vowels 1805:Vowels 1707:Listen 1616:. The 1592:Larynx 1568:Arabic 1548:Dahalo 1494:Jaqaru 1483:Dorsal 1455:Dahalo 1402:apical 1387:, and 1363:Tangoa 1338:Labial 1324:dorsal 1305:fought 1299:are a 1293:fought 1176:Modern 1130:Pāṇini 945:Portal 843:Topics 592:Syntax 381:Creaky 249:Liquid 196:Uvular 171:Dental 166:Labial 6334:(PDF) 6311:(PDF) 6089:S2CID 5951:JSTOR 5894:S2CID 5704:S2CID 5442:S2CID 5383:S2CID 5295:(PDF) 3270:Notes 3221:taboo 3108:Click 2910:pitch 2764:words 2634:Bantu 2591:flaps 2540:Stops 2464:Halle 2416:audio 1847:Close 1830:Front 1698:Praat 1502:velum 1451:Isoko 1443:Temne 1389:Shubi 1385:Tonga 1236:lemma 1080:words 1010:phone 545:Index 376:Modal 340:Pitch 259:Vowel 239:Nasal 191:Velar 6559:ISBN 6536:ISBN 6514:ISBN 6493:PMID 6456:ISBN 6437:ISBN 6420:PMID 6379:ISBN 6354:ISBN 6299:2019 6250:ISBN 6231:ISBN 6106:ISBN 6081:PMID 6040:ISBN 6021:ISBN 5999:ISBN 5974:ISBN 5911:ISBN 5886:PMID 5833:ISBN 5816:OCLC 5806:ISBN 5787:ISBN 5770:PMID 5721:ISBN 5666:OCLC 5656:ISBN 5609:PMID 5571:PMID 5528:PMID 5485:PMID 5375:PMID 5344:ISBN 5321:OCLC 5311:ISBN 5268:ISBN 5238:OCLC 5228:ISBN 5209:ISBN 5192:PMID 5152:ISBN 5135:OCLC 5125:ISBN 4699:help 4680:help 4661:help 3507:ISBN 3381:See 3346:See 3333:See 3286:and 3215:and 3165:sign 3161:oral 3058:and 2940:and 2900:and 2632:and 2589:and 2587:Taps 2478:and 2462:and 2312:Open 1840:Back 1745:sack 1743:and 1741:tack 1631:cm H 1570:and 1445:and 1381:Zulu 1295:and 1078:and 1063:sack 1061:and 1059:tack 727:and 720:Text 355:Tone 6600:by 6483:doi 6479:164 6410:hdl 6402:doi 6323:doi 6214:doi 6193:doi 6170:doi 6071:hdl 6063:doi 5943:doi 5878:doi 5762:doi 5696:doi 5630:doi 5601:doi 5561:PMC 5553:doi 5518:PMC 5510:doi 5477:doi 5434:doi 5404:doi 5367:doi 5303:doi 5184:doi 3239:). 3163:or 3136:IPA 2713:. 2501:or 2098:Mid 1813:IPA 1439:Taa 1036:by 6620:: 6491:. 6477:. 6473:. 6418:. 6408:. 6398:17 6396:. 6317:. 6313:. 6273:92 6271:. 6267:. 6210:19 6208:. 6189:21 6187:. 6166:18 6164:. 6160:. 6134:31 6132:. 6087:. 6079:. 6069:. 6059:22 6057:. 5997:. 5972:. 5949:. 5939:36 5937:. 5892:. 5884:. 5874:50 5872:. 5852:11 5850:. 5814:. 5768:. 5758:38 5756:. 5702:. 5690:. 5664:. 5626:29 5624:. 5607:. 5597:22 5595:. 5569:. 5559:. 5549:57 5547:. 5543:. 5526:. 5516:. 5506:13 5504:. 5500:. 5483:. 5471:. 5460:11 5458:. 5440:. 5430:38 5428:. 5400:20 5398:. 5381:. 5373:. 5363:42 5361:. 5319:. 5309:. 5236:. 5190:. 5180:15 5178:. 5133:. 5043:^ 5004:^ 4977:^ 4890:^ 4851:^ 4575:^ 4488:^ 4447:^ 4406:^ 4279:^ 4228:^ 4114:^ 4075:^ 4012:^ 3997:^ 3886:^ 3799:^ 3748:^ 3707:^ 3643:. 3608:^ 3533:^ 3455:^ 3439:. 3183:. 3066:, 2928:, 2916:, 2912:, 2878:. 2851:. 2758:, 2664:. 2613:. 2517:, 2513:, 2509:, 2493:, 2482:. 2165:o̞ 2149:ɤ̞ 2123:ø̞ 2107:e̞ 1815:: 1625:. 1582:. 1429:. 1391:. 1383:, 1365:. 1347:. 1193:. 1172:. 1134:c. 1074:, 519:on 99:on 6604:. 6567:. 6544:. 6522:. 6499:. 6485:: 6464:. 6445:. 6426:. 6412:: 6404:: 6387:. 6362:. 6343:. 6325:: 6319:1 6301:. 6275:. 6258:. 6239:. 6220:. 6216:: 6199:. 6195:: 6178:. 6172:: 6114:. 6095:. 6073:: 6065:: 6048:. 6029:. 6007:. 5982:. 5957:. 5945:: 5919:. 5900:. 5880:: 5864:) 5841:. 5822:. 5795:. 5776:. 5764:: 5729:. 5710:. 5698:: 5692:1 5672:. 5636:. 5632:: 5615:. 5603:: 5577:. 5555:: 5534:. 5512:: 5491:. 5479:: 5473:4 5448:. 5436:: 5410:. 5406:: 5389:. 5369:: 5352:. 5333:. 5305:: 5276:. 5244:. 5217:. 5198:. 5186:: 5160:. 5141:. 5026:. 5014:. 4999:. 4900:. 4885:. 4861:. 4834:. 4701:) 4682:) 4663:) 4609:. 4341:. 4305:. 4289:. 4238:. 4199:. 4187:. 4163:. 4109:. 3968:. 3770:. 3719:. 3690:. 3678:. 3653:. 3603:. 3579:. 3567:. 3543:. 3528:. 3515:. 3467:. 3449:. 3402:. 3294:. 2720:) 2716:( 2669:2 2386:ɒ 2370:ɑ 2350:ä 2337:ɶ 2321:a 2299:ɐ 2279:æ 2259:ɔ 2243:ʌ 2230:ɞ 2214:ɜ 2201:œ 2185:ɛ 2136:ə 2087:o 2071:ɤ 2058:ɵ 2042:ɘ 2029:ø 2013:e 1993:ʊ 1971:ʏ 1955:ɪ 1935:u 1919:ɯ 1906:ʉ 1890:ɨ 1877:y 1861:i 1635:O 1633:2 970:e 963:t 956:v 501:e 494:t 487:v 322:) 318:( 83:) 79:( 75:. 65:. 42:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.