408:
planozygote had only one nucleus and had two developmental pathways depending on food availability. Under starvation conditions the planozygote disassembled into two 2-zooid with one lacking nucleus, but further fate was not examined. Under culture conditions most organisms undergone meiosis and directly entered vegetative cycle. Very few planozygotes went through a resting cyst stage. The cyst stage persisted for 1 month, which is considered as a relatively short period in comparison to other dinoflagellates, which obligate dormancy period may reach up to 6 month. The duration of encystment is associated with ecological foraging strategies. Short dormancy period could facilitate rapid cycling between life cycle stages that could be beneficial to heterotrophic species in case of fluctuating food availability. However, possibility of chemical signalling involved in cyst hatching for
566:, and G. catenatum, which are among prevalent agents of toxic algal blooms. Such heterothrophic polykrikoids may not only cut down on the toxicity levels induced by their prey in marine food webs, but can cease the toxic blooms and could be used in bioremediation. Thus, reduction in water toxicity may help regulate the balance of marine food webs and decrease mortality rates of finfish, marine mammals, and sea birds. Further studies on molecular mechanisms of detoxification by
318:
larger organelle and lies posterior to taeniocyst. Some recent research have shown that the work of two organelles is coupled, with the taeniocyst adhering to prey, followed by nematocyst discharge leading to prey puncturing and, lastly, retrieving the prey using a tow filament, located on the end of the nematocysts close to posterior vesicle. The tubule, embedded within nematocyst, discharges towards the prey and hypothesized to be used for prey puncturing.
65:
208:
322:
which forces stylet upon firing first to puncture the capsule from within to free the filament, and only later to pierce the prey. As the tubule passes through the nozzle, it opens the operculum and uncoils after. Ballistics in cnidarians nematocysts is driven by synthesis of osmotic propellant poly gamma glutamate synthase, PgsAA, while in
403:. Gamete formation was particular as pseudocolony produces 4 gametes of different sizes and morphologies than vegetative cells. Vegetative form doubled zooids and subsequently split into four gametes of a 2-zooid-1-nucleus form. Two gametes further paired up with their ventral sides and fused forming a planozygote. For
581:, which would return the toxins back into the food web. Some polykrikoid population monitoring and investigation of toxin dynamics inside the body of grazers could provide better understanding of plankton-based food webs, estimate degrees of poisoning in ecosystems and propose potential toxin elimination routes.
415:
Germling, a single zooid cell, emerging from the cyst, had a unique development that has never been documented for any free-living dinoflagellate. Its morphology clearly went from a 1-zooid-1-nucleus, over a 2-zooid-1-nucleus, and a 4-zooid-1-nucleus into the 4-zooid-2-nucleus stage. This data raises
287:
species have: 1) a slightly curved longitudinal furrow, sulcus, extending to posterior end of the organism 2) a loop-shaped acrobase, which is an anterior extension from the sulcus 3) a transverse furrow, cingulum, with the displacement 4) taeniocyst-nematocyst complexes 5) two or four times less the
371:
makes the organisms great predators, but increase in body size of single cells is known to result in increased self-shading of chloroplasts and decreased surface area to volume ratio, leading to decreased photosynthetic efficiency. Presence of specialised NTC and large cell size might have triggered
291:
The most distinctive trait of this genus is the formation of multinucleated pseudocolonies that consist of an even number of zooids. Each zooid has a pair of flagella (transverse and longitudinal flagella) and has its own transverse groove, cingulum, but zooid longitudinal furrows, sulci, are fused.
317:
clade. Golgi-derived vacuoles are shared by both organelles and supply each with molecules needed for its growth along with participating in NTC articulation. Organelles are located in proximity, but lie within different membranes and are separated by a passage, called “chute”. The nematocyst is a
321:
Furthermore, Gavelis et al. deeply examined NTC morphology and ballistic mechanism that were shown to be fundamentally different from cnidarians, demonstrating nematocysts have evolved independently in single-celled dinoflagellates. Encasing coiled tubule capsule, unlike in cnidarians, is sealed,
541:
initially displayed looping swimming behaviour in close proximity to its prey followed by discharge of a nematocyst, pull of the prey into the body through posterior sulcus and final engulfment of the prey. PSP raises socio-economic-environmental concerns as it affects the health of both marine
326:
it is thought to occur due induced pressure as a result of capsular fibre contraction in the capsule wall. Nucleus is uniquely characterised by a double-layered fibrous cortex that underlines evaginated nuclear envelope; cortex is hypothesized to provide strength and shape to the nucleus, while
33:
308:
are known to produce ejectile organelles, the extrusomes. One of them is a nematocyst formed in zooids. Another extrusome found within the organism is rod-shaped taeniocyst which is distally located to nematocyst and was earlier mistakenly considered as a nematocyst-precursor. Together these
407:
two copulation finger-shaped structures were observed in gametes that are presumably involved in gamete contact and fusion, but more data is needed to confirm this. The ventrally fused gametes required a complex rearrangement of eight flagella and formation of sulci and cinguli. The 4-zooid
296:
have half the number of nuclei than zooids, and each pair of zooids shares a nucleus. Within the group there is some variation in which organelles are presented, but trichocysts, nematocysts, taeniocysts, mucocysts and plastids have been observed from different members within the taxon.
362:, phylogenetically nested among heterothropic polykrikoids, has plastids atypical of dinoflagellates. It has two membranes and contain the double-stacked thylakoids that are found in diatoms and haptophytes. However, molecular data analysis by Gavelis et al. has demonstrated that
366:
have peridinin-type plastids that were most likely acquired from ancestral polykrikoids. Transcriptomics analysis demonstrated multiple losses events in polykrikoids that might be explained from energetics and physiological restriction perspectives. Gradual increase in size of
398:
When organisms were well-fed, they appeared as 4-zooid-2-nuclei pseudocolonies, and during vegetative reproduction doubled number of zooids followed by nuclei division leading to 8-zooid-4-nuclei stage with further transverse binary division into two 4-zooid-2-nuclei
264:
was first seen in 1868 by
Uljanin and was mistakenly considered as a metazoan larva of a turbellarian flatworms. In 1873 Butschili re-examined the specimen and concluded that the cell was an unusual ciliate, and Bergh later, in 1881, clarified
334:, well-defined fibrous ribbons are involved in nuclear-flagellar connections, and anchoring to flagellar apparatus might serve in orientation of the nucleus in relation to flagella during processes of movement, mitosis and cell division.
391:, whose life cycle resembles general dinoflagellate cycle as vegetative cells form gametes that fuse to form a diploid (2n) zygote that could encyst, but pseudocolonial nature adds a number of peculiarities to the
440:
that are found in benthic habitat. There is also variation in feeding ecology as some species have plastids and can use photosynthesis to obtain nutrients but often happen to be mixotrophs (
537:
is one of the species causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and is found in waters of
Australia, Japan, Mexico and Spain. Observations of feeding behaviour suggest
358:, have three-membrane plastids with triple stacked thylakoids that are indicative of secondary peridinin-type plastids common for dinoflagellates. However, mixothrophic
1479:
1279:
Lee, M. J.; Jeong, H. J.; Lee, K. H.; Jang, S. H.; Kim, J. H.; Kim, K. Y. (2015). "Mixotrophy in the nematocyst–taeniocyst complex-bearing phototrophic dinoflagellate
1607:
190:
253:
have been found to regulate algal blooms as they feed on toxic dinoflagellates. However, there is also some data available on
Polykrikos being toxic to fish.
249:
are characterized by a sophisticated ballistic apparatus, named the nematocyst-taeniocyst complex, which allows species to prey on a variety of organisms.
32:
1581:
466:
feeds on algal species by engulfment after anchoring a prey using a nematocyst-taeniocyst complex (later referred to as NTC). Tang et al. observed
1689:
1620:
1394:
Matsuoka, K.; Cho, H. J.; Jacobson, D. M. (2000). "Observation of the feed ing behaviour and growth rates of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate,
1163:"Single-cell transcriptomics using spliced leader PCR: Evidence for multiple losses of photosynthesis in polykrikoid dinoflagellates"
517:
became a great topic of interest as some of the organisms graze on dinoflagellates that cause toxic blooms. High predation impact by
1656:
498:
species feeding revealed that species differ in their prey preference, and some are more specialized than the other, such that
1684:
748:
1625:
346:
species as some exclusively rely on photosynthesis, some are mixothrophs, while some are obligate heterotrophs which makes
292:
Transverse flagellum has the lateral projections, mastigonemes, and striated strand common to other dinoflagellates. Often
288:
number of nuclei than of zooids, and 6) ability to disassemble into pseudocolonies with fewer zooids and only one nucleus.
1633:
577:
pose a health risk to certain fishes, while the bloom-regulating ones are often preyed on by marine invertebrates, like
462:
is a phototrophic dinoflagellate and has been reported in waters of Canada, USA, Mexico, China, India, Japan, Korea,.
51:
558:
Predation of toxic microalgae by heterotrophic dinoflagellates is one of the factors controlling the algal blooms.
690:"Molecular phylogeny of ocelloid-bearing dinoflagellates (Warnowiaceae) as inferred from SSU and LSU rDNA sequences"
494:
is thought to have enzymes that detoxify toxins produced by these prey dinoflagellates. Also, a comparison of three
64:
786:"Microbial arms race: Ballistic "nematocysts" in dinoflagellates represent a new extreme in organelle complexity"
547:
189:
784:
Gavelis, G.; Wakeman, K.; Ripken, C.; Ozebek, S.; Holstein, T.; Herranz, M.; Keeling, P.; Leander, B. (2017).
594:
666:
327:
nuclear evaginations are thought to increase nuclear-cytoplasmic exchange area at cortex perforation sites.
280:
is a colony of zooids (units of a colonial organism) that carry out simultaneous functions of a whole cell.
199:
650:
626:
618:
1694:
1521:
642:
602:
1473:
610:
979:
Hoppenrath, M.; Leander, B.S. (2007b). "Morphology and phylogeny of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellates
902:
Tang, Y.Z.; Harke, M.J.; Gobler, C.J. (2013). "Morphology, phylogeny, dynamics, and ichthyotoxicity of
688:
Hoppenrath, Mona; Bachvaroff, Tsvetan R; Handy, Sara M; Delwiche, Charles F; Leander, Brian S (2009).
658:
1661:
1648:
1228:
1038:
915:
863:
797:
701:
216:
432:
species are found in marine environments. A majority of species are planktonic with theexception of
634:
46:
1415:
1252:
1054:
939:
879:
59:
1573:
1612:
1335:
1244:
1194:
1140:
1123:. Development of the nematocyst-taeniocyst complex and morphology of the site for extrusion".
1098:
1029:
Hoppenrath, M.; Leander, B. S. (2007a). "Character evolution in polykrikoid dinoflagellates".
1004:
931:
823:
729:
1119:
Westfall, J. A.; Bradbury, P. C.; Townsend, J. (1983). "Ultrastructure of the dinoflagellate
304:
is characterized by numerous rough endoplasmic reticulum nets, Golgi complexes and vacuoles.
1459:
1407:
1374:
1327:
1292:
1236:
1184:
1174:
1132:
1090:
1046:
996:
923:
871:
813:
805:
719:
709:
207:
41:
1559:
1077:
Bradbury, P.C.; Westfall, J.A.; Townsend, J. (1983). "Ultrastructure of the dinoflagellate
1310:
Hoppenrath, M.; Yubuki, N.; Bachvaroff, S.; Leander, B. S. (2010). "Re-classification of
241:(from Greek “poly” - many, and “krikos” – ring or circle) is one of the genera of family
1232:
1042:
919:
867:
801:
705:
1189:
1162:
818:
785:
724:
689:
135:
102:
89:
1215:
Tillmann, U.; Hoppenrath, M. (2013). "Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellate
1094:
1678:
1050:
242:
165:
155:
1419:
1256:
1058:
943:
883:
309:
organelles are forming taeniocyst-nematocyst complex that is thought to be the best
542:
mammals and humans, and the regulation mechanism of toxic microalgae population by
310:
875:
1411:
1161:
Gavelis, G.; White, R. A.; Suttle, C. A.; Keeling, P. J.; Leander, B. S. (2015).
1000:
1638:
1594:
1553:
1438:
Jeong, H.; Park, K.; Kim, J.; Kang, H.; Kim, C.; Choi, H.,...; Park, M. (2003).
753:
350:
a useful group to study for organellar evolution. Early-branching polykrikoids,
145:
1544:
1331:
1296:
1179:
221:
1568:
714:
225:
115:
76:
1339:
1248:
1198:
1008:
935:
827:
809:
733:
1144:
1102:
846:
Nagai, S.; Matsuyama, Y.; Takayama, H.; Kotani, Y. (2002). "Morphology of
387:, detailed data is available on reproduction of a type species (holotype)
1538:
1318:(Dinophyceae) based partly on the ultrastructure of complex extrusomes".
1136:
578:
229:
1586:
125:
1599:
1464:
1439:
1379:
1354:
1240:
927:
1515:
206:
188:
470:
bloom that caused 100% mortality in juvenile sheepshead minnows (
448:), while some lack the plastid and are completely heterotrophic (
1519:
1210:
1208:
1081:. The Nucleus and Its Connections to the Flagellar Apparatus".
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
974:
972:
589:
Currently the following 10 species are accepted taxonomically:
570:
maybe helpful in biomedical and environment-monitoring fields.
245:
that includes athecate pseudocolony-forming dinoflagellates.
444:). Only one species is known to be exclusively autotrophic (
1494:
957:
Taylor, F. J. R. (1987). "The
Biology of Dinoflagellates".
490:
that are also known to cause fish mortality, and therefore
416:
the question whether such hatching pattern may reflect the
562:
are known to modulate populations of dinoflagellates like
854:(Dinophyceae, Polykrikaceae) cysts obtained in culture".
1114:
1112:
502:
preying is less diverse (fed on 2 prey species) than of
1156:
1154:
1072:
1070:
1068:
906:(Dinophyceae) isolates and blooms from New York, USA".
779:
777:
775:
773:
771:
749:"First Clear View of a One-Celled Harpooner in Action"
442:
P. barnegatensis, P. lebouriae, P tanit, P. hartmannii
1433:
1431:
1429:
1355:"Grazing impacts of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate
841:
839:
837:
1528:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
897:
895:
893:
342:There is a variation in nutrient acquisition among
533:Graham in Portuguese and Japanese coastal waters.
1440:"Reduction in the toxicity of the dinoflagellate
525:(Lebour) Balech was reported in Argentina, while
1444:when fed on by the heterotrophic dinoflagellate
1353:Matsuyama, Y; Miyamoto, M; Kotani, Y (1999).
8:
1478:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
510:, which fed on 14 different algal species.
1516:
1398:(Polykrikaceae. Dinophyceae) 39: 82- 86".
31:
20:
1463:
1378:
1188:
1178:
817:
723:
713:
680:
482:feeds on chain-forming dinoflagellates
1471:
450:P. grassei, P. herdmanae, P. kofoidii
7:
1649:0a29ffd2-723d-449f-9fff-f0f16378ad93
606:(F.SchĂĽtt) D.X.Qiu & Senjie Lin,
372:multiple losses of photosynthesis.
1219:(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)".
1083:Journal of Ultrastructure Research
521:Butschili on toxic dinoflagellate
478:is an ichthyotoxic, harmful alga.
14:
424:Habitat and ecology (niche, food)
1051:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00319.x
63:
16:Genus of single-celled organisms
550:and health hazard elimination.
1690:Bioluminescent dinoflagellates
747:James Gorman (31 March 2017).
196:, Illustration after Butschli.
1:
1095:10.1016/s0022-5320(83)90113-2
876:10.2216/i0031-8884-41-4-319.1
474:) within 24 hours suggesting
1412:10.2216/i0031-8884-39-1-82.1
1001:10.1016/j.protis.2006.12.001
1495:"Polykrikos Butschli, 1873"
513:Predation by heterotrophic
269:dinoflagellate affinities.
1711:
1332:10.1016/j.ejop.2009.08.003
484:Cochlodinium polykrikoides
420:pseudocolonies phylogeny.
1452:Aquatic Microbial Ecology
1312:Pheopolykrikos hartmannii
1297:10.1016/j.hal.2015.08.006
1180:10.1186/s12864-015-1636-8
904:Pheopolykrikos hartmannii
630:Hoppenrath & Leander,
412:is yet to be determined.
60:Scientific classification
58:
39:
30:
23:
694:BMC Evolutionary Biology
595:Polykrikos barnegatensis
548:environmental monitoring
529:Chatton was controlling
715:10.1186/1471-2148-9-116
667:Polykrikos tentaculatus
200:Encyclopedia Britannica
810:10.1126/sciadv.1602552
546:could be important in
233:
204:
1685:Dinoflagellate genera
1442:Gymnodinium catenatum
1361:Gymnodinium catenatum
1281:Polykrikos hartmannii
959:Biological Monographs
651:Polykrikos schwartzii
627:Polykrikos herdmaniae
619:Polykrikos hartmannii
564:Alexandrium tamarense
523:Alexandrium tamarense
519:Polykrikos schwartzii
488:Gymnodinium catenatum
472:Cyprinodon variegates
460:Polykrikos hartmannii
210:
192:
1221:Journal of Phycology
1137:10.1242/jcs.63.1.245
985:Polykrikos herdmanae
643:Polykrikos lebouriae
603:Polykrikos geminatus
554:Practical importance
438:Polykrikos herdmanae
434:Polykrikos lebouriae
352:Polykrikos geminatum
257:History of knowledge
54:. Scale bar = 10µm.
50:showing an extruded
1446:Polykrikos kofoidii
1396:Polykrikos kofoidii
1357:Polykrikos kofoidii
1233:2013JPcgy..49..298T
1217:Polykrikos kofoidii
1043:2007JPcgy..43..366H
981:Polykrikos lebourae
920:2013JPcgy..49.1084T
868:2002Phyco..41..319N
848:Polykrikos kofoidii
802:2017SciA....3E2552G
706:2009BMCEE...9..116H
635:Polykrikos kofoidii
531:Gymnodium catenatum
527:Polykrikos kofoidii
47:Polykrikos kofoidii
611:Polykrikos grassei
234:
205:
1672:
1671:
1522:Taxon identifiers
1465:10.3354/ame031307
1380:10.3354/ame017091
1367:Aquat Microb Ecol
1320:Eur. J. Protistol
1241:10.1111/jpy.12037
928:10.1111/jpy.12114
383:For the genus of
203:
187:
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183:
1702:
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1642:
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1639:NHMSYS0021057831
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954:
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914:(6): 1084–1094.
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832:
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821:
790:Science Advances
781:
766:
765:
763:
761:
744:
738:
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727:
717:
685:
659:Polykrikos tanit
198:
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42:light micrograph
35:
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1016:
978:
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796:(3): e1602552.
783:
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687:
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585:List of species
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62:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1386:
1359:on a bloom of
1345:
1302:
1262:
1227:(2): 298–317.
1204:
1150:
1108:
1064:
1037:(2): 366–377.
1014:
995:(2): 209–227.
968:
949:
889:
833:
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573:However, some
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376:Life cycle of
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274:
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224:, right) from
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182:BĂĽtschli, 1873
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136:Dinoflagellata
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90:Diaphoretickes
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55:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1707:
1696:
1695:Gymnodiniales
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1680:
1663:
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1654:
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1546:
1540:
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1531:
1527:
1523:
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1500:
1496:
1493:Guiry, M. D.
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1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1285:Harmful Algae
1282:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
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1036:
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1025:
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1019:
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990:
986:
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945:
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933:
929:
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921:
917:
913:
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905:
898:
896:
894:
890:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
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852:P. schwartzii
849:
842:
840:
838:
834:
829:
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820:
815:
811:
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799:
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629:
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622:W.Zimmermann,
621:
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584:
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536:
532:
528:
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520:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
492:P. hartmannii
489:
485:
481:
477:
476:P. hartmannii
473:
469:
468:P. hartmannii
465:
461:
457:
455:
454:P. schwartzii
451:
447:
443:
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431:
423:
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396:
395:development.
394:
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365:
361:
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353:
349:
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337:
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328:
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316:
312:
307:
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300:Cytoplasm of
298:
295:
289:
286:
281:
279:
272:
270:
268:
263:
256:
254:
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248:
244:
243:Polykrikaceae
240:
239:
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218:
213:
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201:
195:
191:
179:
178:
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:Polykrikaceae
164:
161:
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156:Gymnodiniales
154:
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57:
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38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
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1529:
1504:February 20,
1502:. Retrieved
1498:
1488:
1474:cite journal
1455:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1370:
1366:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1326:(1): 29–37.
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1170:
1167:BMC Genomics
1166:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1089:(1): 24–32.
1086:
1082:
1078:
1034:
1030:
992:
988:
984:
980:
962:
958:
952:
911:
907:
903:
859:
855:
851:
847:
793:
789:
758:. Retrieved
752:
742:
697:
693:
683:
665:
657:
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641:
633:
625:
617:
609:
601:
593:
588:
574:
572:
567:
563:
559:
557:
543:
538:
535:G. catenatum
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
512:
508:P. lebouriae
507:
503:
500:P. hartmanii
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
480:P.hartmannii
479:
475:
471:
467:
464:P. hartmanii
463:
459:
458:
453:
449:
446:P. geminatum
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
427:
417:
414:
409:
404:
400:
397:
392:
388:
384:
382:
377:
368:
364:P. lebouriae
363:
360:P. lebouriae
359:
356:P. hartmanii
355:
351:
347:
343:
341:
331:
329:
323:
320:
314:
311:synapomorphy
305:
301:
299:
293:
290:
284:
282:
277:
276:
266:
261:
260:
250:
246:
237:
236:
235:
215:
211:
193:
176:
175:
132:Superclass:
109:
96:
83:
45:
24:
18:
1595:iNaturalist
1554:Wikispecies
1458:: 307–312.
1291:: 124–132.
1131:: 245–261.
760:26 December
754:NYTimes.com
598:G.W.Martin,
539:P. kofoidii
504:P. kofoidii
405:P. kofoidii
389:P. kofoidii
378:P. kofoidii
217:Strombidium
214:(left) and
146:Dinophyceae
1679:Categories
1560:Polykrikos
1530:Polykrikos
1400:Phycologia
1316:Polykrikos
1173:(1): 528.
1125:J Cell Sci
1121:Polykrikos
1079:Polykrikos
862:(4): 319.
856:Phycologia
675:References
575:Polykrikos
568:Polykrikos
560:Polykrikos
544:P.kofoidii
515:Polykrikos
496:Polykrikos
430:Polykrikos
428:All known
418:Polykrikos
410:Polykrikos
401:Polykrikos
393:Polykrikos
385:Polykrikos
369:Polykrikos
348:Polykrikos
344:Polykrikos
332:Polykrikos
324:Polykrikos
315:Polykrikos
306:Polykrikos
302:Polykrikos
294:Polykrikos
285:Polykrikos
278:Polykrikos
273:Morphology
267:Polykrikos
262:Polykrikos
251:Polykrikos
247:Polykrikos
238:Polykrikos
222:Ciliophora
212:Polykrikos
194:Polykrikos
177:Polykrikos
52:nematocyst
25:Polykrikos
1569:AlgaeBase
1499:Algaebase
1406:: 82–86.
1373:: 91–98.
1031:J. Phycol
908:J. Phycol
654:BĂĽtschli,
579:amphipods
226:Tokyo bay
116:Alveolata
77:Eukaryota
1545:Q5550547
1539:Wikidata
1420:86293920
1340:19767184
1257:30674349
1249:27008517
1199:26183220
1059:16821791
1009:17241813
987:n. sp".
944:12140986
936:27007629
884:83728508
828:28435864
734:19467154
670:O.Wetzel
646:Herdman,
638:Chatton,
338:Plastids
230:Yokohama
162:Family:
122:Phylum:
73:Domain:
1613:1268461
1587:3207799
1229:Bibcode
1190:4504456
1145:6685130
1103:6686618
1039:Bibcode
989:Protist
916:Bibcode
864:Bibcode
819:5375639
798:Bibcode
725:2694157
702:Bibcode
700:: 116.
172:Genus:
152:Order:
142:Class:
126:Myzozoa
1662:109485
1646:NZOR:
1600:461544
1418:
1338:
1255:
1247:
1197:
1187:
1143:
1101:
1057:
1007:
942:
934:
882:
826:
816:
732:
722:
614:Lecal,
202:, 1911
1657:WoRMS
1626:10138
1608:IRMNG
1574:44680
1416:S2CID
1253:S2CID
1055:S2CID
940:S2CID
880:S2CID
662:Reñé,
110:Clade
97:Clade
84:Clade
1621:ITIS
1582:GBIF
1506:2017
1480:link
1336:PMID
1245:PMID
1195:PMID
1141:PMID
1099:PMID
1005:PMID
983:and
932:PMID
850:and
824:PMID
762:2017
730:PMID
506:and
486:and
456:),.
452:and
436:and
354:and
313:for
283:All
1634:NBN
1460:doi
1408:doi
1375:doi
1328:doi
1314:as
1293:doi
1283:".
1237:doi
1185:PMC
1175:doi
1133:doi
1091:doi
1047:doi
997:doi
993:158
924:doi
872:doi
814:PMC
806:doi
720:PMC
710:doi
330:In
103:SAR
44:of
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