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European settlement aboriginal land use practices, including fire, influenced vegetation and may have maintained and modified savanna flora. It has been suggested by many authors that aboriginal burning created a structurally more open savanna landscape. Aboriginal burning certainly created a habitat mosaic that probably increased biodiversity and changed the structure of woodlands and geographic range of numerous woodland species. It has been suggested by many authors that with the removal or alteration of traditional burning regimes many savannas are being replaced by forest and shrub thickets with little herbaceous layer.
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grazing. The effects of overstocking are often worst on soils of low fertility and in low rainfall areas below 500 mm, as most soil nutrients in these areas tend to be concentrated in the surface so any movement of soils can lead to severe degradation. Alteration in soil structure and nutrient levels affects the establishment, growth and survival of plant species and in turn can lead to a change in woodland structure and composition. That being said, impact of grazing animals can be reduced. Looking at
Elephant impact on Savannas, the overall impact is reduced in the presence of rainfall and fences.
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reduces both the intensity and the frequency of fires which may control woody plant species. Grazing animals can have a more direct effect on woody plants by the browsing of palatable woody species. There is evidence that unpalatable woody plants have increased under grazing in savannas. Grazing also promotes the spread of weeds in savannas by the removal or reduction of the plants which would normally compete with potential weeds and hinder establishment. In addition to this, cattle and horses are implicated in the spread of the seeds of weed species such as prickly acacia (
761:, as a means of clearing land. In the 1950s arboricides suitable for stem injection were developed. War-surplus heavy machinery was made available, and these were used for either pushing timber, or for pulling using a chain and ball strung between two machines. These two new methods of timber control, along with the introduction and widespread adoption of several new pasture grasses and legumes promoted a resurgence in tree clearing. The 1980s also saw the release of soil-applied arboricides, notably
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867:. These introductions have the potential to significantly alter the structure and composition of savannas worldwide, and have already done so in many areas through a number of processes including altering the fire regime, increasing grazing pressure, competing with native vegetation and occupying previously vacant ecological niches. Other plant species include: white sage, spotted cactus, cotton seed, rosemary.
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basal area and canopy cover, often leaves a high percentage of woody plants alive either as seedlings too small to be affected or as plants capable of re-sprouting from lignotubers and broken stumps. A population of woody plants equal to half or more of the original number often remains following pulling of eucalypt communities, even if all the trees over 5 metres are uprooted completely.
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891:. However, a recent case described a savanna increasing its range at the expense of forest in response to climate variation, and potential exists for similar rapid, dramatic shifts in vegetation distribution as a result of global climate change, particularly at ecotones such as savannas so often represent.
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In many ways "artificial" clearing, particularly pulling, mimics the effects of fire and, in savannas adapted to regeneration after fire as most
Queensland savannas are, there is a similar response to that after fire. Tree clearing in many savanna communities, although causing a dramatic reduction in
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of savanna were being cleared annually in
Queensland in the 2000s, primarily to improve pasture production. Substantial savanna areas have been cleared of woody vegetation and much of the area that remains today is vegetation that has been disturbed by either clearing or thinning at some point in the
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Introduced grazing animals can also affect soil condition through physical compaction and break-up of the soil caused by the hooves of animals and through the erosion effects caused by the removal of protective plant cover. Such effects are most likely to occur on land subjected to repeated and heavy
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The removal of grass by grazing affects the woody plant component of woodland systems in two major ways. Grasses compete with woody plants for water in the topsoil and removal by grazing reduces this competitive effect, potentially boosting tree growth. In addition to this effect, the removal of fuel
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is strongly correlated with herbage yield, there can be major financial benefits from the removal of trees, such as assisting with grazing management: regions of dense tree and shrub cover harbors predators, leading to increased stock losses, for example, while woody plant cover hinders mustering in
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Over many large tropical areas, the dominant biome (forest, savanna or grassland) can not be predicted only by the climate, as historical events plays also a key role, for example, fire activity. In some areas, indeed, it is possible for there to be multiple stable biomes. The annual rainfall ranges
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The closed forest types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing. In contrast the open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and is commonly used
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that do little long term damage to mature trees. This prevents more catastrophic wildfires that could do much more damage. However, these fires either kill or suppress tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of a continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth. Prior to
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Manoel Cláudio da Silva Jánior, Christopher
William Fagg, Maria Cristina Felfili, Paulo Ernane Nogueira, Alba Valéria Rezende, and Jeanine Maria Felfili 2006 "Chapter 4. Phytogeography of Cerrado Sensu Stricto and Land System Zoning in Central Brazil" in "Neotropical Savannas and Seasonally Dry
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Clearing is carried out by the grazing industry in an attempt to increase the quality and quantity of feed available for stock and to improve the management of livestock. The removal of trees from savanna land removes the competition for water from the grasses present, and can lead to a two to
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system was strongly influenced by effects of temperature and precipitation upon tree growth, and oversimplified assumptions resulted in a tropical savanna classification concept which considered it as a "climatic climax" formation. The common usage to describe vegetation now conflicts with a
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Burrows, W. H., J. C. Scanlan, et al. (1988). Plant ecological relations in open forests, woodlands and shrublands. Native pastures in
Queensland their resources and management. W. H. Burrows, J. C. Scanlan and M. T. Rutherford eds. Brisbane, Department of Primary Industries
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Savannas maintain an open canopy despite a high tree density. It is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in many savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forests. The South
American savanna types
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Scholz, Fabian G.; Bucci, Sandra J.; Goldstein, Guillermo; Meinzer, Frederick C.; Franco, Augusto C.; Salazar, Ana. 2008 "Plant- and stand-level variation in biophysical and physiological traits along tree density gradients in the
Cerrado", Brazilian Journal of Plant
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The decades of the newe worlde or west India conteynyng the nauigations and conquestes of the
Spanyardes with the particular description of the moste ryche and large landes and Ilands lately founde in the west Ocean perteynyng to the inheritaunce of the kinges of
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Erika L. Geiger, Sybil G. Gotsch, Gabriel
Damasco, M. Haridasan, Augusto C. Franco & William A. Hoffmann 2011 "Distinct roles of savanna and forest tree species in regeneration under fire suppression in a Brazilian savanna" Journal of Vegetation Science
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has also led to a reduction in the need to burn to produce a flush of green growth because legumes retain high nutrient levels throughout the year, and because fires can have a negative impact on legume populations which causes a reluctance to burn.
388:. The distinction between woodland and savanna is vague and therefore the two can be combined into a single biome as both woodlands and savannas feature open-canopied trees with crowns not usually interlinking (mostly forming 25-60% cover).
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Pressland, A. J., J. R. Mills, et al. (1988). Landscape degradation in native pasture. Native pastures in
Queensland their resources and management. W. H. Burrows, J. C. Scanlan and M. T. Rutherford. Queensland, Queensland Government Press
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Animals in the African savanna generally include the giraffe, elephant, buffalo, zebra, gnu, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and antelope, where they rely on grass and/or tree foliage to survive. In the Australian savanna, mammals in the family
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from 500 mm (19.69 in) to 1,270 mm (50.00 in) per year, with the precipitation being more common in six or eight months of the year, followed by a period of drought. Savannas may at times be classified as forests.
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Sankaran, Mahesh; Hanan, Niall P.; Scholes, Robert J.; Ratnam, Jayashree; Augustine, David J.; Cade, Brian S.; Gignoux, Jacques; Higgins, Steven I.; Le Roux, Xavier (December 2005). "Determinants of woody cover in African savannas".
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Smith, G., A. Franks, et al. (2000). Impacts of domestic grazing within remnant vegetation. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet al. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources
357:". Different authors have defined the lower limits of savanna tree coverage as 5–10% and upper limits range as 25–80% of an area. Two factors common to all savanna environments are rainfall variations from year to year, and
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Dyer, R., A. Craig, et al. (1997). Fire in northern pastoral lands. Fire in the management of northern Australian pastoral lands. T. C. Grice and S. M. Slatter. St. Lucia, Australia, Tropical Grassland Society of Australia
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Scanlan, J. C. (1988). Managing tree and shrub populations. Native pastures in Queensland their resources and management. W. H. Burrows, J. C. Scanlan and M. T. Rutherford. Queensland, Queensland Government Press
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The consumption of herbage by introduced grazers in savanna woodlands has led to a reduction in the amount of fuel available for burning and resulted in fewer and cooler fires. The introduction of exotic pasture
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Many grassy landscapes and mixed communities of trees, shrubs, and grasses were described as savanna before the middle of the 19th century, when the concept of a tropical savanna climate became established. The
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A savanna can simply be distinguished by the open savanna, where grass prevails and trees are rare; and the wooded savanna, where the trees are densest, bordering an open woodland or forest. Specific savanna
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Williams, Brooke A.; Watson, James E. M.; Beyer, Hawthorne L.; Grantham, Hedley S.; Simmonds, Jeremy S.; Alvarez, Silvia J.; Venter, Oscar; Strassburg, Bernardo B. N.; Runting, Rebecca K. (1 December 2022).
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Tait, L 2010, Structure and dynamics of grazed woodlands in North-eastern Australia, Master of Applied Science Thesis, Central Queensland University, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Health, Rockhampton.
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biome, that for example cover much of the plains of southeastern Australia, northern India, Southern Africa, southeastern Argentina and Uruguay. Examples of subtropical and temperate savannas include the
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Scanlan, J. and C. Chilcott (2000). Management and production aspects. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet al. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources.
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Wilson, B., S. Boulter, et al. (2000). Queensland's resources. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet eds. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources
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Alexandro SolĂłrzano, Jeanine Maria Felfili 2008 "Comparative analysis of the international terminaoolgy for cerrado" IX Symposio Nacional Cerrado 13 a 17 de outubro de 2008 Parlamundi Barsilia, DF
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for grazing domestic livestock. As a result, much of the world's savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to
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Harrington, G. N., D. M. D. Mills, et al. (1984). Management of Rangeland Ecosystems. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing
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Harrington, G. N., M. H. Friedel, et al. (1984). Vegetation ecology and management. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing
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A number of exotic plants species have been introduced to savannas around the world. Amongst the woody plant species are serious environmental weeds such as Prickly Acacia (
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Harrington, G. N., D. M. D. Mills, et al. (1984). Semi-arid woodlands. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing
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Archer S, (1994.) "Woody plant encroachment into southwestern grasslands and savannas: Rates, patterns and proximate causes." pp. 13–68 in Vavra, Laycock and Pieper (eds.)
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Anderson, Roger A., Fralish, James S. and Baskin, Jerry M. editors.1999. Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America. Cambridge University Press.
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Moncrieff, G. R., Scheiter, S., Langan, L., Trabucco, A., Higgins, S. I. (2016). The future distribution of the savannah biome: model-based and biogeographic contingency,
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It is estimated that less than three percent of savanna ecosystems can be classified as highly intact. Reasons for savanna degradation are manifold, as outlined below.
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may result in an alteration of the structure and function of savannas. Some authors have suggested that savannas and grasslands may become even more susceptible to
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203:, which feature cold winters, savannas are mostly located in areas having warm to hot climates, such as in Africa, Australia, Thailand, South America and India.
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Savannas are also characterised by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall confined to one season. They are associated with several types of
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typically have densities of trees similar to or higher than that found in South American tropical forests, with savanna ranging from 800 to 3300 trees per
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Saha, S. (2003). "Patterns in woody species diversity, richness and partitioning of diversity in forest communities of tropical deciduous forest biomes".
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Abdullahi Jibrin 2013 "A Study of Variation in Physiognomic Characteristics of Guinea Savanna Vegetation" Environment and Natural Resources Research 3:2
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spp.). A range of herbaceous species have also been introduced to these woodlands, either deliberately or accidentally including Rhodes grass and other
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Lodge, G. M. and R. D. B. Whalley (1984). Temperate rangelands. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne,
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Large areas of Australian and South American savannas have been cleared of trees, and this clearing continues today. For example, land clearing and
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Foran, B. D. (1984). Central arid woodlands. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing
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Lunt, I. D.; N. Jones (2006). "Effects of European colonisation on indigenous ecosystems: post-settlement changes in tree stand structures in
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Mott, J. J., Groves, R.H. (1994). Natural and derived grasslands. Australian Vegetation. R. H. Groves. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
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simplified yet widespread climatic concept. The divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of the
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Staver, A.C., Archibald, S., Levin, S.A. (2011). The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states.
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are mid-latitude savannas with wetter summers and drier winters. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the
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Tothill, J. C. and C. Gillies (1992). The pasture lands of northern Australia. Brisbane, Tropical Grassland Society of Australia
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brought about by grazing can alter ecosystem function, and are exacerbated by overgrazing and poor land management practices.
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A number of techniques have been employed to clear or kill woody plants in savannas. Early pastoralists used felling and
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2537:"Land clearing and fracking in Australia's Northern Territory threatens the world's largest intact tropical savanna"
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McPherson, G. R. (1997). Ecology and management of North American Savannas. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
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2000:"Global drivers of change across tropical savannah ecosystems and insights into their management and conservation"
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Forests: Plant Diversity, Biogeography, and Conservation" R. Toby Pennington, James A. Ratter (eds) 2006 CRC Press
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are mid- to high-altitude savannas, located in a few spots around the world's high mountain regions, part of the
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fourfold increase in pasture production, as well as improving the quality of the feed available. Since stock
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Partridge, I. (1999). Managing grazing in northern Australia. Brisbane, Department of Primary Industries
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Vestal Fire: An Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World
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are savannas that are flooded seasonally or year-round. They are classified with flooded savannas as the
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ecoregion are a lower altitude example, up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Other examples include the
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2740:"Drought-induced shift of a forest–woodland ecotone: Rapid landscape response to climate variation"
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does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken
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2703:"Development and stability of grass/woody mosaics in a subtropical savanna parkland, Texas, USA"
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are a common vegetation genera. Drier savannas there feature spiny shrubs and grasses, such as
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predominate, such as kangaroos and wallabies, though cattle, horses, camels, donkeys and the
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in Spanish, when positioned in the middle of a word, is pronounced almost like an English
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Savanna Ecology and Management: Australian Perspectives and Intercontinental Comparisons
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Savanna Ecology and Management: Australian Perspectives and Intercontinental Comparisons
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Savanna Ecology and Management: Australian Perspectives and Intercontinental Comparisons
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appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical
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Earth Observatory. The Image Composite Explorer. Exercise 4: Vegetation Vital Signs
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biome, which occurs mostly in the tropics and subtropics. Examples include the
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by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species.
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are classified with tropical and subtropical grasslands and shrublands as the
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and the ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example,
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The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People
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reported it as the local name for the plain around Comagre, the court of the
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2387:"Australia's northern savannas: a time for change in management philosophy"
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2498:"A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of African Elephants on Savanna Vegetation"
30:"Savannah" redirects here. For the city in the U.S. state of Georgia, see
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Imperfect balance: landscape transformations in the Precolumbian Americas
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characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the
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Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America
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demonstrating the regular tree spacing characteristic of some savannas
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is common in the Argentinian savannas. In the East African savannas,
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is not prominent but that rivers in savanna landscapes erode more by
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regions, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, part of the
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The savannas of tropical America comprise broadleaved trees such as
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have been proposed as dominant erosion processes in savanna plains.
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Roger C. Anderson; James S. Fralish; Jerry M. Baskin, eds. (1999).
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region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire.
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2201:"Fire as Medicine: Learning from Native American Fire Stewardship"
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layer consisting primarily of grasses. Four savanna forms exist;
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threaten the Northern Territory, Australia savanna, and 480,000
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1548:«Diccionario de la lengua española» – Edición del Tricentenario
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Murphy, Brett; Ritchie, Euan; Woinarski, John (29 June 2023).
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Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests
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Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
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tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
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forests have average tree densities of approximately 100 per
2851:(in Spanish). Sociedad Geográfica de Colombia. pp. 1–37
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Ecological Implications of Livestock Herbivory in the West
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La estructura ecológica principal de la Sabana de Bogotá
1734:. San Francisco: A.L. Bancroft & Co. p. LXXIV.
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itself differs in places, variously placing Comagre 25
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De Orbe Novo Decades. Cum Ejusdem Legatione Babylonica.
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it has been noted that many savannas occur in areas of
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The Southern Forest Resource Assessment Summary Report
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https://www.britannica.com/science/savanna/Environment
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Werner, Patricia A.; B. H. Walker; P. A Stott (1991).
1861:"Savanna - Grassland, Climate, Animals | Britannica"
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Wrangle - WORLD RANGELAND LEARNING EXPERIENCE. 2022
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1014:) is also included in this category, known for its
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2163:
1795:
1111:ecoregion, fall into this category, including the
551:, among others, have been introduced by humans.
2744:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2496:Guldemond, Robert; Van Aarde, Rudi (May 2008).
1036:Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets
338:to be excluded from mapped savanna categories.
133:where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent.
3336:Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
2661:
2659:
1708:(roughly 290 kilometers or 180 miles) west of
1054:temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
2940:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1272:
1270:
1006:biome. The savannas of Africa, including the
164:, comparable to savannas in the same region.
8:
2459:Ecology and silviculture of eucalypt forests
1544:"sabana – Diccionario de la lengua española"
1314:
1312:
1310:
1115:, which features eucalyptuses. Parts of the
121:where trees and shrubs form a light canopy,
2738:Allen, C. D. & D. D. Breshears (1998).
2083:
2081:
2079:
1356:
1354:
1097:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
289:. These areas are now either given over to
241:The word originally entered English as the
2947:
2933:
2925:
1521:
1519:
222:, which means "treeless grassland" in the
2773:
2763:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
1123:may also feature savanna-like landscapes.
1615:
1613:
1381:
1379:
1368:
1366:
592:Pre-Columbian woodlands of North America
2242:
2240:
1607:Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2012.
1491:
1489:
1248:
625:typically create fires confined to the
1728:"History of Central America. 1501–1530
1113:Temperate Grassland of South Australia
1079:New England Peppermint Grassy Woodland
249:from 1555. This was equivalent in the
2888:(in Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese)
2322:
2320:
1798:Human Ecology in Savanna Environments
1571:"How to Pronounce B and V in Spanish"
1343:
1341:
1059:Southeast Australia temperate savanna
376:, savanna vegetation is similar from
7:
1712:and beside a river flowing into the
1700:west of and accessible by ship from
1044:Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic
1032:Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna
995:of several different types include:
610:are a result of human fire use. The
2870:Angolan Scarp savanna and woodlands
1569:B. A., Seattle Pacific University.
1192:Angolan Scarp savanna and woodlands
2502:The Journal of Wildlife Management
1109:California chaparral and woodlands
1075:Southern Cone Mesopotamian savanna
1050:Subtropical and temperate savannas
1024:Central Zambezian miombo woodlands
218:, which is itself a loanword from
27:Mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem
25:
2797:Calvachi Zambrano, Byron (2002).
2054:"Use of Fire by Native Americans"
1966:"The Theory of Savanna Planation"
1172:montane grasslands and shrublands
1040:Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands
889:greenhouse induced climate change
693:species). Alterations in savanna
125:with scattered trees and shrubs,
2842:PĂ©rez Preciado, Alfonso (2000).
2461:. Collingwood, CSIRO Publishing
2303:. Society For Range Management,
2279:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01484.x
2146:10.1034/j.1600-0587.2003.03411.x
1200:Eastern Anatolian montane steppe
972:
957:
937:
919:
903:
582:Savannas are subject to regular
2705:. In Patricia A. Werner (ed.).
2389:. In Patricia A. Werner (ed.).
2099:Frenchs Forest, New South Wales
1318:Smith, Jeremy M.B.. "savanna".
1281:. In Patricia A. Werner (ed.).
1131:flooded grasslands and savannas
713:Savanna in eastern South Africa
238:when transcribed into English.
3211:Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves
2917:New International Encyclopedia
2814:Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano
2199:Palmer, Jane (29 March 2021).
2176:University of Washington Press
1647:William Powell (London), 1555.
1532:. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
783:Taita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary
539:and kangaroo grass (Themeda).
523:vegetation, which include the
511:over a grass cover comprising
247:ilands of the kinges of Spayne
1:
3219:Aciculifolious, needle-leaved
1810:, 5–9, 12, 271–278, 297–298.
1794:David R. Harris, ed. (1980).
1326:. Accessed 17 September 2022.
1198:and the southern part of the
1091:are mid-latitude savannas in
1028:Guinean forest–savanna mosaic
1018:. Other examples include the
944:Mediterranean savanna in the
746:both sheep and cattle areas.
327:Köppen climate classification
129:with distributed shrubs, and
2024:10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109786
1885:David L. Lentz, ed. (2000).
1726:Bancroft, Hubert H. (1882).
1155:Zambezian flooded grasslands
643:Grazing and browsing animals
2799:"La biodiversidad bogotana"
841:), Giant rat's tail grass (
753:, the removal of a ring of
407:. It has been posited that
277:or at points on the nearby
156:, while Eastern Australian
3357:
3048:Scarcely vegetated areas,
2089:Flannery, Timothy Fridtjof
1837:Cambridge University Press
1619:D'Anghiera, Peter Martyr.
1196:Al Hajar montane woodlands
1147:Nile Delta flooded savanna
1020:Kimberley tropical savanna
965:Nile Delta flooded savanna
563:Changes in fire management
483:. Wetter savannas include
415:. Flooding and associated
211:The word derives from the
171:, and are frequently in a
29:
2960:Vegetation classification
2562:"Deforestation explained"
1895:Columbia University Press
1784:. Accessed 1 August 2014.
1623:Arnao Guillén de Brocar (
1596:Oxford English Dictionary
1151:Lake Chad flooded savanna
1071:Cumberland Plain Woodland
979:A montane savanna in the
36:Savannah (disambiguation)
2765:10.1073/pnas.95.25.14839
2457:Florence, R. G. (1996).
1925:, 371, 2015.0311, 2016.
1530:Arizona Board of Regents
1180:Altiplano Cundiboyacense
885:woody plant encroachment
854:Parthenium hysterophorus
802:Cryptostegia grandiflora
673:feeding on acorns of an
661:woody plant encroachment
245:in a description of the
2901:Encyclopædia Britannica
2816:: 89–98. Archived from
2258:Journal of Biogeography
2004:Biological Conservation
1320:Encyclopedia Britannica
1016:exotic and varied flora
835:species, Buffel grass (
439:, with grasses such as
101:(i.e. grassy woodland)
53:Tarangire National Park
3242:Terrestrial vegetation
3019:Herbaceous communities
2904:(11th ed.). 1911.
2385:Winter, W. H. (1991).
1659:: "The palace of this
1089:Mediterranean savannas
844:Sporobolus pyramidalis
790:
725:
721:Eucalyptus savanna in
714:
677:
655:
614:shrub savannas of the
579:
397:climatic geomorphology
321:
269:Carlos in present-day
191:land area. Unlike the
82:
63:
34:. For other uses, see
1497:"The grassland biome"
1093:Mediterranean climate
926:Temperate savanna in
780:
720:
712:
669:
650:
570:
535:with grasses such as
527:, as well as Acacia,
311:
195:in North America and
69:
46:
3280:Biogeographic realms
2886:at barrameda.com.ar
2823:on 29 September 2018
2717:. pp. 109–118.
2715:Blackwell Publishing
2401:. pp. 181–186.
2399:Blackwell Publishing
2101:: Reed New Holland.
1923:Philos. T. R. Soc. B
1291:Blackwell Publishing
1139:Mesopotamian Marshes
910:Tropical savanna in
823:) and Prickly Pear (
773:Exotic plant species
576:Kakadu National Park
489:Pennisetum purpureum
353:", "grassland" and "
234:hence the change of
76:Kruger National Park
3191:, semicaducifolious
2756:1998PNAS...9514839A
2750:(25): 14839–14842.
2701:Archer, S. (1991).
2271:2006JBiog..33.1102L
2138:2003Ecogr..26...80S
2016:2022BCons.27609786W
1456:10.1038/nature04070
1448:2005Natur.438..846S
879:resulting from the
695:species composition
549:Asian water buffalo
3290:Floristic kingdoms
3247:Aquatic vegetation
2566:Wilderness Society
1865:www.britannica.com
1542:ASALE, RAE-; RAE.
1117:Middle East steppe
895:Savanna ecoregions
791:
726:
715:
678:
656:
606:, and savannas in
596:Aboriginal burning
580:
322:
318:Northern Australia
83:
64:
3313:
3312:
3058:Barren vegetation
3050:desert vegetation
2724:978-0-632-03199-3
2408:978-0-632-03199-3
2185:978-0-295-97596-2
2108:978-0-8076-1403-7
1908:978-0-231-11157-7
1893:. New York City:
1846:978-0-521-57322-1
1817:978-0-12-326550-0
1762:Bancroft (1882),
1747:Bancroft (1882),
1442:(7069): 846–849.
1300:978-0-632-03199-3
1083:Uruguayan savanna
1063:Argentine Espinal
1000:Tropical savannas
881:greenhouse effect
838:Cenchrus ciliaris
743:carrying capacity
413:lateral migration
173:transitional zone
32:Savannah, Georgia
16:(Redirected from
3348:
3300:Plant life-forms
3197:, perennifolious
3012:, dwarf-scrubs,
2949:
2942:
2935:
2926:
2921:
2913:
2911:"Savannas"
2905:
2897:
2889:
2872:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2850:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2822:
2806:Revista la Tadeo
2803:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2777:
2767:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2698:
2692:
2681:
2675:
2663:
2654:
2643:
2637:
2626:
2620:
2609:
2603:
2592:
2586:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2541:The Conversation
2532:
2526:
2525:
2514:10.2193/2007-072
2493:
2487:
2476:
2470:
2455:
2449:
2437:
2431:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2382:
2376:
2373:
2367:
2364:CSIRO Publishing
2360:
2354:
2342:
2336:
2324:
2315:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2265:(6): 1102–1115.
2244:
2235:
2224:
2209:
2208:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2169:
2160:Pyne, Stephen J.
2156:
2150:
2149:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2085:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2050:
2044:
2043:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1958:
1947:
1936:
1930:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1892:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1801:
1791:
1785:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1723:
1717:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1654:
1648:
1644:
1630:
1617:
1608:
1602:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1539:
1533:
1526:WOODLAND SAVANNA
1523:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1493:
1484:
1483:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1374:
1370:
1361:
1358:
1349:
1345:
1336:
1333:
1327:
1316:
1305:
1304:
1274:
1265:
1262:
1256:
1253:
1127:Flooded savannas
976:
961:
941:
923:
907:
863:spp.) and other
820:L. montevidensis
811:spp.), Lantana (
781:Acacia savanna,
627:herbaceous layer
623:controlled burns
588:Native Americans
447:. Bean relative
314:savanna woodland
253:of the times to
119:savanna woodland
21:
3356:
3355:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3268:
3230:
3185:, caducifolious
3179:Loss of leaves
3168:
3137:
3105:
3099:
3063:
3006:Dwarf-shrubland
2962:
2953:
2908:
2895:"Savanna"
2892:
2887:
2880:
2875:
2868:
2864:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2682:
2678:
2664:
2657:
2644:
2640:
2627:
2623:
2610:
2606:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2560:
2559:
2555:
2545:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2477:
2473:
2456:
2452:
2438:
2434:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2361:
2357:
2343:
2339:
2325:
2318:
2298:
2294:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2225:
2212:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2158:
2157:
2153:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2087:
2086:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2064:on 5 March 2014
2052:
2051:
2047:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1960:
1959:
1950:
1937:
1933:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1839:. p. 157.
1830:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1776:
1772:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1692:The account of
1691:
1687:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1655:
1651:
1642:
1628:
1618:
1611:
1600:
1593:
1589:
1579:
1577:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1553:
1551:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1524:
1517:
1507:
1505:
1495:
1494:
1487:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1417:
1415:
1411:Ask a Biologist
1404:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1377:
1371:
1364:
1359:
1352:
1346:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1322:, 5 Sep. 2016,
1317:
1308:
1301:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1209:
988:
987:
986:
985:
984:
981:Colombian Andes
977:
969:
968:
962:
954:
953:
946:Alentejo region
942:
933:
932:
931:
928:New South Wales
924:
916:
915:
908:
897:
887:as a result of
873:
799:), Rubbervine (
796:Acacia nilotica
775:
707:
684:Acacia nilotica
645:
565:
557:
425:
374:Central America
306:
287:Point Mosquitos
281:coast opposite
209:
154:riparian forest
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3354:
3352:
3344:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3318:
3317:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3209:
3208:, stiff leaves
3202:Leaf hardness
3200:
3199:
3198:
3192:
3189:Semi-deciduous
3186:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3119:, ombrophilous
3109:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3046:
3037:
3016:
3003:
2986:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2956:Phytogeography
2954:
2952:
2951:
2944:
2937:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2906:
2890:
2879:
2878:External links
2876:
2874:
2873:
2862:
2834:
2808:(in Spanish).
2789:
2730:
2723:
2693:
2676:
2655:
2638:
2621:
2604:
2587:
2578:
2553:
2527:
2508:(4): 892–899.
2488:
2471:
2450:
2432:
2414:
2407:
2377:
2368:
2355:
2337:
2316:
2292:
2236:
2210:
2191:
2184:
2151:
2114:
2107:
2075:
2045:
1989:
1948:
1942:334, 230–232.
1931:
1914:
1907:
1877:
1852:
1845:
1823:
1816:
1804:Academic Press
1786:
1770:
1755:
1740:
1718:
1714:southern ocean
1685:
1669:
1649:
1609:
1587:
1561:
1534:
1515:
1485:
1425:
1397:
1388:
1375:
1362:
1350:
1337:
1328:
1306:
1299:
1279:"Introduction"
1266:
1257:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1184:Eastern Ranges
1176:Bogotá savanna
1162:
1124:
1107:, part of the
1086:
1047:
978:
971:
970:
963:
956:
955:
943:
936:
935:
934:
925:
918:
917:
909:
902:
901:
900:
899:
898:
896:
893:
877:climate change
875:Human induced
872:
871:Climate change
869:
857:) and stylos (
814:Lantana camara
774:
771:
723:Western Sydney
706:
703:
652:Grevy's zebras
644:
641:
564:
561:
556:
553:
424:
421:
409:river incision
305:
302:
208:
205:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3353:
3342:
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3334:
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3329:
3327:
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3321:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3225:
3222:Latifolious,
3221:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3165:
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3110:
3108:
3102:
3096:
3093:
3091:
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3086:
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3073:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3014:suffruticetum
3011:
3010:subshrublands
3007:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2950:
2945:
2943:
2938:
2936:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2919:
2918:
2912:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2866:
2863:
2847:
2846:
2838:
2835:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2800:
2793:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2731:
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1414:. 25 May 2014
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382:South America
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336:Amazon Rivers
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155:
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146:cerrado dense
143:
142:sensu stricto
141:
134:
132:
131:grass savanna
128:
127:shrub savanna
124:
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3295:Plant habits
3224:broad-leaved
3039:
3034:
3013:
3000:
2981:
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2899:
2865:
2853:. Retrieved
2844:
2837:
2825:. Retrieved
2818:the original
2809:
2805:
2792:
2747:
2743:
2733:
2706:
2696:
2679:
2641:
2624:
2607:
2590:
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2569:. Retrieved
2565:
2556:
2544:. Retrieved
2540:
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2501:
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2093:
2066:. Retrieved
2062:the original
2057:
2048:
2007:
2003:
1992:
1975:
1969:
1962:Cotton, C.A.
1939:
1934:
1922:
1917:
1888:
1880:
1868:. Retrieved
1864:
1855:
1832:
1826:
1797:
1789:
1781:
1773:
1758:
1743:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1721:
1694:Peter Martyr
1688:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1657:Richard Eden
1652:
1637:
1633:Richard Eden
1620:
1604:
1603:"savannah",
1594:
1590:
1578:. Retrieved
1574:
1564:
1552:. Retrieved
1550:(in Spanish)
1547:
1537:
1506:. Retrieved
1500:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1416:. Retrieved
1409:
1400:
1391:
1331:
1282:
1260:
1251:
1164:
1126:
1103:savannas of
1088:
1049:
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860:Stylosanthes
858:
852:
842:
836:
830:
824:
818:
812:
806:
800:
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792:
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748:
739:
727:
699:
690:Stylosanthes
688:
682:
679:
671:Iberian pigs
657:
632:
621:Intentional
620:
590:created the
581:
558:
545:Macropodidae
541:
485:Brachystegia
426:
394:
390:
340:
323:
313:
304:Distribution
263:Peter Martyr
259:history of V
254:
246:
242:
240:
231:
227:
215:
210:
166:
145:
138:
135:
130:
126:
123:tree savanna
122:
118:
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86:
84:
80:South Africa
71:
49:tree savanna
48:
40:
3206:Sclerophyll
3080:Subtropical
2967:Physiognomy
2884:The Savanna
1897:. pp.
1806:. pp.
1174:biome. The
1099:biome. The
763:tebuthiuron
578:, Australia
537:Heteropogon
517:Dichanthium
477:Hyparrhenia
384:and to the
355:oak opening
251:orthography
224:West Indies
158:sclerophyll
93:is a mixed
61:East Africa
3331:Grasslands
3326:Ecosystems
3320:Categories
3305:Vegetation
3216:Leaf form
3154:Submontane
3023:grasslands
3001:fruticetum
2995:, scrubs,
2989:Shrublands
2249:Eucalyptus
2010:: 109786.
1870:19 October
1802:. London:
1780:. "" from
1629:(in Latin)
1386:Physiology
1244:References
1157:, and the
1135:Everglades
1105:California
993:ecoregions
849:parthenium
604:New Guinea
525:eucalyptus
493:Anogeissus
487:trees and
473:Andropogon
417:sheet wash
405:inselbergs
401:pediplains
368:, e.g. in
359:dry season
115:herbaceous
3235:Substrate
3195:Evergreen
3183:Deciduous
3085:Temperate
3044:parklands
2983:arboretum
2978:woodlands
2522:0022-541X
2253:Callitris
2125:Ecography
2040:253503609
2032:0006-3207
1971:Geography
1631:. Trans.
1580:29 August
1575:ThoughtCo
1508:31 August
1464:0028-0836
1418:31 August
1406:"Savanna"
1228:Rangeland
1008:Serengeti
600:Australia
584:wildfires
521:evergreen
501:Strychnos
497:Combretum
469:Euphorbia
457:Combretum
437:Bowdichia
433:Byrsonima
429:Curatella
386:Caribbean
364:. In the
362:wildfires
279:Guna Yala
275:MadugandĂ
207:Etymology
185:grassland
107:ecosystem
99:grassland
3273:See also
3257:Mangrove
3252:Riparian
3142:Altitude
3128:Seasonal
3104:Climatic
3090:Subpolar
3075:Tropical
3068:Latitude
3040:Savannas
3035:herbetum
3031:prairies
2997:thickets
2287:85775764
2162:(1997).
2091:(1994).
1984:40565228
1964:(1961).
1679:Book III
1661:Comogrus
1643:Book III
1627:), 1516
1472:16341012
1207:See also
1168:savannas
1143:Pantanal
1119:and the
1101:oak tree
1081:and the
1042:and the
950:Portugal
808:Prosopis
751:girdling
730:fracking
675:holm oak
572:Bushfire
533:Pandanus
529:Bauhinia
509:Zizyphus
465:Borassus
449:Prosopis
445:Paspalum
366:Americas
294:cropland
236:grapheme
193:prairies
175:between
95:woodland
91:savannah
57:Tanzania
18:Savannas
3164:Coastal
3159:Lowland
3149:Montane
3133:Drought
3113:Pluvial
3027:steppes
2974:Forests
2920:. 1905.
2855:4 March
2827:4 March
2784:9843976
2752:Bibcode
2571:10 July
2546:10 July
2267:Bibcode
2205:eos.org
2172:Seattle
2134:Bibcode
2068:21 July
2012:Bibcode
1940:Science
1710:Dariena
1706:leagues
1702:Dariena
1698:leagues
1601:3rd ed.
1554:6 March
1480:4344778
1444:Bibcode
1223:Prairie
1218:Pasture
1186:of the
1166:Montane
1012:Cerrado
865:legumes
832:Chloris
826:Opuntia
759:sapwood
654:grazing
636:legumes
555:Threats
481:Themeda
461:baobabs
441:Leersia
423:Ecology
347:prairie
343:barrens
267:cacique
213:Spanish
201:Eurasia
197:steppes
189:Earth's
162:hectare
150:hectare
140:cerrado
87:savanna
3285:Biomes
3262:Swampy
3173:Leaves
3123:Cloudy
3106:regime
3054:Desert
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2772:
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2711:Oxford
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2670:
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2395:Oxford
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2305:Denver
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1982:
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1843:
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1765:p. 347
1750:p. 362
1704:or 70
1665:Zauana
1639:Spayne
1625:Alcala
1478:
1470:
1462:
1436:Nature
1297:
1287:Oxford
1233:Steppe
1213:Pampas
1067:Pampas
737:past.
612:maquis
513:Sehima
507:, and
505:Mimosa
499:, and
479:, and
467:, and
453:Acacia
435:, and
378:Mexico
370:Belize
298:jungle
291:modern
285:or on
283:Ustupo
271:Panama
255:zavana
243:Zauana
216:sabana
181:desert
177:forest
169:biomes
111:canopy
3117:rainy
3095:Polar
2993:heath
2849:(PDF)
2821:(PDF)
2802:(PDF)
2775:24536
2283:S2CID
2036:S2CID
1980:JSTOR
1901:–74.
1645:, §3.
1476:S2CID
1188:Andes
912:Kenya
787:Kenya
608:India
351:glade
332:Congo
257:(see
220:TaĂno
103:biome
2857:2017
2829:2017
2780:PMID
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2668:ISBN
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2596:ISBN
2573:2024
2548:2024
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1944:link
1927:link
1903:ISBN
1872:2023
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