579:(IPCC) (1997) suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level of +18 cm by 2050 AD. This data is reinforced by Hannah (1990) who calculated similar statistics including a rise of between +16-19.3 cm throughout 1900–1988. Superstorm Sandy of 2012 is an example of the devastating effects rising sea levels can cause when mixed with a perfect storm. Superstorm Sandy sent a storm surge of 4–5 m onto New Jersey's and New York's barrier island and urban shorelines, estimated at $ 70 billion in damage. This problem could be overcome by further modeling and determining the extension of height and reinforcement of current seawalls which needs to occur for safety to be ensured in both situations. Sea level rise also will cause a higher risk of flooding and taller tsunamis.
725:, UK, when great floods of the Thames estuary occurred, prompting the construction of protection for further events in this flood-prone area. Since then, seawall design has become more complex and intricate in response to an improvement in materials, technology, and an understanding of how coastal processes operate. This section will outline some key case studies of seawalls in chronological order and describe how they have performed in response to tsunamis or ongoing natural processes and how effective they were in these situations. Analyzing the successes and shortcomings of seawalls during severe natural events allows their weaknesses to be exposed, and areas become visible for future improvement.
341:
671:
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812:, both located along the coast close to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect the plants. Arguably, the additional defense provided by the seawalls presented an extra margin of time for citizens to evacuate and also stopped some of the full force of energy which would have caused the wave to climb higher in the backs of coastal valleys. In contrast, the seawalls also acted in a negative way to trap water and delay its retreat.
741:. The seawall was constructed initially as waves created by ships passing through the First Narrows eroding the area between Prospect Point and Brockton Point. Construction of the seawall began in 1917, and since then this pathway has become one of the most used features of the park by both locals and tourists and now extends 22 km in total. The construction of the seawall also provided employment for relief workers during the Great Depression and seamen from
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57:
42:
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The failure of the world's largest seawall, which cost $ 1.5 billion to construct, shows that building stronger seawalls to protect larger areas would have been even less cost-effective. In the case of the ongoing crisis at the nuclear power plants, higher and stronger seawalls should have been built
429:
or coastal vegetation. A Japanese study of this tsunami in Sri Lanka used satellite imagery modelling to establish the parameters of coastal resistance as a function of different types of trees. Natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, prevent the spread of tsunamis and the flow of
657:
Some further issues include a lack of long-term trend data of seawall effects due to a relatively short duration of data records; modeling limitations and comparisons of different projects and their effects being invalid or unequal due to different beach types; materials; currents; and environments.
636:
The addition of seawalls near marine ecosystems can lead to increased shadowing effects in the waters surrounding the seawall. Shadowing reduces the light and visibility within the water, which may disrupt the distribution as well as foraging capabilities of certain species. The sediment surrounding
627:
or storm-induced waves compared to normal, expected wave patterns. An extreme event can dissipate hundreds of times more energy than everyday waves, and calculating structures that will stand the force of coastal storms is difficult and, often the outcome can become unaffordable. For example, the
780:
The barrier was initially completed in 1735 and over the years, the French continued to fortify the wall, piling huge boulders along its 1.25 mi (2 km) coastline to stop erosion from the waves pounding the harbor. At its highest, the barrier running along the water's edge reaches about
574:
creates an issue for seawalls worldwide as it raises both the mean normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope with. The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when
755:
Overall, the
Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities,
443:
and human property or activities. A seawall is a static feature which can conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. The table below summarizes some positive and negative effects of seawalls which can be used when comparing their
662:. Residents of the area pay hundreds of dollars each year for a seawall repair program. The problem is that most of the seawalls are over a half-century old and are being destroyed by only heavy downpours. If not kept in check, seawalls lose effectiveness and become expensive to repair.
805:, 4-metre (13 ft) waves surmounted the seawall – the world's largest, erected a few years ago in the city's harbor at a depth of 63 m (207 ft), a length of 2 km (1.2 mi) and a cost of $ 1.5 billion – and eventually submerged the city center.
557:
options, additionally providing recreation opportunities and protection from extreme events as well as everyday erosion. Extreme natural events expose weaknesses in the performance of seawalls, and analyses of these can lead to future improvements and reassessment.
772:
escaped unscathed. This was primarily due to French engineers who had constructed (and maintained) a massive stone seawall during the time when the city was a French colony. This 300-year-old seawall effectively kept
Pondicherry's historic center dry even though
781:
27 ft (8.2 m) above sea level. The boulders, some weighing up to a ton, are weathered black and brown. The seawall is inspected every year and whenever gaps appear or the stones sink into the sand, the government adds more boulders to keep it strong.
1116:
O’Shaughnessy, Kathryn A.; Hawkins, Stephen J.; Evans, Ally J.; Hanley, Mick E.; Lunt, Paul; Thompson, Richard C.; Francis, Robert A.; Hoggart, Simon P. G.; Moore, Pippa J.; Iglesias, Gregorio; Simmonds, David; Ducker, James; Firth, Louise B. (2020-04-01).
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to redesign its seawalls or consider more effective alternative methods of coastal protection for extreme events. Such hardened coastlines can also provide a false sense of security to property owners and local residents as evident in this situation.
702:
concrete which hardens in contact with seawater. Barges were constructed and filled with the concrete. They were floated into position and sunk. The resulting harbor/breakwater/seawall is still in existence today – more than 2000 years later.
438:
A cost-benefit approach is an effective way to determine whether a seawall is appropriate and whether the benefits are worth the expense. Besides controlling erosion, consideration must be given to the effects of hardening a shoreline on natural
250:
wave which moves up and down but does not travel horizontally. These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall and can cause severe damage to the seawall. In some cases, piles are placed in front of the wall to lessen wave energy slightly.
548:
Generally, seawalls can be a successful way to control coastal erosion, but only if they are constructed well and out of materials that can withstand the force of ongoing wave energy. Some understanding is needed of the coastal processes and
1470:
Allan, J C, Kirk, R M, Hemmingsen, M & Hart, D. (1999) Coastal
Processes in Southern Pegasus Bay: A Review – A Report to Woodward-Clyde New Zealand Ltd. and the Christchurch City Council. Land and Water Studies Ltd.
796:
At least 43 percent of Japan's 29,751 km (18,486 mi) coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures designed to protect the country against high waves, typhoons, or even tsunamis. During the
212:
The appropriate seawall design relies on location-specific aspects, including surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved, stepped, and mounds (see table below).
176:
A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. Seawalls have two specific weaknesses. Wave reflection from the wall may result in
498:
Altered sediment transport processes can disrupt sand movement that can lead to increased erosion down drift from the structure. This can cause beaches to dissipate, rendering them useless for beach goers.
628:
Omaha Beach seawall in New
Zealand was designed to prevent erosion from everyday waves only, and when a storm in 1976 carved out ten meters behind the existing seawall, the whole structure was destroyed.
1524:
Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Retrieved Online 15 April 2011 from: www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports
1072:
Hsiung AR, Tan WT, Loke LHL, Firth LB and others (2020) Little evidence that lowering the pH of concrete supports greater biodiversity on tropical and temperate seawalls. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 656:193-205
1403:
1881:
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may arise from the construction of a seawall, including the disruption of sediment movement and transport patterns. Combined with a high construction cost, this has led to increasing use of other
824:
Seawalls along the
Japanese coast have also been criticized for cutting settlements off from the sea, making beaches unusable, presenting an eyesore, disturbing wildlife, and being unnecessary.
784:
The Union
Territory of Pondicherry recorded around 600 deaths from the huge tsunami waves that struck India's coast after the mammoth underwater earthquake (which measured 9.0 on the
1855:
1596:"Understanding the effects of coastal defence structures on marine biota: The role of substrate composition and roughness in structuring sessile, macro- and meiofaunal communities"
365:. These serve to armour the shore and minimise erosion and may be either watertight or porous, which allows water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated.
361:, are used in less demanding settings where lower energy erosional processes operate. The least exposed sites involve the lowest-cost bulkheads and revetments of sand bags or
575:
possible for other vertical land motions by the Global
Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8 mm/yr over the twentieth century. The
1663:
1793:
1670:, "More failing Seawalls in Punta Gorda Isles – NBC-2.com WBBH News for Fort Myers, Cape Coral & Naples, Florida." NBC-2.com. Nbc, 21 Oct. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2014.
1545:, "Sea-Level Rise Implications for Coastal Protection from Southern Mediterranean to the USA Atlantic Coast." EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts. Vol. 15. 2013.
2011:
168:. The type of material used for construction is hypothesized to affect the settlement of coastal organisms, although the precise mechanism has yet to be identified.
181:
and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Seawalls may also accelerate the erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas by affecting the
300:
Curved or stepped seawalls are designed to enable waves to break to dissipate wave energy and to repel waves back to the sea. The curve can also prevent the wave
2076:
844:
invested $ 3,000,000,000 in a hurricane restoration fund, with part of the money dedicated to building new seawalls and protection from future hurricanes. A
788:) off Indonesia, but most of those killed were fishermen who lived in villages beyond the artificial barrier which reinforces the effectiveness of seawalls.
816:
if power plants were to be built at that site. Fundamentally, the devastation in coastal areas and a final death toll predicted to exceed 10,000 could push
1401:
1347:... the reflected wave energy interacted with the incoming waves to produce standing waves known as clapotis, which promote erosion at the toe of the wall.
418:
1889:
192:
include building reefs and forests to above-ground and submerged seawalls. Starting just weeks after the disaster, in
January 2005, India began planting
1929:
718:. Tel Hreiz was discovered in 1960 by divers searching for shipwrecks, but the row of boulders was not found until storms cleared a sand cover in 2012.
1287:
1533:
Hannah, J. (1990) "The
Analysis of Mean Sea Level Data from New Zealand for the Period 1899–1988" in The Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, No. 88.
576:
110:. As a seawall is a static feature, it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea.
1911:
1769:
1681:
603:, rain percolating into the ground behind the wall and waves overtopping the wall. The water table can also rise during periods of high water (
649:
content, and less macroscale roughness) when compared to natural shorelines, which can present issues for species that reside on the seafloor.
965:
798:
954:
1863:
1699:
658:
Lack of maintenance is also a major issue with seawalls. In 2013, more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of seawall was found to be crumbling in
845:
2116:
2023:
809:
1816:
1340:
1308:
1270:
340:
2035:
1454:
1119:"Design catalogue for eco-engineering of coastal artificial structures: a multifunctional approach for stakeholders and end-users"
2069:
242:
Vertical seawalls are built in particularly exposed situations. These reflect wave energy. Under storm conditions a non-breaking
144:. Other possible construction materials include vinyl, wood, aluminum, fiberglass composite, and biodegradable sandbags made of
2126:
971:
749:
1661:
2101:
1184:
98:. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation, and leisure activities from the action of
2044:
421:
suggests that the tsunami of 26 December 2004 caused less damage in the areas where natural barriers were present, such as
324:
Curved seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence.
2008:
768:
tsunami crashed against India's south-eastern coastline killing thousands. However, the former French colonial enclave of
1009:
Shipman, Brian; Stojanovic, Tim (2007), "Facts, Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe",
2398:
999:
Kamphuis, W J. (2010) Introduction to Coastal Engineering and Management. World Scientific Publishing Co Ltd. Singapore.
765:
206:
2372:
2062:
35:
756:
interactions with the coast, and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.
114:
1236:
2357:
670:
495:
Can disrupt natural shoreline processes and destroy shoreline habitats such as wetlands and intertidal beaches.
1981:
1557:"Seawall as salmon habitat: Eco-engineering improves the distribution and foraging of juvenile Pacific salmon"
553:
specific to the seawall location. Seawalls can be very helpful; they can offer a more long-term solution than
1955:
1103:
NOAA. (2007) Shoreline Management: Alternatives to Hardening the Shore. Retrieved online 15 April 2011 from:
2326:
1314:
980:
2049:
321:
The curve can prevent waves from overtopping the wall and provides extra protection for the toe of the wall
2178:
1743:
Technical Report. Vancouver: Stanley Park Task Force, prepared by Belyea, Sorensen & Associates. P 15.
1206:
898:
860:
785:
691:
690:
Seawall construction has existed since ancient times. In the first century BCE, Romans built a seawall or
50:
20:
1450:
MEDUS. (2011) Marine Engineering Division of University of Salerno. Retrieved online 10 April 2011 from:
287:
1982:"'It's been a losing battle' : Seawall collapses in South Ponte Vedra as coast reels from storms"
623:
Extreme events also pose a problem as it is not easy for people to predict or imagine the strength of
2278:
2268:
2233:
1607:
1497:
1368:
1296:
1263:
Coastal environments: an introduction to the physical, ecological, and cultural systems of coastlines
1153:
1130:
1018:
710:
off the coast of Israel. Boulders were positioned in an attempt to protect the coastal settlement of
659:
599:
is not drained from behind the seawall. Groundwater against a seawall can be from the area's natural
550:
122:
1730:
Council of Europe. (1999) European code of conduct for coastal zones, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
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2243:
2183:
2106:
1542:
930:
904:
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734:
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may also develop as the escaping water pressure erodes soil through or around the drainage system.
209:. Studies have found that an offshore tsunami wall could reduce tsunami wave heights by up to 83%.
137:
130:
72:
24:
1063:
Clarke, J R. 1994. Integrated Management of Coastal Zones. Fao Corporate Document Repository, USA.
2377:
2311:
2228:
2111:
2093:
2085:
1631:
1595:
1576:
1556:
1384:
1166:
1034:
959:
945:
875:
334:
The deflected waves can scour material at the base of the wall causing them to become undermined.
178:
87:
61:
1441:
Short, A. (1999) Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Ch 7.
711:
2403:
2321:
2316:
2306:
1812:
1787:
1707:
1623:
1336:
1304:
1266:
1158:
936:
707:
695:
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Effectively minimizes loss of life in extreme events and damage to property caused by erosion.
445:
440:
165:
1956:"'An enormous effort:': Daytona Beach Shores residents seek permanent fix to damaged seawall"
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2298:
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2223:
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1505:
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1026:
881:
738:
554:
301:
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Vertical design can be undercut by high-wave energy environments over a long period of time.
126:
118:
2020:
1648:
Christchurch City Council. (2009) Study of the Effects of Sea Level Rise for Christchurch.
2352:
2347:
2168:
2121:
2039:
2027:
2015:
1879:
Msubi (2011) Seawalls are no Match for Japan Tsunami. Retrieved online 8 April 2011 from:
1833:
1667:
1458:
1420:
1407:
1209:. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Institutional Repository. 25 November 2010. Archived from
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715:
675:
189:
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Can exist longer in high energy environments in comparison to ‘soft’ engineering methods.
1611:
1501:
1372:
1300:
1134:
1022:
983: – City walls of Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) (Constantinople seawalls)
310:
2032:
1451:
919:
841:
742:
588:
571:
182:
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The oldest known coastal defense is believed to be a 100-meter row of boulders in the
113:
Seawall designs factor in local climate, coastal position, wave regime (determined by
2392:
1635:
1580:
1481:
1388:
1170:
1038:
837:
722:
638:
243:
1619:
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has been proposed, but not voted on or funded by Congress or the State of New York.
401:
117:
and effectors), and value (morphological characteristics) of landform. Seawalls are
1770:"Historic town in eastern India saved from destruction by sea wall built by French"
1740:
1104:
1572:
737:
is a stone seawall constructed around the perimeter of Stanley Park in Vancouver,
922: – Artificial wall used for supporting soil between two different elevations
769:
642:
600:
596:
592:
426:
362:
67:
2050:
General overview of residential and small commercial steel seawall construction
1410:
Satellite imagery and modelling show how forests cushion the impact of tsunamis
1143:
1118:
257:
2193:
1882:"great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami"
1380:
1359:
Milligan J, O'riordan T (2007). "Governance for Sustainable Coastal Futures".
1234:
GeoResources. (2001) Coastal management. Retrieved online 18 April 2011 from:
1030:
810:
the crisis at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni nuclear power plants
94:, and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the
1711:
1240:
1162:
2253:
2198:
2173:
2158:
2136:
1594:
Sedano, F.; Navarro-Barranco, C.; Guerra-García, J.M.; Espinosa, F. (2020).
892:
699:
624:
612:
604:
422:
354:
265:
The first implemented, most easily designed and constructed type of seawall.
194:
56:
41:
28:
1627:
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waves drove water 24 ft (7.3 m) above the normal high-tide mark.
371:
2045:"Japan may rethink seawalls after tsunami", New York Times, March 14, 2011
1679:
Does anyone have a reference for this? The closest thing I could find is:
1052:
The Effects of Seawalls on the Beach: Part I: An Updated Literature Review
1510:
1485:
802:
608:
247:
698:
creating an artificial harbor (Sebastos Harbor). The construction used
2153:
774:
646:
202:
199:
107:
46:
884: – Construction of hydraulic structures to reduce coastal erosion
2258:
2208:
2203:
2054:
679:
358:
304:
the wall and provides additional protection for the toe of the wall.
278:
These can suffer a lot of expensive damage in a short period of time.
161:
141:
395:
Cannot withstand or protect from high-energy conditions effectively.
205:
on its coast as a natural barrier against future disasters like the
121:
shore-based structures that protect the coast from erosion. Various
533:
522:
511:
452:
Advantages and disadvantages of seawalls according to Short (1999)
382:
Slope and loose material ensure maximum dissipation of wave energy.
2288:
2283:
2238:
2218:
2213:
2188:
2163:
1555:
Sawyer, Alexandra C.; Toft, Jason D.; Cordell, Jeffery R. (2020).
913:
817:
683:
669:
637:
seawalls tends to have less favorable physical properties (Higher
99:
95:
66:
55:
40:
1700:"This village fought sea-level rise 7,000 years ago. The sea won"
851:
In Florida, tiger dams are used to protect homes near the coast.
611:
can cause the seawall to buckle, move, bow, crack, or collapse.
2248:
149:
145:
103:
2058:
1210:
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who were facing punishment detail in the 1950s (Steele, 1985).
136:
Seawalls are constructed from various materials, most commonly
91:
444:
effectiveness with other coastal management options, such as
1912:"In Tsunami's Wake, Fierce Debate Over Japan's 'Great Wall'"
400:
379:
Current designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour.
339:
286:
1930:"Why big hurricanes weaken before they hit America's coast"
1207:"Design of a tsunami barrier to The North of Penang Island"
467:
Long term solution in comparison to soft beach nourishment.
430:
coastal waters and mitigated the flood and surge of water.
153:
268:
Vertical seawalls deflect wave energy away from the coast.
808:
The risks of dependence on seawalls were most evident in
2033:
MEDUS (Maritime Engineering Division University Salerno)
1856:"Japan's Seawalls Didn't Provide Security from tsunami"
976:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
950:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
939: – structure in Galveston, Galveston County, Texas
909:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
974: – Waterfront and roadway along San Francisco Bay
1289:
Dictionary of geophysics, astrophysics, and astronomy
1230:
1228:
878: – Preventing flooding and erosion of shorelines
1452:
http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php
941:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
721:
More recently, seawalls were constructed in 1623 in
2340:
2297:
2144:
2092:
1875:
1873:
1092:
Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology
492:
Reflected energy of waves leading to scour at base.
318:
Concave structure introduces a dissipative element.
801:, the seawalls in most areas were overwhelmed. In
1105:http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/shoreline.html
160:also refers to an earthen bank used to create a
1054:in Journal of Coastal Research. Vol. 12, No. 3.
1809:Breakwaters, coastal structures and coastlines
2070:
489:May be considered aesthetically unattractive.
8:
1792:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1757:. Vancouver: Whitecap Books. pp. 23–24.
764:On December 26, 2004, towering waves of the
542:3D simulation of wave motion near a seawall.
331:More complex engineering and design process.
246:pattern can form, resulting in a stationary
1768:writer, CHRIS TOMLINSON, Associated Press.
1094:. Oxford University Press. New York. Ch 11.
476:Can be used for recreation and sightseeing.
419:United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
2077:
2063:
2055:
2021:Seawalls and defences on the Isle of Wight
1509:
1154:2160/ece4983e-53ee-4e96-8771-f81c8f4fc41a
1152:
1142:
577:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1888:(Archived copy ed.). Archived from
1682:"Ancient Roman concrete mixture seawall"
1486:"Sea level rise and its coastal impacts"
916: – Ridge or wall to hold back water
907: – Ridge or wall to hold back water
641:levels, less structural organization of
595:. Water pressure buildup is caused when
479:Forms a hard and strong coastal defense.
450:
215:
992:
2009:Channel Coastal Observatory – Seawalls
1785:
1265:. Boston: Academic Press. p. 50.
933: – Seawall in Seattle, Washington
349:
296:
238:
60:People socializing and walking at the
1980:Barreto, Jessica (23 November 2022).
1335:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 44.
1295:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 81.
1090:Masselink, G and Hughes, M J. (2003)
962: – World's longest man-made dyke
7:
271:Loose rubble can absorb wave energy.
1954:Edlund, Ashley (23 November 2022).
895: – Concrete breakwater element
846:New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier
129:coastal management options such as
2117:Integrated coastal zone management
1237:"GeoResources - Geography website"
799:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
45:An example of a modern seawall in
14:
1739:Belyea, R (21 January 1992). The
981:Walls of Constantinople#Sea Walls
966:Sea Bright–Monmouth Beach Seawall
901: – Coastal defense structure
714:from sea rise following the last
2135:
1050:Kraus, N & McDougal. (1996)
532:
521:
510:
370:
309:
256:
1620:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111334
972:The Embarcadero (San Francisco)
948: – 280-mile wall in Guyana
1185:"India builds tsunami barrier"
591:, must relieve the buildup of
188:Different designs of man-made
1:
1910:Craft, Lucy (11 March 2014).
1573:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105856
968: – Seawall in New Jersey
1286:Matzner, Richard A. (2001).
766:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
674:A seawall, made of rocks in
369:
308:
255:
207:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
2373:Modern recession of beaches
1753:Steele, Richard M. (1985).
1187:. News 24. January 14, 2005
353:Mound type seawalls, using
233:
224:
36:Sea wall (British politics)
2420:
1774:New Bedford Standard-Times
1333:Environmental oceanography
1144:10.1007/s11252-019-00924-z
583:Hydrostatic water pressure
417:A report published by the
33:
18:
2133:
1755:The Stanley Park Explorer
1600:Marine Pollution Bulletin
1381:10.1080/08920750701525800
1031:10.1080/08920750601169659
352:
299:
241:
2358:Geotechnical engineering
888:Related types of walls:
392:Shorter life expectancy.
34:Not to be confused with
19:Not to be confused with
2327:Sand dune stabilization
1807:Allsop, N.W.H. (2002).
486:Expensive to construct.
16:Form of coastal defence
1561:Ecological Engineering
899:Breakwater (structure)
861:Breakwater (structure)
786:moment magnitude scale
687:
405:
344:
291:
140:, boulders, steel, or
90:constructed where the
75:
64:
53:
51:Isle of Wight, England
21:Breakwater (structure)
1261:Carter, Bill (1989).
673:
404:
343:
290:
70:
59:
44:
2279:Van der Meer formula
1866:on October 24, 2012.
1834:"The World Factbook"
1511:10.1002/2013EF000188
666:History and examples
660:Punta Gorda, Florida
607:). Lack of adequate
123:environmental issues
115:wave characteristics
2399:Coastal engineering
2368:Longshore transport
2184:Cliff stabilization
2107:Coastal engineering
1840:. 13 February 2024.
1612:2020MarPB.15711334S
1502:2014EaFut...2...15C
1373:2007CoasM..35..499M
1301:2001dgaa.book.....M
1213:on 12 November 2017
1135:2020UrbEc..23..431O
1081:Kajendra, R. (2011)
1023:2007CoasM..35..375S
931:Alaskan Way Seawall
905:Dike (construction)
866:Mole (architecture)
587:Seawalls, like all
453:
218:
138:reinforced concrete
131:beach replenishment
73:Urangan, Queensland
25:Mole (architecture)
2378:Stream restoration
2229:Honeycomb sea wall
2112:Coastal management
2086:Coastal management
2038:2011-07-22 at the
2026:2021-10-09 at the
2014:2018-12-14 at the
1854:(March 13, 2011).
1811:. Thomas Telford.
1666:2014-02-26 at the
1457:2011-07-22 at the
1423:. Science NetLinks
1421:"Tsunami Barriers"
1406:2011-07-16 at the
1361:Coastal Management
1331:Beer, Tom (1997).
1011:Coastal Management
960:Saemangeum Seawall
955:Gold Coast Seawall
946:Georgetown Seawall
876:Coastal management
688:
451:
441:coastal ecosystems
406:
385:Lower cost option.
345:
292:
216:
179:hydrodynamic scour
76:
65:
54:
2386:
2385:
2322:Living shorelines
2317:Dynamic revetment
2307:Beach nourishment
2234:Hudson's equation
1686:Popular Mechanics
937:Galveston Seawall
735:Vancouver Seawall
708:Mediterranean Sea
696:Caesarea Maritima
632:Ecosystem impacts
504:
503:
446:beach nourishment
410:
409:
166:dike construction
2411:
2363:Land reclamation
2332:Soft engineering
2299:Soft engineering
2224:Hard engineering
2146:Hard engineering
2139:
2079:
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2065:
2056:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1992:
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1971:
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1941:
1936:. 7 January 2017
1926:
1920:
1919:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1886:nippon-sekai.com
1877:
1868:
1867:
1862:. Archived from
1852:Norimitsu Onishi
1848:
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1319:
1313:. Archived from
1294:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1239:. Archived from
1232:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1156:
1146:
1123:Urban Ecosystems
1113:
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1101:
1095:
1088:
1082:
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1073:
1070:
1064:
1061:
1055:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1017:(2–3): 375–398,
1006:
1000:
997:
977:
951:
942:
926:Specific walls:
910:
882:Hard engineering
750:Deadman's Island
739:British Columbia
555:soft engineering
536:
525:
514:
454:
413:Natural barriers
374:
313:
260:
219:
190:tsunami barriers
127:soft engineering
119:hard engineering
2419:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2353:Coastal erosion
2348:Beach evolution
2336:
2293:
2169:Artificial reef
2140:
2131:
2122:Managed retreat
2088:
2083:
2040:Wayback Machine
2028:Wayback Machine
2016:Wayback Machine
2005:
2000:
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1714:
1704:Washington Post
1698:
1697:
1693:
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1674:
1668:Wayback Machine
1660:
1656:
1652:, Christchurch.
1650:Tonkin + Taylor
1647:
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975:
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857:
834:Hurricane Sandy
830:
794:
762:
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716:glacial maximum
668:
655:
645:structure, low
634:
621:
589:retaining walls
585:
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174:
88:coastal defense
86:) is a form of
62:Malecón, Havana
39:
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2341:Related topics
2338:
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2312:Beach drainage
2309:
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2003:External links
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1490:Earth's Future
1482:Cazenave, Anny
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1434:
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1394:
1367:(4): 499–509.
1351:
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1320:on 2007-07-22.
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1934:The Economist
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1310:0-8493-2891-8
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1272:0-12-161856-0
1268:
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1243:on 2012-08-01
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693:
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37:
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26:
22:
2263:
1989:. Retrieved
1985:
1975:
1963:. Retrieved
1959:
1949:
1938:. Retrieved
1933:
1924:
1915:
1905:
1894:. Retrieved
1890:the original
1885:
1864:the original
1859:
1846:
1837:
1828:
1808:
1802:
1777:. Retrieved
1773:
1763:
1754:
1748:
1741:Stanley Park
1735:
1726:
1715:. Retrieved
1703:
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1603:
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1520:
1496:(2): 15–34.
1493:
1489:
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1446:
1437:
1425:. Retrieved
1415:
1397:
1364:
1360:
1354:
1346:
1332:
1326:
1315:the original
1288:
1281:
1262:
1256:
1245:. Retrieved
1241:the original
1215:. Retrieved
1211:the original
1201:
1189:. Retrieved
1179:
1126:
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1111:
1099:
1091:
1086:
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653:Other issues
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211:
193:
187:
175:
157:
135:
112:
83:
79:
77:
1991:25 November
1965:25 November
770:Pondicherry
643:crystalline
601:water-table
597:groundwater
427:coral reefs
363:geotextiles
302:overtopping
228:Advantages
71:Seawall at
2393:Categories
2194:Flood wall
2179:Breakwater
2127:Submersion
2094:Management
1940:2017-01-20
1896:2011-04-30
1779:2023-10-04
1717:2023-05-03
1606:: 111334.
1567:: 105856.
1247:2011-04-30
988:References
743:HMCS
692:breakwater
457:Advantages
434:Trade-offs
355:revetments
2254:Revetment
2199:Floodgate
2174:Breachway
2159:Accropode
2102:Accretion
1712:0190-8286
1636:220518548
1581:218959238
1543:Link test
1427:March 30,
1389:154733601
1217:March 29,
1191:March 29,
1171:209492205
1163:1573-1642
1039:153826622
893:Accropode
871:General:
745:Discovery
712:Tel Hreiz
700:Pozzolana
625:hurricane
613:Sinkholes
605:high tide
423:mangroves
239:Vertical
195:Casuarina
185:process.
152:. In the
29:Revetment
2404:Seawalls
2269:Tetrapod
2036:Archived
2024:Archived
2012:Archived
1860:The Star
1788:cite web
1664:Archived
1628:32658698
1484:(2014).
1455:Archived
1404:Archived
855:See also
803:Kamaishi
682:city in
609:drainage
248:clapotic
234:Example
203:saplings
108:tsunamis
84:sea wall
2264:Seawall
2154:A-Jacks
1838:CIA.gov
1608:Bibcode
1498:Bibcode
1461:(MEDUS)
1369:Bibcode
1297:Bibcode
1131:Bibcode
1019:Bibcode
775:tsunami
676:Paravur
647:silicon
297:Curved
200:coconut
164:, or a
158:seawall
142:gabions
80:seawall
49:on the
47:Ventnor
2259:Riprap
2209:Groyne
2204:Gabion
1815:
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840:Mayor
729:Canada
680:Kollam
562:Issues
359:riprap
350:Mound
162:polder
2289:Xbloc
2284:Wharf
2239:KOLOS
2219:Levee
2214:Jetty
2189:Dolos
2164:Akmon
1986:Yahoo
1960:Yahoo
1632:S2CID
1577:S2CID
1385:S2CID
1318:(PDF)
1293:(PDF)
1167:S2CID
1035:S2CID
914:Levee
818:Japan
792:Japan
760:India
684:India
678:near
222:Type
172:Types
106:, or
104:waves
100:tides
96:coast
27:, or
2249:Pier
2244:Mole
1993:2022
1967:2022
1813:ISBN
1794:link
1708:ISSN
1624:PMID
1429:2011
1337:ISBN
1305:ISBN
1267:ISBN
1219:2011
1193:2011
1159:ISSN
733:The
198:and
150:coir
148:and
146:jute
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1916:NPR
1616:doi
1604:157
1569:doi
1565:151
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