Secularization - Knowledge (XXG)

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secularism." Despite the predictions of the "secularization theorists" like Marx and Weber, "modern" or secular processes have not meant the demise of religion and have actually proved to be quite compatible with religion—have even led, at least in the short term, to a surprising revival of religion. The problem with earlier secularization theories is that they presumed that secularization was a single, all-encompassing, and unidirectional phenomenon. However, as Peter Glasner has more recently shown, "secular" and "secularization" embrace a variety of diverse processes and responses, not all of which—indeed, few of which—are inherently antithetical to religion, Glasner identifies ten different versions of secularization, organized in terms of whether their thrust is primarily institutional, normative, or cognitive... The upshot of this analysis is that secularism most assuredly does not translate simply and directly into atheism. Many good theists support the secularization of the American government in the form of the "separation of church and state," and all of them go about at least part of their day without doing religion.

122:, removing the consecration of a religious building so that it may be used for other purposes. The first use of "secular" as a change from religion to the mundane is from the 16th century that referred to transforming ecclesiastical possessions for civil purposes, such as monasteries to hospitals; and by the 19th century it gained traction as a political object of secularist movements. In the 20th century, "secularization" had diversified into various versions in light of the diversity of experiences from different cultures and institutions. Scholars recognize that secularity is structured by Protestant models of Christianity, shares a parallel language to religion, and intensifies Protestant features such as iconoclasm, skepticism towards rituals, and emphasizes beliefs. In doing so, secularism perpetuates Christian traits under a different name. 2331:. Simon and Schuster (2013). pp 14-15. "All of this points to a simple conclusion: When Americans answer the "what is your religion" question by saying "none," it doesn't necessarily mean that they are devoid of religiousness. A "none" response could also mean that the respondents simply don't belong to a formal religious organization, group, or denomination. Or it could mean that they don't choose to label themselves with the name of a formal religious organization, group, or denomination. The "none" in these instances reflects how the respondents wanted to view themselves or how they chose to express their religion, not necessarily an absence of religiousness. 521:, this "core and the central thesis of the theory of secularization is the conceptualization of the process of societal modernization as a process of functional differentiation and emancipation of the secular spheres—primarily the state, the economy, and science—from the religious sphere and the concomitant differentiation and specialization of religion within its own newly found religious sphere". Casanova also describes this as the theory of "privatization" of religion, which he partially criticizes. While criticizing certain aspects of the traditional sociological theory of secularization, however, 766:

brought up as Christians, mainly Anglican or Catholic. Only 2% of "nones" were raised in religions other than Christian. People who were brought up to practice a religion, but who now identify as having no religion, so-called "non-verts", had different rates of leaving the religion of their upbringing, namely 14% for Jews, 10% for Muslims and Sikhs, and 6% for Hindus. The proportions of the non-religious who convert to a faith are small: 3% now identify as Anglicans, less than 0.5% convert to Catholicism, 2% join other Christian denominations, and 2% convert to non-Christian faiths.

75:) is a multilayered concept that generally denotes "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level." There are many types of secularization and most do not lead to atheism, irreligion, nor are they automatically antithetical to religion. Secularization has different connotations such as implying differentiation of secular from religious domains, the marginalization of religion in those domains, or it may also entail the transformation of religion as a result of its recharacterization (e.g. as a private concern, or as a non-political matter or issue). 648:, on the other hand, argues that the higher religiosity of Americans compared to Europeans is well compatible with the assumptions of secularization theory: among other things, it can be explained by the unusually high degree of existential insecurity and social inequality in the USA and the millions of religious immigrants from Latin America. However, liberal Americans have increasingly distanced themselves from church and religion due to the growing fusion of evangelical and conservative positions. 879:

often has been ruthless without any sense of restraint. Along with the early secularization of Chinese society which was equally early, the concomitant demise of feudalism and hereditary aristocracy, another remarkable development, transformed China earlier than any other country into a unitary system politically, with one single power centre. It also rendered Chinese society much more egalitarian than Western Europe and Japan.

38: 945: 577:, a student of Löwith, has continued the debate against Blumenberg. Hans Blumberg's assumption that secularization did not exactly grow out of a western-christian tradition also seems to be in line with more recent findings by Christoph Kleine and Monika Wohlrab-Sahr who have shown that similar historical developments can also be found in largely non-christian contexts such as Japan or Sri Lanka. 1935: 921:, the number of people listening to daily recitals of the Quran fell by half from 2011 to 2016. Some of these developments seem to be driven by need, e.g. by stagnating incomes which force women to contribute to household income and therefore to work. High living costs delay marriage and, as a consequence, seem to encourage pre-marital sex. However, in other countries, such as 495:: this definition is not limited to the partial definition, but exceeds it to "The separation between all (religion, moral, and human) values, and (not just the state) but also to (the human nature in its public and private sides), so that the holiness is removed from the world, and this world is transformed into a usable matter that can be employed for the sake of the strong". 704:. That same decade publishing houses emerged that were independent of the Protestant establishment. During the 1920s secularization extended into popular culture and mass public education ceased to be under Protestant cultural influence. Although the general public was still highly religious during this time period, by 1930 the old Protestant establishment was in "shambles". 140:, combined with the ascent of science and technology, religious authority diminishes in all aspects of social life and governance. In recent years, the secularization thesis has been challenged due to some global studies indicating that the irreligious population of the world may be in decline as a percentage of the world population due to irreligious countries having 913:(Islamic law) fell from 84% in 2011 to 34% in 2016. Egyptians also pray less: among older Egyptians (55+) 90% prayed daily in 2011. Among the younger generation (age 18–24) that fraction was only 70% in 2011. By contrast, in 2016 these numbers had fallen to <80% (55+) and <40% (18–24). The other age groups were in between these values. In 600:) have argued that levels of religiosity are not declining, while other scholars (e.g., Mark Chaves, N. J. Demerath) have countered by introducing the idea of 'neo-secularization', which broadens the definition of secularization to include the decline of religious authority and its ability to influence society. 468:, secularization refers to broad patterns of societal decline in levels of religiosity as opposed to the individual-level secularization of (4) above. This understanding of secularization is also distinct from (1) above in that it refers specifically to religious decline rather than societal differentiation. 1178:

In the first part of this book we will chart the slow, unsteady development of political secularism (Set 2) across time and space. You might be surprised to see that we'll trace its origins to the Bible. From there we will watch how secularism's core principles emerged, in dribs and drabs, during the

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However, researchers argue that being unaffiliated does not automatically mean objectively nonreligious since most of the unaffiliated do still hold some religious and spiritual beliefs. For example, 72% of American unaffiliated or "Nones" believe in God or a Higher Power. The "None" response is more

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forced secularization is not so easily achieved, and the lengths to which the Soviet and PRC regimes went was insufficient to completely - or even thoroughly - expunge religion from society. hese regimes were willing to go to great lengths to eliminate religion in the name of science and progress,

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In other words, rather than using the proportion of irreligious apostates as the sole measure of secularity, 'neo-secularization' argues that individuals increasingly look outside of religion for authoritative positions. 'Neo-secularizationists' would argue that religion has diminishing authority on

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The early secularization of Chinese society, which must be recognized as a sign of modernity has ironically left China for centuries without a powerful and stable source of morality and law. All this simply means that the pursuit of wealth or power or simply the competition for survival can be and

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Sponsorship by royalty, aristocracy, and influential local gentry provided an important support system for organized religion. The sponsorship faded away in the 20th century, as the local élites were no longer so powerful or so financially able to subsidize their favorite activities. In coal-mining

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In Britain, secularization came much later than in most of Western Europe. It began in the 1960s as part of a much larger social and cultural revolution. Until then the postwar years had seen a revival of religiosity in Britain. Sociologists and historians have engaged in vigorous debates over when

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suggest that the proportion of Britons who identify as Christian fell from 55% (in 1983) to 43% (in 2015). While members of non-Christian religions – principally Muslims and Hindus – quadrupled, the non-religious ("nones") now make up 53% of the British population. More than six in 10 "nones" were

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refocused on society as a system immersed in a constant process of increased differentiation, which he saw as a process in which new institutions take over the tasks necessary in a society to guarantee its survival as the original monolithic institutions break up. This is a devolution from single,

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with significant amounts of religious immigrants. There is no particular monolithic direction or trend for secularization since even in Europe, the trends in religious history and demographical religious measures (e.g. belief, belonging, etc) are mixed and make the region an exception compared to

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A major issue in the study of secularization is the extent to which certain trends such as decreased attendance at places of worship indicate a decrease in religiosity or simply a privatization of religious belief, where religious beliefs no longer play a dominant role in public life or in other

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The point is that the sacred/secular dichotomy is, like most dichotomies, false. "Secular" certainly does not mean "atheistic" or without religion, definitely not anti-religion; in fact, as I illustrate in a chapter in the second volume of this collection, there is a proud tradition of "Islamic

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Today, criticism is directed against the assertion that religion has become less important in the modern age. Critics point to developments in South Korea, Russia and the USA. The combination of institutional religion with other interests, such as economic or political interests, leads to the

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There can be no doubt that Confucianism has been a powerful cultural influence throughout East Asia, providing social and political values not only in China, but in Japan, South Korea and Vietnam. here has been the view of Confucianism as nothing but a secular, perhaps even a secularizing

829:(in terms of proportion of individuals affiliated to a Church and baptisms for example) but the trends in East and West Germany are significantly different. In East Germany, the process of secularization has been significantly quicker. These differences are explained by sociologists ( 628:, England, has become more religious in the past 25 years as religious immigrants and their descendants have increased their share of the population. Across the board, the question of secularization has generated considerable (and occasionally heated) debates in the social sciences. 804:

However, agreements linked to the constitution of 1978 separated church and state. In 2001, 82% of Spaniards identified as Catholic but only half did in 2021. Only around 20% of Spaniards go to mass regularly and only 20% of weddings are taking place in a church (2019). Similarly,

624:) where committed religious groups have several times the birth rate of seculars. The religious fertility effect operates to a greater or lesser extent in all countries, and is amplified in the West by religious immigration. For instance, even as native whites became more secular, 312:

A new study found evidence that a rise in secularization generally has preceded economic growth over the past century. The multilevel, time-lagged regressions also indicate that tolerance for individual rights predicted 20th century economic growth even better than secularization.

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since the medieval period. Furthermore, secular and religious entities were not separated in the medieval period, but coexisted and interacted naturally. Significant contributions to principles used in modern secularism came from prominent theologians and Christian writers such as

208:, practices, and institutions are losing social significance. Some theorists argue that the secularization of modern civilization partly results from our inability to adapt the broad ethical and spiritual needs of people to the increasingly fast advance of the physical sciences. 726:

sank from 80.1% to 69% in 2021. In December 2021 ~21% of Americans declared no religious identity or preference. Given that non-Christian religions stayed roughly the same (at about 5-7% from 2008 to 2021) secularization thus seems to have affected primarily Christians.

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Finally, some claim that demographic forces offset the process of secularization, and may do so to such an extent that individuals can consistently drift away from religion even as society becomes more religious. This is especially the case in societies like

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The 1960s saw a trend toward increasing secularization in Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. This transformation accompanied major social factors: economic prosperity, youth rebelling against the rules and conventions of society,

684:. Christian Smith examined the secularization of American public life between 1870 and 1930. He noted that in 1870 a Protestant establishment thoroughly dominated American culture and its public institutions. By the turn of the 20th century, however, 504:

As studied by sociologists, one of the major themes of secularization is that of "differentiation"—i.e., the tendency for areas of life to become more distinct and specialized as a society becomes modernized. European sociology, influenced by

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Another point of criticism in the discourse on secularization is the inadequate examination of the Eurocentric nature of general terms, concepts, and definitions. For example, the religious studies scholar and intercultural theologian Michael

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Jörg Stolz, Detlef Pollack, Nan Dirk De Graaf, Can the State Accelerate the Secular Transition? Secularization in East and West Germany as a Natural Experiment, European Sociological Review, Volume 36, Issue 4, August 2020, Pages 626–642,

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It has also been denied that secularization ever took place in the USA - a country that was co-founded by many religious sectarians who were expelled from their home countries and where witches were still being persecuted in 1692. Detlef

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Some scholars point to the permanent interplay between secularization and (re)sacralization in Western societies. For example, after the first democratic revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries, religious traditions quickly regained

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districts, local collieries typically funded local chapels, but that ended as the industry grew distressed and the unionized miners rejected élite interference in their local affairs. This allowed secularizing forces to gain strength.

475:, secularization can only be used unambiguously to refer to religion in a generic sense. For example, a reference to Christianity is not clear unless one specifies exactly which denominations of Christianity are being discussed. 721:

polls from 2008 through 2015 showed that the fraction of American who did not identify with any particular religion steadily rose from 14.6% in 2008 to 19.6% in 2015. At the same time, the fraction of Americans identifying as

1880:. Ashgate Publishing Company, p. 20. ("Parsons saw differentiation as the separating out of each social sphere from ecclesiastical control: the state, science, and the market, but also law, welfare, and education, etc.") 2754:

Melissa Hardy, Vegard Skirbekk & Marcin Stonawski (2020) The Religiously Unaffiliated in Germany, 1949–2013: Contrasting Patterns of Social Change in East and West, The Sociological Quarterly, 61:2, 254-286,

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C. John Sommerville (1998) outlined six uses of the term secularization in the scientific literature. The first five are more along the lines of 'definitions' while the sixth is more of a 'clarification of use':

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other parts of the world. Even global studies show that many people who do not identify with a religion, still hold religious beliefs and participate in religious practices, thus complicating the situation.

509:, was interested in the process of change from the so-called primitive societies to increasingly advanced societies. In the United States, the emphasis was initially on change as an aspect of progress, but 1901:("Only in the 1980s, after the sudden eruption of religion into the public sphere, did it become obvious that differentiation and the loss of societal functions do not necessarily entail 'privatization.'") 608:, and argue that religion's authority is declining and secularization is taking place even if religious affiliation may not be declining in the United States (a debate still taking place). 637:

strengthening of these religions in their respective societies. However, there are also factors that lead to a diminishing importance of religion. This is the main trend in Western Europe.

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called this process the "disenchantment of the world"—and to the changes made by religious institutions to compensate. At the most basic stages, this begins with a slow transition from

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are tainted by a Eurocentric origin thinking. This inaccurate use of the terms hinders a constructive discussion about secularization in a global context. As an alternative, Bergunder

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that large majority (89%) of those who were raised as Christians in the United Kingdom still identify as such, while the remainder mostly self-identify as religiously unaffiliated.

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Jack David Eller (2010) outlined Peter Glasner's 10 different institutional, normative, or cognitive versions of secularization, most of which do not lead to irreligion or atheism:

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Proponents of "secularization theory" demonstrate widespread declines in the prevalence of religious belief throughout the West, particularly in Europe. Some scholars (e.g.,

442:, secularization refers to the transfer of activities from religious to secular institutions, such as a shift in the provision of social services from churches to the government. 2605: 2094: 457:

concerns. E.g., individuals in the West are now more likely to moderate their behavior in response to more immediately applicable consequences rather than out of concern for

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European governments during the 18th and 19th centuries, which resulted in the expulsion and suppression of the religious communities which occupied them. The 19th-century

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Spain used to be one of the most religious countries in Europe, but secularization has progressed fast during the past few decades. This was partly due to the role of the

929:, support for sharia and Islamist ideas seems to grow. Even in countries in which secularization is growing, there are backlashes. For instance, the president of Egypt, 731:

of an indicator for lacking affiliation than an active measure for irreligiosity, and a majority of the "Nones" can either be conventionally religious or "spiritual".

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Key to understanding the secularization, Smith argues, was the rise of an elite intellectual class skeptical of religious orthodoxies and influenced by the European

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Rick Phillips, Can Rising Rates of Church Participation be a Consequence of Secularization?, Sociology of Religion, Volume 65, Issue 2, Summer 2004, Pages 139–153,

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to a writing culture that diffuses knowledge. This first reduces the authority of clerics as the custodians of revealed knowledge. The shift of responsibility for

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declines in social and cultural significance. As a result of secularization the role of religion in modern societies becomes restricted. In secularized societies

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from a predominantly religious institution into a secular institution (with a divinity school now housing the religious element illustrating differentiation).

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beliefs and argues to the contrary that the modern age, including its belief in progress, grew out of a new secular self-affirmation of culture against the

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Johnson, Todd; Zurlo, Gina (2016). "Unaffiliated, Yet Religious: A Methodological and Demographic Analysis". In Cipriani, Roberto; Garelli, Franco (eds.).

424:: a process in which the various aspects of society, economic, political, legal, and moral, become increasingly specialized and distinct from one another. 2835: 2676: 269:- holding a combined religious and secular authority under the Catholic Church - who broke away and made themselves into completely secular (typically, 152:

to describe this phenomenon. In addition, secularization rates are stalling or reversing in some countries/regions such as the countries in the former

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Steve Bruce, "Patronage and secularization: social obligation and church support Patronage and secularization: social obligation and church support,"

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Christian Middle Ages, the Protestant Reformation, and the Enlightenment. Secularism, some might be surprised to learn, has a religious genealogy.

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According to Jack David Eller, secularization is compatible with religion since most versions of secularity do not lead to atheism or irreligion.

431:, secularization can denote the transformation of a religion into a secular institution. Examples would be the evolution of institutions such as 666:. In this way, hitherto unseen connections and the origins of the modern understanding of secularization from the 19th century can be revealed. 1963: 785:

constituting the "doctrinal basis of the most significant organizations of the anti-democratic and anti-liberal right-wing" and the resulting

1977: 1943: 1779: 1469: 589:(2007) challenges what he calls 'the subtraction thesis' – that science leads to religion being subtracted from more and more areas of life. 215:

and others argue that intellectual and cultural élites promote secularization to enhance their own status and influence. Smith believes that

2648:"The "No Religion" Population of Britain: Recent Data from the British Social Attitudes Survey (2015) and the European Social Survey (2014)" 1993:

Kleine, Christoph; Wohlrab-Sahr, Monika (2021). "Comparative Secularities: Tracing Social and Epistemic Structures beyond the Modern West".

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David Voas, The Rise and Fall of Fuzzy Fidelity in Europe, European Sociological Review, Volume 25, Issue 2, April 2009, Pages 155–168,

2655: 837:) by the State repression in the 1950s and 1960s, which challenges predictions of natural cohort replacements stated by the Voas model. 3082: 2589: 1649: 266: 1241: 2935: 2899: 2724: 2494: 2424: 1898: 1759: 1703: 1549: 1414: 1386: 1318: 1293: 1268: 1225: 1200: 1171: 1111: 1082: 1052: 723: 1607: 1436: 3006:

Bruce, Steve, and Tony Glendinning, "When was secularization? Dating the decline of the British churches and locating its cause"

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This service is used to deconsecrate and secularize a consecrated building that is to be taken down or used for other purposes.

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Wohlrab-Sahr, Monika & Marian Burchardt. "Multiple Secularities: Toward a Cultural Sociology of Secular Modernities".

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Secularism's origins can be traced to the Bible itself and fleshed out throughout Christian history into the modern era. "

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Jeremy Morris, "Secularization and religious experience: arguments in the historiography of modern British religion."

137: 1487:"Inequality and Religiosity in a Global Context: Different Secularization Paths for Developed and Developing Nations" 3161:

Warrier, Maya. "Processes of Secularisation in Contemporary India: Guru Faith in the Mata Amritanandamayi Mission,"

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by Assaf Moghadam, Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, Paper No. 03-03, August, 2003

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has rejected the idea of a historical continuity – fundamental to the so-called 'theorem of secularization'; the

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The term "secularization" can also mean the lifting of monastic restrictions from a member of the clergy, and to

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Stark, Rodney, Laurence R. Iannaccone, Monica Turci, and Marco Zecchi. "How Much Has Europe Been Secularized?"

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in Germany and Switzerland and similar events in many other countries also were expressions of secularization.

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Sommerville, C. J. "Secular Society Religious Population: Our Tacit Rules for Using the Term Secularization".

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Segmentation — the development of specialized religious institutions coexisting with other social institutions

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tradition. They consciously sought to displace a Protestant establishment they saw as standing in their way.

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Somerville, C. J. "Secular Society Religious Population: Our Tacit Rules for Using the Term Secularization

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The term "secularization" also has additional meanings, primarily historical and religious. Applied to

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Secularization, in the main, sociological meaning of the term, involves the historical process in which

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Secularization is sometimes credited both to the cultural shifts in society following the emergence of

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which he had held on behalf of the order - which enabled him to marry and leave to his descendants the

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The Secular Revolution: Powers, Interests, and Conflicts in the Secularization of American Public Life

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The Secular Revolution: Powers, Interests, and Conflicts in the Secularization of American Public Life

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The Secular Revolution: Powers, Interests, and Conflicts in the Secularization of American Public Life

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Secularization — pluralism through which society moves away from the "sacred" and toward the "profane"

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have an inherent tendency to be hostile to their native cultures, causing them to embrace secularism.

2716: 1819: 983: 930: 900: 798: 708: 489:: which is the common meaning of the word, and expresses "The separation between religion and state". 200:(1858–1917) postulated that the modernization of society would include a decline in levels of formal 133: 130: 1627: 1532:

Zuckerman, Phil (2006). "3 - Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns". In Martin, Michael (ed.).

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by Vyacheslav Karpov, Journal of Church and State, Volume 52, Issue 2, Spring 2010, Pages 232–270,

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Chang Pao-min summarises perceived historical consequences of very early secularization in China:

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by a rehabilitation of human curiosity in reaction to theological absolutism. "Blumenberg targets

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Latré, Stijn; Vanheeswijck, Guido (1 January 2015). "Secularization: History of the Concept".

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Decline — the reduction in quantitative measures of religious identification and participation

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Secularism — the only form that leads to outright rejection of religion, amounting to atheism

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argues for a historicization from the present of these general terms according to Foucault's

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Shall the Religious Inherit the Earth?: Demography and Politics in the Twenty-First Century

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Many countries in the Arab world show signs of increasing secularization. For instance, in

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less differentiated institutions to an increasingly differentiated subset of institutions.

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Shall the Religious Inherit the Earth: Demography and Politics in the Twenty-First Century

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Following Parsons, this concept of differentiation has been widely applied. As phrased by

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consequences. This is a personal religious decline or movement toward a secular lifestyle.

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rates and religious countries having higher birth rates in general. Christian sociologist

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Desacralization — distancing the references of the "supernatural" from the material world

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Religion becomes a matter of individual choice rather than an observed social obligation.

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Jeffrey Cox, "Secularization and other master narratives of religion in modern Europe."

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The making of post-Christian Britain: a history of the secularization of modern society

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argues that the concept of social differentiation has been its "most useful element".

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Chang, Pao-min (1999). "Corruption and Crime in China: Old Problems and New trends".

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China's Child Contracts: A philosophy of child rights in twenty-first century China

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Origins of Liberal Dominance: State, Church, and Party in Nineteenth-century Europe

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International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition)

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Generalization — where religion becomes less specific, more abstract, and inclusive

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Differentiation — a redefined place or relation to society such as in pluralization

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Transformation — change over time (e.g. Protestantism developed in Christianity)

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Routinization — institutionalizing religion through integration into the society

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lacks cultural authority, and religious organizations have little social power.

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Davie, Grace (2022). "15. Religion, Secularity, and Secularization in Europe".

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Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival

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edited by Helmut K Anheier, Yudhishthir Raj Isar, SAGE, Mar 27, 2007, page 253

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At present, secularization as understood in the West is being debated in the

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Disengagement — the detachment of certain facets of social life from religion

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Annual Review of the Sociology of Religion: Volume 7: Sociology of Atheism

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in his view represents an independent epoch opposed to Antiquity and the

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The Crisis of Church and State, 1050-1300 : With Selected Documents

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The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation, 1800-2000

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The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation, 1800-2000

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Anonymous (2021-05-01). "Religion in Spain - Empty pews, big pulpit".

696:) and higher education had been thoroughly secularized. In the 1910s " 2783: 2022: 1596: 922: 910: 625: 613: 181: 2709:"Catolicismo y derecha autoritaria. Del maurismo a Falange Española" 2359: 2342: 2037: 1866:. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37 (2):249-53. (1998) 2868:(1, Spring/Summer). Institute for National Security Strategy: 223. 1218:

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Madrid: 2564:"A majority of Britons now follow no religion" 2949:and the outcome at every stage was uncertain. 2757:https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2019.1593064 2455:"Key findings about Americans' belief in God" 1774:, University of Michigan Press, 1999, p. 82, 8: 3119:Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 2118:Dromi, Shai M.; Stabler, Samuel D. (2019). 1969:The Idea of God and Human Freedom, Volume 3 1400: 1398: 1286:On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State 211:In contrast to the "modernization" thesis, 2509:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2439:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2376:"American Religion, All or Nothing at All" 1995:Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 1642:The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Europe 1220:(Third ed.). Routledge. p. 282. 309:, radical theology, and radical politics. 2391: 2358: 1841: 1831: 1288:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1146: 3096:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017. 2744:. 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(1994) 1891:Public Religions in the Modern World 1752:Public Religions in the Modern World 500:Sociological use and differentiation 277:(1517–1587), the last Master of the 2771:https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa014 2677:"Being Christian in Western Europe" 1381:. London: Routledge & K. Paul. 543:The Genesis of the Copernican World 3158:. (Harvard University Press, 2007) 3076:A General Theory of Secularization 2784:https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcn044 2097:. London: Profile Books. Also see 1597:https://doi.org/10.1093/jcs/csq058 1534:The Cambridge Companion to Atheism 1491:International Journal of Sociology 1045:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03113-5 984:Rational choice theory of religion 632:Criticism of secularization theory 273:) hereditary rulers. For example, 25: 3174:doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341249 2994:The Desecularization of the World 2862:The Journal of East Asian Affairs 1698:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 56–60. 1485:Hekmatpour, Peyman (2020-06-01). 789:that was one of the roots of the 3050:The Disenchantment of the World. 2656:St Mary's University, Twickenham 2574:from the original on 2017-10-13. 1628:A Global Resurgence of Religion? 1344:– via The Free Dictionary. 1246:Religion Past and Present Online 943: 529:Current issues in secularization 295:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia 3151:. Wilmington: ISI Books. (2015) 2838:from the original on 2015-08-17 2608:from the original on 2017-08-31 2374:Hout, Michael (November 2017). 2083:https://doi.org/10.2307/3712403 793:. Notably, the dictatorship of 759:British Social Attitudes survey 32:Secularization (disambiguation) 2968:"The new Arab Cosmopolitans". 2240:"How Religious Are Americans?" 1670:The Global Religious Landscape 1309:Berlinerblau, Jacques (2022). 1162:Berlinerblau, Jacques (2022). 1004:Separation of church and state 809:was legalized in 1981, as was 692:(which had hitherto bolstered 420:, secularization can refer to 261:or holders of a position in a 235:dissolution of the monasteries 1: 2930:. A&C Black. p. 10. 2826:. The American Interest LLC. 2820:"Is Confucianism a Religion?" 1920:Buller, Cornelius A. (1996). 1503:10.1080/00207659.2020.1771013 959:Christian persecution complex 49:which was transformed into a 3008:British journal of sociology 2551:British Journal of Sociology 2485:Drescher, Elizabeth (2016). 2415:Drescher, Elizabeth (2016). 539:Legitimacy of the Modern Age 368:aspects of decision making. 184:and as a political process. 70: 2922:Marsh, Christopher (2011). 1433:"The Secularization Debate" 1284:Strayer, Joseph R. (2016). 1195:. Oxford University Press. 1106:. Oxford University Press. 3235: 3128:. London: Penguin. (1978). 2646:Bullivant, Steven (2017). 2238:Inc, Gallup (2021-12-23). 2136:10.1007/s11186-019-09341-9 1666:"Religiously Unaffiliated" 1542:10.1017/CCOL0521842700.004 1462:Cambridge University Press 1405:Blankholm, Joseph (2022). 1377:Glasner, Peter E. (1977). 1216:Eller, Jack David (2022). 898: 889:People's Republic of China 849: 349:has had two consequences: 29: 3144:32 #136 pp:99–112. (2002) 2711:. In Aubert, Paul (ed.). 1792:Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte 1313:. Routledge. p. 35. 2798:Philosophy East and West 2393:10.1177/1536504217742401 2023:"Secularization, R.I.P." 1932:Rowman & Littlefield 1750:Casanova, Jose (1994). 1191:Thomas, Hugh M. (2014). 1166:. Routledge. p. 4. 241:, as well as by various 142:subreplacement fertility 2553:(2012) 63#3 pp 533-552. 1889:Casanova, Jose (1994). 1259:Tierney, Brian (1988). 1104:A Dictionary of Atheism 909:, support for imposing 885:Chinese Communist Party 493:Complete Secularization 429:individual institutions 418:macro social structures 325:and the development of 156:or large cities in the 3113:10.1126/sciadv.aar8680 2093:Kaufmann, Eric. 2011. 2067:Berger, Peter (1969). 2021:Stark, Rodney (1999). 1876:Martin, David (2005). 1833:10.1126/sciadv.aar8680 1311:Secularism: The Basics 1164:Secularism: The Basics 1127:Ertit, Volkan (2018). 1075:Atheism and Secularity 881: 763:European Social Survey 487:Partial Secularization 246:enlightened absolutist 54: 3170:Comparative Sociology 3163:Modern Asian Studies 3107:4(7):eaar8680 (2018) 3089:, 90:1 (2015), 60-79. 3010:61#1 (2010): 107-126. 2824:The American Interest 2540:55#1 (2012): 195-219. 2026:Sociology of Religion 1009:Sociology of religion 964:Death of God theology 876: 833:, Detlef Pollack and 797:'s core ideology was 757:Data from the annual 672:Regional developments 535:sociology of religion 480:Abdel Wahab Elmessiri 354:Collective conscience 127:secularization thesis 40: 3121:37#2 :249–53. (1998) 3063:Inglehart, Ronald F. 2719:. pp. 255–263. 2347:Sociological Science 2124:Theory & Society 1960:Pannenberg, Wolfhart 1248:. Brill. April 2011. 931:Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi 901:Islam and secularism 799:national Catholicism 329:as a substitute for 30:For other uses, see 3134:New German Critique 2459:Pew Research Center 1824:2018SciA....4.8680R 1674:Pew Research Center 1618:, February 20, 2013 852:Secularism in India 771:Pew Research Center 753:Recent developments 575:Wolfhart Pannenberg 571:Christian tradition 3192:2007-09-29 at the 2999:Brown, Callum G. 2705:Avilés Farré, Juan 2631:has generic name ( 2538:Historical Journal 2313:has generic name ( 2268:has generic name ( 2218:has generic name ( 2171:Smith, Christian. 2156:Smith, Christian. 2104:2012-01-17 at the 1770:Gould, Andrew in: 1737:Smith, Christian. 1725:2010-06-15 at the 1536:. pp. 47–66. 1148:10.3390/rel9040092 688:had displaced the 622:religious Zionists 433:Harvard University 307:women's liberation 97:Marsilius of Padua 55: 3154:Taylor, Charles. 3081:Pollack, Detlef. 3055:Gilbert, Alan D. 3048:Gauchet, Marcel. 2987:The Sacred Canopy 2920:See for example: 2717:Casa de Velázquez 2527:(2009) pp 170-92. 2523:Callum G. Brown, 2461:. April 25, 2018. 1979:978-0-664-20971-1 1945:978-0-822-63055-5 1780:978-0-472-11015-5 1471:978-0-521-83984-6 1450:Inglehart, Ronald 1435:, chapter 1 (pp. 969:The Enlightenment 835:Nan Dirk de Graaf 815:same-sex marriage 791:Spanish civil war 761:and the biennial 303:sexual revolution 239:French Revolution 196:(1864–1920), and 93:William of Ockham 16:(Redirected from 3226: 3172:11(6): 875-909, 3105:Science Advances 3059:(Longman, 1980). 3041:Ellul, Jacques. 3027:Casanova, Jose. 2974: 2973: 2965: 2952: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2908: 2885: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2844: 2843: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2793: 2787: 2780: 2774: 2766: 2760: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2692: 2691: 2681: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2663: 2652: 2643: 2637: 2636: 2630: 2626: 2624: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2585: 2576: 2575: 2560: 2554: 2547: 2541: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2508: 2500: 2482: 2476: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2438: 2430: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2395: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2362: 2338: 2332: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2312: 2308: 2306: 2298: 2296: 2295: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2267: 2263: 2261: 2253: 2251: 2250: 2235: 2224: 2223: 2217: 2213: 2211: 2203: 2201: 2200: 2185: 2176: 2169: 2163: 2154: 2148: 2147: 2115: 2109: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2064: 2058: 2057: 2018: 2012: 2009: 2003: 2002: 1990: 1984: 1983: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1928:Lanham, Maryland 1917: 1911: 1908: 1902: 1887: 1881: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1855: 1845: 1835: 1811:Science Advances 1801: 1795: 1788: 1782: 1768: 1762: 1748: 1742: 1735: 1729: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1691: 1678: 1677: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1637: 1631: 1625: 1619: 1605: 1599: 1590: 1584: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1529: 1523: 1522: 1482: 1476: 1475: 1459: 1430: 1421: 1420: 1402: 1393: 1392: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1352: 1346: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1335:"secularization" 1331: 1325: 1324: 1306: 1300: 1299: 1281: 1275: 1274: 1256: 1250: 1249: 1242:"Secular Priest" 1238: 1232: 1231: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1188: 1182: 1181: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1150: 1124: 1118: 1117: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1070: 1059: 1058: 1032: 953: 948: 947: 795:Francisco Franco 787:anti-clericalism 694:natural theology 471:When discussing 464:When discussing 445:When discussing 438:When discussing 427:When discussing 416:When discussing 275:Gotthard Kettler 233:'s 16th-century 150:desecularization 148:coined the term 74: 21: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3224: 3223: 3204: 3203: 3194:Wayback Machine 3183: 3147:Stark, Rodney. 3074:Martin, David. 3068:Foreign Affairs 3052:(1985/tr. 1997) 3045:(1973/tr. 1975) 3043:The New Demons. 2992:Berger, Peter. 2985:Berger, Peter. 2982: 2980:Further reading 2977: 2967: 2966: 2955: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2888:Bao-Er (2007). 2887: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2841: 2839: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2781: 2777: 2767: 2763: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2703: 2702: 2698: 2689: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2661: 2659: 2650: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2627: 2617: 2611: 2609: 2587: 2586: 2579: 2562: 2561: 2557: 2548: 2544: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2518: 2501: 2497: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2471:Frank Newport, 2470: 2466: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2431: 2427: 2414: 2413: 2409: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2360:10.15195/v1.a24 2340: 2339: 2335: 2327:Frank Newport, 2326: 2322: 2309: 2299: 2293: 2291: 2282: 2281: 2277: 2264: 2254: 2248: 2246: 2237: 2236: 2227: 2214: 2204: 2198: 2196: 2187: 2186: 2179: 2175:(2012) pp.32-43 2170: 2166: 2162:(2012) pp.25-28 2155: 2151: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2106:Wayback Machine 2092: 2088: 2080: 2076: 2066: 2065: 2061: 2038:10.2307/3711936 2020: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2006: 1992: 1991: 1987: 1980: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1946: 1919: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1888: 1884: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1818:(7): eaar8680. 1803: 1802: 1798: 1789: 1785: 1769: 1765: 1749: 1745: 1736: 1732: 1727:Wayback Machine 1717: 1713: 1706: 1693: 1692: 1681: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1652: 1639: 1638: 1634: 1626: 1622: 1616:Huffington Post 1606: 1602: 1591: 1587: 1575: 1571: 1563: 1559: 1552: 1531: 1530: 1526: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1472: 1444: 1431: 1424: 1417: 1404: 1403: 1396: 1389: 1376: 1375: 1371: 1354: 1353: 1349: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1321: 1308: 1307: 1303: 1296: 1283: 1282: 1278: 1271: 1258: 1257: 1253: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1228: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1203: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1174: 1161: 1160: 1156: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1114: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1085: 1072: 1071: 1062: 1055: 1034: 1033: 1026: 1022: 949: 942: 939: 903: 897: 865: 854: 848: 843: 823: 783:Catholic Church 779: 755: 742: 737: 690:Baconian method 679: 674: 634: 604:issues such as 547:Hans Blumenberg 537:. In his works 531: 511:Talcott Parsons 502: 422:differentiation 374: 339:oral traditions 319: 281:, converted to 227:church property 213:Christian Smith 167: 146:Peter L. Berger 138:rationalization 67:British English 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3232: 3230: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3214:Secularization 3206: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3196: 3182: 3181:External links 3179: 3178: 3177: 3166: 3159: 3152: 3145: 3138: 3129: 3122: 3115: 3097: 3090: 3079: 3072: 3060: 3053: 3046: 3039: 3032: 3025: 3020:Bruce, Steve. 3018: 3013:Bruce, Steve. 3011: 3004: 2997: 2990: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2975: 2953: 2936: 2913: 2900: 2852: 2818:(2012-02-15). 2807: 2788: 2775: 2761: 2747: 2732: 2725: 2696: 2668: 2638: 2577: 2570:. 9 Sep 2017. 2555: 2542: 2529: 2516: 2495: 2477: 2464: 2446: 2425: 2407: 2366: 2333: 2320: 2283:Inc., Gallup. 2275: 2225: 2188:Inc., Gallup. 2177: 2164: 2149: 2130:(2): 325–350. 2110: 2086: 2074: 2059: 2032:(3): 249–273. 2013: 2004: 1985: 1978: 1951: 1944: 1912: 1910:Martin, p. 20. 1903: 1882: 1869: 1857: 1796: 1794:(2001): 24-35. 1783: 1763: 1743: 1730: 1711: 1704: 1679: 1657: 1651:978-0198834267 1650: 1632: 1620: 1600: 1585: 1569: 1557: 1550: 1524: 1497:(4): 286–309. 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