Serfdom - Knowledge

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Within his constraints, a serf had some freedom. Though the common wisdom is that a serf owned “only his belly” – even his clothes were the property, in law, of his lord – a serf might still accumulate personal property and wealth, and some serfs became wealthier than their free neighbors, although this was rather an exception to the general rule. A well-to-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.

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fed during his service; it was a lord without foresight who did not provide a substantial meal for his serfs during the harvest and planting times. In exchange for this work on the lord's demesne, the serfs had certain privileges and rights, including for example the right to gather deadwood – an essential source of fuel – from their lord's forests.

919:, the lord of the manor, they were expected to spend some of their time working on the lord's fields. The rest of their time was spent farming their own land for their own profit. Villeins were tied to their lord's land and could not leave it without his permission. Their lord also often decided whom they could marry. 915:) represented the most common type of serf in the Middle Ages. Villeins had more rights and higher status than the lowest serf, but existed under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from freemen. Villeins generally rented small homes, with a patch of land. As part of the contract with the 1202:

The amount of labour required varied. In Poland, for example, it was commonly a few days per year per household in the 13th century, one day per week per household in the 14th century, four days per week per household in the 17th century, and six days per week per household in the 18th century. Early

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and fees. Taxes were based on the assessed value of his lands and holdings. Fees were usually paid in the form of agricultural produce rather than cash. The best ration of wheat from the serf's harvest often went to the landlord. Generally hunting and trapping of wild game by the serfs on the lord's

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A variety of kinds of villeinage existed in Europe in the Middle Ages. Half-villeins received only half as many strips of land for their own use and owed a full complement of labour to the lord, often forcing them to rent out their services to other serfs to make up for this hardship. Villeinage was

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might leave a person unable to make his own way. In such a case, he could strike a bargain with a lord of a manor. In exchange for gaining protection, his service was required: in labour, produce, or cash, or a combination of all. These bargains became formalised in a ceremony known as "bondage", in

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who owned that land. In return, they were entitled to protection, justice, and the right to cultivate certain fields within the manor to maintain their own subsistence. Serfs were often required not only to work on the lord's fields, but also in his mines and forests and to labour to maintain roads.

1212:"Per household" means that every dwelling had to give a worker for the required number of days. For example, in the 18th century, six people: a peasant, his wife, three children and a hired worker might be required to work for their lord one day a week, which would be counted as six days of labour. 1175:

Within his constraints, a serf had some freedoms. Though the common wisdom is that a serf owned "only his belly" – even his clothes were the property, in law, of his lord – a serf might still accumulate personal property and wealth, and some serfs became wealthier than

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Like other types of serfs, villeins had to provide other services, possibly in addition to paying rent of money or produce. Villeins could not move away without their lord's consent and the acceptance of the lord to whose manor they proposed to migrate to. Villeins were generally able to hold their

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A major difficulty of a serf's life was that his work for his lord coincided with, and took precedence over, the work he had to perform on his own lands: when the lord's crops were ready to be harvested, so were his own. On the other hand, the serf of a benign lord could look forward to being well

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be true and faithful, and love all which he loves and shun all which he shuns, according to the laws of God and the order of the world. Nor will I ever with will or action, through word or deed, do anything which is unpleasing to him, on condition that he will hold to me as I shall deserve it, and

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Serfdom was significantly more common than slavery throughout the feudal period. The villein was the most common type of serf in the Middle Ages. Villeins had more rights and status than those held as slaves, but were under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from the freeman.

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The last type of serf was the slave. Slaves had the fewest rights and benefits from the manor. They owned no tenancy in land, worked for the lord exclusively and survived on donations from the landlord. It was always in the interest of the lord to prove that a servile arrangement existed, as this

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A lord of the manor could not sell his serfs as a Roman might sell his slaves. On the other hand, if he chose to dispose of a parcel of land, the serfs associated with that land stayed with it to serve their new lord; simply speaking, they were implicitly sold in mass and as a part of a lot. This

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Often there were arbitrary tests to judge the worthiness of their tax payments. A chicken, for example, might be required to be able to jump over a fence of a given height to be considered old enough or well enough to be valued for tax purposes. The restraints of serfdom on personal and economic

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and survival, and being a villein guaranteed access to land, and crops secure from theft by marauding robbers. Landlords, even were legally entitled to do so, rarely evicted villeins because of the value of their labour. Villeinage was much preferable to being a vagabond, a slave, or an unlanded

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and were essentially rent-paying tenant farmers who owed little or no service to the lord, and had a good degree of security of tenure and independence. In parts of 11th-century England freemen made up only 10% of the peasant population, and in most of the rest of Europe their numbers were also

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and Marche. However, although formal serfdom no longer existed in most of France, the feudal seigneurial laws still granted noble landlords many of the rights previously exercised over serfs, and the peasants of Auvergne, Nivernais and Champagne, though formally not serfs, could still not move

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It was also a matter of discussion whether serfs could be required by law in times of war or conflict to fight for their lord's land and property. In the case of their lord's defeat, their own fate might be uncertain, so the serf certainly had an interest in supporting his lord.

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by generous owners, or flee to towns or to newly settled land where few questions were asked. Laws varied from country to country: in England a serf who made his way to a chartered town (i.e. a borough) and evaded recapture for a year and a day obtained his freedom and became a

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One rationale held that serfs and freemen "worked for all" while a knight or baron "fought for all" and a churchman "prayed for all"; thus everyone had a place. The serf was the worst fed and rewarded however, although unlike slaves had certain rights in land and property.

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Croatian encyclopedia, 1780 queen Maria Theresa introduced the regulations in Royal Croatia. 1785. King Joseph II introduced the Patent of freedom of movement of Serfs which gave them the right of movement, education and property, also ended their dependence to feudal

1402:) on a portion of the latter's land; his services to the lord are always undefined. Although his condition is servile, he retains the right to abandon his holding on giving due notice to the lord and surrendering to him two thirds of the products of his husbandry." 808:

To become a serf was a commitment that encompassed all aspects of the serf's life. The children born to serfs inherited their status, and were considered born into serfdom. By taking on the duties of serfdom, people bound themselves and their progeny.

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and living there for more than a year; but this action involved the loss of land rights and agricultural livelihood, a prohibitive price unless the landlord was especially tyrannical or conditions in the village were unusually difficult.

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even as it spread through eastern Europe. Serfdom reached Eastern Europe centuries later than Western Europe – it became dominant around the 15th century. In many of these countries serfdom was abolished during the

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to enable the heir to keep the right to till what land he had. Any young woman who wished to marry a serf outside of her manor was forced to pay a fee for the right to leave her lord, and in compensation for her lost labour.

549: 1477:'s peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters. 632:. Serfdom, indeed, was an institution that reflected a fairly common practice whereby great landlords were assured that others worked to feed them and were held down, legally and economically, while doing so. 1186:

The landlord could not dispossess his serfs without legal cause and was supposed to protect them from the depredations of robbers or other lords, and he was expected to support them by charity in times of

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unified system preserved for the lord long-acquired knowledge of practices suited to the land. Further, a serf could not abandon his lands without permission, nor did he possess a saleable title in them.

1037:(1604 onwards) removed the cottars' right to any land: "before the Enclosures Act the cottager was a farm labourer with land and after the Enclosures Act the cottager was a farm labourer without land". 3195: 2143: 2500: 1040:

The bordars and cottars did not own their draught oxen or horses. The Domesday Book showed that England comprised 12% freeholders, 35% serfs or villeins, 30% cotters and bordars, and 9% slaves.

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in Russia, could, by contrast, be traded like regular slaves, could be abused with no rights over their own bodies, could not leave the land they were bound to, and could marry only with their

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the peasant family perhaps might owe an extra dozen eggs, and at Christmas, a goose was perhaps required, too. When a family member died, extra taxes were paid to the lord as a form of

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in the 17th century. Serfdom only existed in central and southern areas of the Russian Empire. It was never established in the North, in the Urals, and in Siberia. According to the

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own property, unlike slaves. Villeinage, as opposed to other forms of serfdom, was most common in Continental European feudalism, where land ownership had developed from roots in

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assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census.

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can be differentiated into smaller categories. These distinctions were often less clear than suggested by their different names. Most often, there were two types of peasants:

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Serfdom was formally abolished in France on 4 August 1789, and the remaining feudal rights that gave landlords control rights over peasants were abolished in 1789-93.

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as having had serfdom until 1959, but whether or not the Tibetan form of peasant tenancy that qualified as serfdom was widespread is contested by other scholars.

1126:. The remainder of the serf's time was spent tending his own fields, crops and animals in order to provide for his family. Most manorial work was segregated by 2840: 3187: 1416:

Serfdom in Poland became the dominant form of relationship between peasants and nobility in the 17th century, and was a major feature of the economy of the

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provided him with greater rights to fees and taxes. The status of a man was a primary issue in determining a person's rights and obligations in many of the

439:. In Finland, Norway, and Sweden, feudalism was never fully established, and serfdom did not exist; in Denmark, serfdom-like institutions did exist in both 361:, serfs could not be bought, sold, or traded individually, though they could, depending on the area, be sold together with land. Actual slaves, such as the 4860: 4735: 3744: 2496: 3165: 5090: 4745: 3285: 3255: 2644: 500: 432: 2891: 3542: 2049: 5003: 3771: 1443:. Over the course of the 19th century, it was gradually abolished on Polish and Lithuanian territories under foreign control, as the region began to 600:

faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour.

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In Eastern Europe, the institution persisted until the mid-19th century. In Russia, serfdom gradually evolved from the usual European form to become

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Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1986). "Re-examining Choice, Dependency and Command in the Tibetan Social System-'Tax Appendages' and Other Landless Serfs".

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Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel from original documents in European libraries

2366: 1510:: neyfs (serfs) disappeared by the late 14th century, except in the salt and coal mining industries, where a form of serfdom survived until the 4832: 4163: 3809: 788:. These oaths bound the lord and his new serf in a feudal contract and defined the terms of their agreement. Often these bargains were severe. 1199:

Forms of serfdom varied greatly through time and regions. In some places, serfdom was merged with or exchanged for various forms of taxation.

4827: 3487: 3354: 2927: 2834: 2795: 2299: 2291: 381:, and to a certain extent the serfs, were bound legally: by taxation in the case of the former, and economically and socially in the latter. 4837: 2564:"The Pictorial History of England: Being a History of the People, as Well as ... – George Lillie Craik, Charles MacFarlane –Google Książki" 2141:

Edikt den erleichterten Besitz und den freien Gebrauch des Grundeigentums so wie die persönlichen Verhältnisse der Land-Bewohner betreffend

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A serf could grow what crop he saw fit on his lands, although a serf's taxes often had to be paid in wheat. The surplus he would sell at

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Lee, James; Campbell, Cameron (1998). "Headship succession and household division in three Chinese banner serf populations, 1789–1909".

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were the lowest class of serfs in the medieval and early modern Russia. They had status similar to slaves, and could be freely traded.

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in the form of seasonally appropriate labour. Usually, a portion of the week was devoted to ploughing his lord's fields held in

3449: 4720: 3588: 2429: 2283: 63: 2933: 2563: 2118: 5110: 5013: 4785: 4780: 4264: 2762: 2731: 2388:"Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery" 1730: 1716: 1030: 5008: 4842: 4807: 4758: 4482: 1971: 1819: 1511: 392:, which reached Europe in 1347 and caused massive fatalities, disrupting society. Conversely, serfdom grew stronger in 5095: 4962: 4952: 4819: 4027: 3762: 2474: 1767: 1482: 1350:("old dwelling-house") were low-ranked semi-free servile tenants similar to serfs. According to Laurence Ginnell, the 424: 299: 106: 2824: 1278:

more common from that point onward, and by the 18th-century, serfdom had become relatively rare in most of France.

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Russia's over 23 million (about 38% of the total population) privately held serfs were freed from their lords by

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Barnett, Robert (2008) "What were the conditions regarding human rights in Tibet before democratic reform?" in:

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not a purely uni-directional exploitative relationship. In the Middle Ages, land within a lord's manor provided

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their free neighbours, although this happened rarely. A well-to-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.

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that he will perform everything as it was in our agreement when I submitted myself to him and chose his will.

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became a serf usually through force or necessity. Sometimes the greater physical and legal force of a local

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choice were enforced through various forms of manorial customary law and the manorial administration and

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were kinship estates, quite distinct from feudalism. James Lee and Cameron Campbell describe the Chinese

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rights, could neither sue nor appear as witnesses, and were not free in the matter of entering into

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of 1789, between 140,000 and 1,500,000 serfs remained in France, most of them on clerical lands in

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were hereditary unfree knights tied to their lord, that formed the lowest rung of nobility in the

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held similarities to serfdom. Even at its height, slaves only ever made up 2% of the population.

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or other person to whom they belonged, or whom they served, or by obtaining from an aire of the

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Serfs served on occasion as soldiers in the event of conflict and could earn freedom or even

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Wunder, Heide. "Serfdom in later medieval and early modern Germany" in T. H. Aston et al.,

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and most of the Middle Ages, what are now called serfs were usually designated in Latin as

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of the early 19th century, though in some it persisted until mid- or late- 19th century.

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On Architectural Jurisprudence; in which the Constitutions, Canons, Laws and Customs etc

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in 1846 was a revolt against serfdom, directed against manorial property and oppression.

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system of the late Roman Empire can be considered the predecessor of Western European

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The manor formed the basic unit of feudal society, and the lord of the manor and the

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Forms of Servitude in Northern and Central Europe. Decline, Resistance and Expansion

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From Savage to Citizen: The Invention of the Peasant in the French Enlightenment

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From Savage to Citizen: The Invention of the Peasant in the French Enlightenment

1956: 1941: 1920: 1645: 1633: 1275: 1220: 1216: 1160: 1123: 1122:, harvesting crops, digging ditches, repairing fences, and often working in the 940: 874: 792: 636: 508: 476: 464: 389: 331: 242: 41: 28: 3721: 3030:

Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...

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Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...

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Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...

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The French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Republic: Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite

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Wu, Ta-k'un (February 1952). "An Interpretation of Chinese Economic History".

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by 1959, but he believes that less than or about 10% of poor peasants were in

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Change in the land use system in Bhutan: Ecology, History, Culture, and Power

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Serf, Seigneur, and Sovereign: Agrarian Reform in Eighteenth-century Bohemia

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In many medieval countries, a villein could gain freedom by escaping from a

924: 625: 613:, saw their condition steadily erode. Because the tax system implemented by 512: 327: 205: 190: 2466: 471:, the concept of feudalism can also be applied to the societies of ancient 420: 1461:

Serfdom became the dominant form of relation between Russian peasants and

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which a serf placed his head in the lord's hands, akin to the ceremony of

400:, where it had previously been less common (this phenomenon was known as " 4664: 4636: 4622: 4489: 4455: 4413: 4398: 4358: 4103: 2169: 1986: 1903: 1873: 1846: 1789: 1529: 1507: 1462: 1381: 1373: 1294: 1259: 916: 635:

This arrangement provided most of the agricultural labour throughout the

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Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor, 1842–1927

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The Decline of Serfdom in Late Medieval England: From Bondage to Freedom

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United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

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in 1861. The owners were compensated through taxes on the freed serfs.

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abolished serfdom in all Crown lands in France. On the outbreak of the

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has sometimes been attributed to the widespread plague epidemic of the

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Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfdom: Eastern Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed,

1083:-cases of the period. Also, runaway slaves could be beaten if caught. 4632: 4445: 4378: 4318: 4313: 4120: 3623:

Serfdom and social control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a village in Tambov

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owners into dependency. Often a few years of crop failure, a war, or

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in 1792 and finally abolished it in October 1807, in the wake of the

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Richard Oram, 'Rural society: 1. medieval', in Michael Lynch (ed.),

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encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural

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Kahan, Arcadius. "Notes on Serfdom in Western and Eastern Europe,"

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The World of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England

3476:Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne 2318:(1982). "Tibet as a Stateless Society and Some Islamic Parallels". 2257:

Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1988). "On the Nature of Tibetan Peasantry".

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in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.

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Vadey, Liana. "Serfdom: Western Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed,

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The first steps towards abolition of serfdom were enacted in the

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In the later Middle Ages, serfdom began to disappear west of the

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resembled that of the medieval serfs. By the 3rd century AD, the

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Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work for the

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A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective

1420:, although its origins can be traced back to the 12th century. 1203:

serfdom in Poland was mostly limited to the royal territories (

739:. Thus, the manorial system exhibited a degree of reciprocity. 3737: 2619:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 58. 1115: 1111: 537:

is described by Tashi Wangchuk, a Bhutanese civil servant, as

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from the prehistoric period (500 BC or earlier) up until the

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for valour in combat. Serfs could purchase their freedom, be

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Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H. Hilton

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had abolished serfdom in the territories he gained from the

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pp. 81–83. Eds. Anne-Marie Blondeau and Katia Buffetrille.

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In addition to service, a serf was required to pay certain

703:. As slavery gradually disappeared and the legal status of 411:

slavery, though it continued to be called serfdom. In the

3778:(1970), "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis", 3675:

Re-Thinking Kinship and Feudalism in Early Medieval Europe

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The usual serf (not including slaves or cottars) paid his

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By the Lord before whom this sanctuary is holy, I will to

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persisted right through the Middle Ages, but it was rare.

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United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commission

1822:. There are differences depending on the region and sect. 1719:: First steps in 1780 and 1785. Final step on 8 May 1848. 1664:: 18 March 1812 (first step; second step: 26 August 1837) 1384:

to which they belonged permission to sue in his name." A

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also prohibits serfdom as a practice similar to slavery.

3188:"An interesting life through the eyes of a slave driver" 3668:

Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352–2000

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Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352–2000

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Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions,

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Hollister, Charles Warren; Bennett, Judith M. (2002).

1431:. However, these reforms were partly nullified by the 877:, held their land by one of a variety of contracts of 624:

around the 10th century. During this period, powerful

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Medieval serfdom really began with the breakup of the

2424:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298. 951:

In medieval England, two types of villeins existed –

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Serfs had a specific place in feudal society, as did

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Social institutions similar to serfdom were known in

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The Agrarian History of England and Wales: 1042–1350

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Feudal Society: The Growth of the Ties of Dependence

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where serfdom had not existed in centuries, if ever)

1134:, the whole family was expected to work the fields. 991:

deriving from the native Anglo-Saxon tongue whereas

4991: 4883: 4851: 4818: 4744: 4707: 4608: 4565: 4525: 4507: 4426: 4344: 4304: 4213: 4206: 4161: 4064: 3910: 3864: 825:freemen, workers whose tenure within the manor was 523:(1644–1912) as also maintaining a form of serfdom. 66:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3647:Unfree labor: American slavery and Russian serfdom 2615:Hallam, H.E.; Finberg; Thirsk, Joan, eds. (1988). 3585:From Slavery to Feudalism in South-Western Europe 2359: 2357: 2252: 2250: 2230: 2228: 2217:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 1550:: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848) 1544:: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848) 1130:during the regular times of the year. During the 1014:Status-wise, the bordar or cottar ranked below a 2046:"Villeins in the Middle Ages | Middle Ages" 1562:: 22 August 1785 (first step; second step: 1848) 1270:Serfdom in France started to diminish after the 3427:J. A. Cannon, 'Serfdom', in John Cannon (ed.), 3075:Democratic Crisis and Global Constitutional Law 1471: 797: 440: 5086:3rd-century establishments in the Roman Empire 3772:The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis 2711:. London: Longman Green & Co. p. 100. 2422:Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History 2310: 2308: 2274: 2272: 2077:. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. 1870:– Spanish serfdom transplanted to the Americas 1018:in the social hierarchy of a manor, holding a 3803: 3607:Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. 2667: 2665: 2535:Studies of field systems in the British Isles 334:, and similar systems. It was a condition of 300: 8: 4487: 3654:The abolition of serfdom in Russia 1762–1907 2415: 2413: 1318:, a political and social system existing in 140: 1648:in 1812 (as the area was incorporated into 1427:, and it was essentially eliminated by the 1385: 1357: 1351: 1345: 1339: 1333: 1327: 959:that could be traded separately from land. 854: 710: 704: 698: 688: 423:continued to exist until 1848. Serfdom was 4713: 4704: 4691: 4210: 4061: 4048: 3861: 3810: 3796: 3788: 3469: 3467: 433:General State Laws for the Prussian States 342:with similarities to and differences from 307: 293: 139: 19:"Serf" redirects here. For the saint, see 3600:Freedman, Paul, and Monique Bourin, eds. 3431:(Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 852. 3415:(Oxford: University Press, 2005), p. 549. 3400:Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762–1907 3218:"Bothachs and Sen-Cleithes – Brehon Laws" 126:Learn how and when to remove this message 3571:The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe 3413:The Oxford Companion to Scottish History 2829:. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 63. 2547:An Economic History of the British Isles 2537:, by Alan R. H. Baker, Robin Alan Butlin 1630:: 9 October 1807 (effectively 1811–1823) 1262:were the Byzantine equivalent of serfs. 565: 515:. Wu Ta-k'un argued that the Shang-Zhou 501:Islamic-ruled Northern and Central India 3429:The Oxford Companion to British History 2037: 1532:: August 6, 1749 (land reforms in 1864) 1526:: August 5, 1746 (land reforms in 1864) 1006:. Whipping was a common punishment for 709:became nearly identical to that of the 3343:. Oxford University Press. p. 3. 2922:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 425. 2689:. London: W.Benning. pp. 178–179. 2477:from the original on 12 September 2017 2210: 1051:were a type of serfs above kholops in 784:placed his hands between those of his 3774:, discussion and full online text of 3423: 3421: 3198:from the original on 21 February 2019 2897:from the original on 13 November 2021 2765:from the original on 17 February 2020 2753:McIntosh, Matthew (4 December 2018). 2734:from the original on 17 February 2020 2722:McIntosh, Matthew (4 December 2018). 2377:Nature Conservation Section. DoF, MoA 431:declared serfdom unacceptable in its 7: 3452:from the original on 20 October 2017 3340:Encyclopedia of Human Rights: Vol. 1 3318:from the original on 6 February 2021 3288:from the original on 31 January 2021 3258:from the original on 7 February 2021 3129:from the original on 7 February 2021 2052:from the original on 5 November 2018 1808:Bhutan: officially abolished by 1959 837:Lower classes of peasants, known as 64:adding citations to reliable sources 23:. For the type of magnetometer, see 3580:. Princeton University Press, 1956. 2503:from the original on 13 August 2021 2121:from the original on 7 January 2010 1274:, when the lack of work force made 539:having officially abolished serfdom 4053: 3119:"eDIL – Irish Language Dictionary" 3089:"eDIL – Irish Language Dictionary" 2936:from the original on 14 April 2017 2843:from the original on 23 March 2021 2804:from the original on 19 March 2022 16:Status of peasants under feudalism 14: 5091:1894 disestablishments in Iceland 3682:Russia's age of serfdom 1649–1861 3587:Cambridge University Press, 1991 3376:Donald Mackenzie Wallace (1905). 2673:Medieval History and Civilization 2596:from the original on 7 April 2022 2398:from the original on 12 June 2018 2091:from the original on 1 April 2019 1818:, but use of "serf" for Tibet is 1636:: October 1807 (effectively 1820) 5055: 5054: 3677:(2nd ed. Ashgate Variorum, 2000) 3670:(2001) volume 2 pp. 369–378 3618:(2001) volume 2 pp. 379–388 3357:from the original on 13 May 2016 3228:from the original on 16 May 2021 3168:from the original on 12 May 2022 3099:from the original on 12 May 2022 2787:Medieval Europe: A Short History 2570:from the original on 12 May 2022 1520:: obsolete by 15th–16th century. 1473:In 1649 up to three-quarters of 148: 40: 3680:Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. 3337:David P. Forsythe, ed. (2009). 2071:Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). 1565:Denmark: 20 June 1788 (part of 1232:Serfdom by country and location 723:Dependency and the lower orders 415:, serfdom was abolished by the 51:needs additional citations for 4696: 3566:Oxford University Press, 2003. 3060:A History of French Public Law 2985:A History of French Public Law 2709:The Village Labourer 1760–1832 2284:University of California Press 1814:, People's Republic of China: 1418:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1: 3784:30:1 (March), pp. 18–32. 3698:(Cambridge UP, 1983), 249–272 3691:(U of Minnesota Press, 1966). 3564:The Worlds of Medieval Europe 2885:"Everyday Life of the Aztecs" 2562:Craik, George Lillie (1846). 2199:(inactive 9 September 2024). 2113:A Dictionary of World History 1497:Emancipation dates by country 1031:Erection of Cottages Act 1588 3611:. Glasgow: Cruithne P, 1994. 2916:Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). 2790:. McGraw-Hill. p. 171. 2420:Mackay, Christopher (2004). 1972:Serfdom in Tibet controversy 1802:Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1918 1608:: 19 December 1804 (part of 1512:Colliers (Scotland) Act 1799 1467:Encyclopedia of Human Rights 1146:property was prohibited. On 987:) as interchangeable terms, 3630:Journal of Economic History 3378:"Chapter XXVIII. The Serfs" 3151:The Story of the Irish Race 2549:, by Arthur Birnie. p. 218 1768:Emancipation reform of 1861 1368:. They had no political or 955:that were tied to land and 330:, specifically relating to 5142: 3902:Weberian (three-component) 3480:Humanitas publishing house 2863:Białogłowa w dawnej Polsce 2642:Imperial Russia, 1801–1905 1729:abolishing serfdom in the 1725:The proclamation by count 1493:were emancipated in 1866. 1454: 1425:Constitution of 3 May 1791 1409: 904: 559: 384:The decline of serfdom in 18: 5050: 4716: 4703: 4690: 4060: 4047: 3860: 3831: 3763:An excerpt from the book 3661:The Peasantries of Europe 3540:Emancipation of the Serfs 3176:– via Google Books. 3148:MacManus, Seumas (2005). 2197:10.1017/s0268416098003063 1441:first partition of Poland 1246:In the Aztec Empire, the 995:derived from the French. 795:"Oath of Fealty" states: 684:and was derived from the 460:, from 1490 until 1894). 5024:Pre-industrial East Asia 3753:Peasantry (social class) 3545:7 September 2006 at the 2446:"Ways of ending slavery" 2320:Journal of Asian Studies 1398:,' settled by the lord ( 1281:In 1779, the reforms of 817:The social class of the 437:Prussian Reform Movement 142:Feudal titles and status 4072:Administrative detainee 3781:Economic History Review 3757:Encyclopædia Britannica 3745:Encyclopædia Britannica 3715:Encyclopædia Britannica 3589:excerpt and text search 3576:Coulborn, Rushton, ed. 3474:Djuvara, Neagu (2009). 3072:Christopher Thornhill, 2471:Encyclopedia Britannica 1681:Governorate of Courland 1326:(12th century AD), the 979: 973: 680: 511:) and Japan during the 322:was the status of many 4488: 3222:www.libraryireland.com 2919:A History of Byzantium 2755:"A History of Serfdom" 2724:"A History of Serfdom" 1977:Serfs Emancipation Day 1854:– early medieval serfs 1733: 1693:Governorate of Livonia 1671:Governorate of Estonia 1650:Grand Duchy of Finland 1624:(Poland): 22 July 1807 1479: 1386: 1358: 1352: 1346: 1340: 1334: 1328: 1107: 1011: 855: 806: 711: 705: 699: 689: 668: 607:, eventually known as 574: 441: 346:. It developed during 5029:Pre-industrial Europe 3562:Backman, Clifford R. 2823:Bailey, Mark (2014). 2685:Elmes, James (1827). 2639:Chapman, Tim (2001). 2185:Continuity and Change 2026:– English freeholders 1912:– ancient Greek serfs 1724: 1272:Black Death in France 1098: 1001: 963:Bordars and cottagers 666: 569: 5111:Indentured servitude 4886: or countries 4697:By country or region 3935:Class discrimination 3632:March 1973 33:86–99 3594:2 April 2016 at the 3578:Feudalism in History 3573:(Princeton UP, 1978) 2652:. Routledge. p. 83. 2369:27 June 2008 at the 2364:BhutanStudies.org.bt 1764:: 19 February 1861 ( 719:was coined in 1850. 675:originated from the 653:Napoleonic invasions 581:. The status of the 340:indentured servitude 60:improve this article 27:. For the film, see 4418:Vanniar (Chieftain) 3687:Wright, William E. 3639:12 May 2022 at the 3583:Bonnassie, Pierre. 3527:29 October 2004 at 3446:www.hoodfamily.info 3194:. 5 February 2017. 2671:Daniel D. McGarry, 2647:13 May 2016 at the 2497:"Serfdom in Europe" 2146:12 May 2022 at the 1437:Frederick the Great 1433:partition of Poland 1338:(perhaps linked to 425:abolished in Russia 417:1781 Serfdom Patent 144: 5096:Agricultural labor 4999:18th-century Spain 4853:Standard of living 4557:Upper middle class 4552:Lower middle class 4143:Political prisoner 3925:Chattering classes 3897:Spoon class theory 3718:(on-line edition). 3673:White, Stephen D. 3507:3 May 2016 at the 2170:10.1093/past/1.1.1 2162:Past & Present 1989:– Japanese serfdom 1916:Indentured servant 1786:Georgia: 1864–1871 1740:: 7 September 1848 1734: 1731:Kingdom of Croatia 1689:: 18 November 1817 1658:: 1 September 1812 1606:Schleswig-Holstein 1538:: 19 December 1771 1429:Połaniec Manifesto 1108: 1012: 1002:Punishment with a 953:villeins regardant 879:feudal land-tenure 669: 622:Carolingian Empire 575: 571:Galician slaughter 562:History of serfdom 5068: 5067: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5041: 4879: 4878: 4686: 4685: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4580:Lumpenproletariat 4082:illegal immigrant 4043: 4042: 3955:Classless society 3734:Vinogradoff, Paul 3489:978-973-50-2490-1 3042:Amy S. Wyngaard, 3012:Amy S. Wyngaard, 2929:978-1-4051-8471-7 2836:978-1-84383-890-6 2797:978-0-07-112109-5 2300:978-0-520-24928-8 2292:978-0-520-24464-1 2014:Taxation as theft 1899:Fugitive peasants 1831: 1830: 1805:Afghanistan: 1923 1616:Swedish Pomerania 1585:Batavian Republic 1579:Helvetic Republic 1536:Piedmont-Sardinia 1518:England and Wales 1457:Serfdom in Russia 1412:Serfdom in Poland 1332:("hut-dweller"), 1287:French Revolution 957:villeins in gross 895:Holy Roman Empire 737:manor of his lord 469:Joseph R. Strayer 374:lord of the manor 352:Early Middle Ages 317: 316: 183:Lord of the manor 136: 135: 128: 110: 5133: 5058: 5057: 4885: 4786:Mexican-American 4714: 4705: 4692: 4493: 4436:Business magnate 4326:Knowledge worker 4211: 4099:dual or multiple 4062: 4049: 4003:Social exclusion 3998:Social cleansing 3912: 3862: 3851:Economic classes 3812: 3805: 3798: 3789: 3749: 3748:(11th ed.). 3741: 3722:The Hull Project 3659:Scott, Tom, ed. 3645:Kolchin, Peter. 3621:Hoch, Steven L. 3549: 3537: 3531: 3519: 3513: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3471: 3462: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3438: 3432: 3425: 3416: 3409: 3403: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3384:. 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695:Late Antiquity 693:("slave"). In 660: 657: 605:tenant farmers 560:Main article: 557: 554: 489:Middle Kingdom 483:from the late 402:second serfdom 398:Eastern Europe 386:Western Europe 348:late antiquity 315: 314: 312: 311: 304: 297: 289: 286: 285: 279: 278: 260: 259: 253: 252: 246: 245: 239: 238: 232: 231: 213: 212: 198: 197: 179: 178: 172: 171: 165: 164: 158:Lord paramount 154: 153: 134: 133: 48: 46: 39: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5138: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5076: 5061: 5053: 5052: 5049: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4990: 4984: 4983:United States 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4884:Other regions 4882: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 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3978: 3973: 3972: 3971:Nouveau riche 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3945:Class traitor 3943: 3941: 3940:Class society 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3909: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3877:Gilbert model 3875: 3873: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3848: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3839: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3830: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3813: 3808: 3806: 3801: 3799: 3794: 3793: 3790: 3783: 3782: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3747: 3746: 3740: 3735: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3723: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3697: 3693: 3690: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3676: 3672: 3669: 3665: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3652:Moon, David. 3651: 3648: 3644: 3642: 3638: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3617: 3613: 3610: 3606: 3603: 3599: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3560: 3555: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3529:archive.today 3526: 3523: 3518: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3503: 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2696: 2693: 2688: 2681: 2678: 2675:(1976) p. 242 2674: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2659: 2658:0-415-23110-8 2655: 2651: 2650: 2646: 2643: 2636: 2633: 2628: 2626:0-521-20073-3 2622: 2618: 2611: 2608: 2595: 2591: 2585: 2582: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2540: 2536: 2531: 2528: 2524: 2518: 2515: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2489: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2427: 2423: 2416: 2414: 2410: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2380: 2376: 2373:, T Wangchuk 2372: 2368: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2259:Tibet Journal 2253: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2237:Tibet Journal 2231: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2214: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2179: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2142: 2136: 2133: 2120: 2116: 2114: 2106: 2103: 2090: 2086: 2084:0-8263-2871-7 2080: 2076: 2075: 2067: 2064: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2031: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010:– Welsh serfs 2009: 2006: 2004: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1982:Sharecropping 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1947:Ministerialis 1945: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1827: 1821: 1820:controversial 1817: 1816:29 March 1959 1813: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1794: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1727:Josip Jelačić 1723: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1677: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1618:: 4 July 1806 1617: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1590: 1589:Code Napoléon 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1478: 1476: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1458: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1445:industrialize 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1419: 1413: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1360: 1354: 1348: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1292: 1291:Franche-Comté 1288: 1284: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1229: 1228:of the town. 1227: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1207: 1200: 1194: 1192: 1190: 1184: 1182: 1177: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1162: 1156: 1153: 1152:feudal relief 1149: 1148:Easter Sunday 1144: 1139: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1105: 1102:and serfs in 1101: 1097: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1082: 1073: 1071: 1069: 1062: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1009: 1008:Russian serfs 1005: 1000: 996: 994: 990: 986: 981: 977:(bordar) and 975: 970: 969:Domesday Book 962: 960: 958: 954: 949: 946: 943:to a city or 942: 937: 934: 928: 926: 920: 918: 914: 908: 900: 898: 896: 892: 891:Ministeriales 886:Ministeriales 885: 883: 880: 876: 868: 866: 864: 859: 858: 848: 846: 844: 840: 833: 830: 828: 824: 823: 822: 820: 812: 810: 805: 802: 796: 794: 789: 787: 783: 779: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 750: 748: 744: 740: 738: 734: 730: 722: 720: 718: 713: 707: 701: 696: 691: 687: 682: 678: 677:Middle French 674: 665: 658: 656: 654: 649: 644: 642: 638: 633: 631: 627: 623: 618: 616: 612: 611: 606: 601: 599: 595: 591: 588: 587:ancient Greek 584: 580: 579:ancient times 572: 568: 563: 555: 553: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 463:According to 461: 459: 458: 453: 452: 447: 443: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 405: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 382: 380: 375: 370: 368: 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Retrieved 3445: 3436: 3428: 3412: 3407: 3399: 3398:David Moon, 3394: 3386:the original 3381: 3371: 3359:. Retrieved 3339: 3332: 3322:26 September 3320:. Retrieved 3311: 3302: 3292:26 September 3290:. Retrieved 3281: 3272: 3260:. Retrieved 3251: 3242: 3230:. Retrieved 3221: 3212: 3200:. Retrieved 3191: 3182: 3170:. Retrieved 3150: 3143: 3131:. Retrieved 3122: 3113: 3101:. Retrieved 3092: 3083: 3073: 3068: 3058: 3053: 3043: 3038: 3028: 3023: 3013: 3008: 2998: 2993: 2983: 2978: 2968: 2963: 2954: 2950: 2938:. Retrieved 2918: 2911: 2899:. Retrieved 2878: 2862: 2857: 2845:. Retrieved 2825: 2818: 2806:. Retrieved 2786: 2779: 2767:. Retrieved 2758: 2748: 2736:. Retrieved 2727: 2717: 2708: 2701:Hammond, J L 2695: 2686: 2680: 2672: 2640: 2635: 2616: 2610: 2598:. Retrieved 2584: 2572:. Retrieved 2546: 2542: 2534: 2530: 2522: 2521:Marc Bloch, 2517: 2505:. Retrieved 2491: 2479:. Retrieved 2470: 2461: 2449:. Retrieved 2440: 2421: 2400:. Retrieved 2391: 2382: 2374: 2323: 2319: 2279: 2262: 2258: 2243:(4): 79–112. 2240: 2236: 2213:cite journal 2188: 2184: 2178: 2161: 2155: 2139: 2135: 2123:. Retrieved 2112: 2105: 2093:. Retrieved 2073: 2066: 2054:. Retrieved 2040: 1825: 1777:Hawaii: 1835 1765: 1755: 1747: 1599: 1595: 1581:: 4 May 1798 1487:Alexander II 1480: 1472: 1466: 1460: 1422: 1415: 1399: 1392:D. A. Binchy 1377: 1363: 1313: 1300: 1280: 1269: 1257: 1245: 1242:Aztec Empire 1214: 1211: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1185: 1178: 1174: 1165: 1157: 1140: 1136: 1109: 1085: 1077: 1066: 1047: 1039: 1013: 992: 988: 966: 956: 952: 950: 938: 929: 921: 912: 910: 889: 875:free tenants 873:Freemen, or 872: 852: 836: 816: 813:Class system 807: 800: 798: 790: 763:intimidated 754: 745: 741: 726: 716: 672: 670: 645: 634: 626:feudal lords 619: 609: 602: 598:Roman Empire 576: 547: 545:situations. 525: 521:Qing dynasty 505:Zhou dynasty 487:through the 462: 455: 449: 445: 408: 406: 383: 371: 356: 336:debt bondage 319: 318: 263: 137: 122: 113: 103: 96: 89: 82: 70: 58:Please help 53:verification 50: 33: 4953:New Zealand 4670:Untouchable 4595:Proletariat 4585:Pea-pickers 4535:Bourgeoisie 4223:Aristocracy 4109:naturalized 4104:native-born 3776:Evsey Domar 3192:Independent 2940:12 November 2769:17 February 2738:17 February 2451:21 February 2402:23 February 2265:(1): 61–65. 2164:(1): 1–12. 2125:12 February 1942:Manorialism 1921:Josephinism 1774:Tonga: 1862 1687:Württemberg 1646:Old Finland 1634:Mecklenburg 1491:State serfs 1276:manumission 1217:ennoblement 1161:court baron 1124:manor house 1057:Kievan Rus' 1024:Elizabethan 793:Anglo Saxon 765:freeholders 637:Middle Ages 509:Han dynasty 507:and end of 485:Old Kingdom 477:Mesopotamia 465:medievalist 390:Black Death 332:manorialism 243:Free tenant 29:Serf (film) 5075:Categories 4943:Luxembourg 4833:Inequality 4498:Superclass 4289:Hereditary 4265:Post-Roman 4256:Patrician 4126:adolescent 3950:Classicide 3456:7 February 3123:www.dil.ie 3093:www.dil.ie 2759:Brewminate 2728:Brewminate 2431:0521809185 2056:5 November 2032:References 1894:Freeholder 1868:Encomienda 1797:Vistarband 1353:sencléithe 1347:sencléithe 1221:manumitted 1195:Variations 936:labourer. 933:sustenance 905:See also: 773:brigandage 751:Initiation 615:Diocletian 590:city-state 529:described 475:, ancient 467:historian 457:vistarband 451:stavnsbånd 236:Husbandman 195:Liege lord 176:Mesne lord 86:newspapers 21:Saint Serf 5106:Feudalism 4968:Sri Lanka 4861:Education 4828:Household 4721:Affluence 4656:Rat tribe 4618:Ant tribe 4590:Precariat 4575:Lazzaroni 4517:Bohemians 4478:Overclass 4473:Old money 4409:Spartiate 4384:Kshatriya 4374:Hashashin 4331:Professor 4272:Political 4245:Oligarchy 4235:Hanseaten 4153:Stateless 4133:Convicted 4065:By status 4028:Subaltern 3960:Euthenics 3892:New class 3312:téarma.ie 3248:"bothach" 3172:3 October 2901:12 August 2847:3 October 2808:3 October 2600:3 October 2574:3 October 2467:"Serfdom" 2348:163321743 2294:(cloth); 2205:144755944 2003:Subjugate 1879:Feudalism 1524:Wallachia 1374:contracts 1298:freely. 1293:, Berry, 1106:, c. 1310 925:Roman law 865:serfdom. 819:peasantry 671:The word 659:Etymology 513:Shogunate 503:, China ( 427:in 1861. 328:feudalism 206:Gentleman 116:July 2020 75:"Serfdom" 5116:Peasants 5060:Category 4992:Historic 4913:Colombia 4903:Cambodia 4838:Personal 4736:Mobility 4665:Freedman 4651:Plebeian 4637:Prisoner 4623:Commoner 4509:Creative 4490:Seigneur 4456:Nobility 4414:Vanniyar 4399:Pendekar 4359:Cossacks 3993:Snobbery 3865:Theories 3736:(1911). 3637:Archived 3634:in JSTOR 3592:Archived 3543:Archived 3525:Archived 3505:Archived 3450:Archived 3355:Archived 3316:Archived 3308:"fuidir" 3286:Archived 3278:"fuidir" 3262:3 August 3256:Archived 3232:3 August 3226:Archived 3202:3 August 3196:Archived 3166:Archived 3133:3 August 3127:Archived 3103:3 August 3097:Archived 3063:, p. 327 3048:, p. 159 3018:, s. 159 2988:, s. 327 2934:Archived 2892:Archived 2841:Archived 2802:Archived 2763:Archived 2732:Archived 2707:(1912). 2645:Archived 2594:Archived 2592:. 1842. 2568:Archived 2501:Archived 2475:Archived 2396:Archived 2367:Archived 2144:Archived 2119:Archived 2089:Archived 2050:Archived 1957:Ritsuryō 1904:Hacienda 1874:Fengjian 1847:Birkarls 1835:See also 1790:Kalmykia 1758:in 1878) 1756:de facto 1746:: 1858 ( 1744:Bulgaria 1602:in 1830) 1596:de facto 1591:in 1811) 1530:Moldavia 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