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arrives at the target front it will then propagate through this underdense region and be reflected from the front surface of the target propagating back through the preplasma. Throughout this process the laser has heated up the electrons in the underdense region and accelerated them via stochastic heating. This heating process is incredibly important, producing a high temperature electron populations is key for the next steps of the process. The importance of the preplasma in the electron heating process has recently been studied both theoretically and experimentally showing how longer preplasmas lead to stronger electron heating and an enhancement in TNSA. The hot electrons propagate through the solid target and exit it through the rear end. In doing so, the electrons produce an incredibly strong electric field, in the order of TV/m, through charge separation. This electric field, also referred to as the sheath field due to its resemblance with the shape of a sheath from a sword, is responsible for the acceleration of the ions. On the rear face of the target there is a small layer of contaminants (usually light hydrocarbons and water vapor). These contaminants are ionised by the strong electric field generated by the hot electrons and then accelerated. Which leads to an energetic ion beam and completes the acceleration process.
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A particle injected into such a plasma would be accelerated by the charge separation field, but since the magnitude of this separation is generally similar to that of the external field, apparently nothing is gained in comparison to a conventional system that simply applies the field directly to the particle. But, the plasma medium acts as the most efficient transformer (currently known) of the transverse field of an electromagnetic wave into longitudinal fields of a plasma wave. In existing accelerator technology various appropriately designed materials are used to convert from transverse propagating extremely intense fields into longitudinal fields that the particles can get a kick from. This process is achieved using two approaches: standing-wave structures (such as resonant cavities) or traveling-wave structures such as disc-loaded waveguides etc. But, the limitation of materials interacting with higher and higher fields is that they eventually get destroyed through ionization and breakdown. Here the plasma accelerator science provides the breakthrough to generate, sustain, and exploit the highest fields ever produced in the laboratory.
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experience a massive attractive force back to the center of the wake by the positive plasma ions chamber, bubble or column that have remained positioned there, as they were originally in the unexcited plasma. This forms a full wake of an extremely high longitudinal (accelerating) and transverse (focusing) electric field. The positive charge from ions in the charge-separation region then creates a huge gradient between the back of the wake, where there are many electrons, and the middle of the wake, where there are mostly ions. Any electrons in between these two areas will be accelerated (in self-injection mechanism). In the external bunch injection schemes the electrons are strategically injected to arrive at the evacuated region during maximum excursion or expulsion of the plasma electrons.
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plasma at close to the speed of light. The bubble is the region cleared of electrons that is thus positively charged, followed by the region where the electrons fall back into the center and is thus negatively charged. This leads to a small area of very strong potential gradient following the laser pulse.
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The scheme employs a solid target that interacts firstly with the laser prepulse, this ionises the target turning it into a plasma and causing a pre-expansion of the target front. Which produces an underdense plasma region at the front of the target, the so-called preplasma. Once the main laser pulse
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It is this "wakefield" that is used for particle acceleration. A particle injected into the plasma near the high-density area will experience an acceleration toward (or away) from it, an acceleration that continues as the wakefield travels through the column, until the particle eventually reaches the
443:
What makes the system useful is the possibility of introducing waves of very high charge separation that propagate through the plasma similar to the traveling-wave concept in the conventional accelerator. The accelerator thereby phase-locks a particle bunch on a wave and this loaded space-charge wave
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in equilibrium. However, if a strong enough external electric or electromagnetic field is applied, the plasma electrons, which are very light in comparison to the background ions (by a factor of 1836), will separate spatially from the massive ions creating a charge imbalance in the perturbed region.
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A beam-driven wake can be created by sending a relativistic proton or electron bunch into an appropriate plasma or gas. In some cases, the gas can be ionized by the electron bunch, so that the electron bunch both creates the plasma and the wake. This requires an electron bunch with relatively high
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of the acceleration tube. This limits the amount of acceleration over any given length, requiring very long accelerators to reach high energies. In contrast, the maximum field in a plasma is defined by mechanical qualities and turbulence, but is generally several orders of magnitude stronger than
464:
If the fields are strong enough, all of the ionized plasma electrons can be removed from the center of the wake: this is known as the "blowout regime". Although the particles are not moving very quickly during this period, macroscopically it appears that a "bubble" of charge is moving through the
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or the electrostatic fields from the exciting fields (electron or laser). Plasma ions are too massive to move significantly and are assumed to be stationary at the time-scales of plasma electron response to the exciting fields. As the exciting fields pass through the plasma, the plasma electrons
188:
A plasma consists of a fluid of positive and negative charged particles, generally created by heating or photo-ionizing (direct / tunneling / multi-photon / barrier-suppression) a dilute gas. Under normal conditions the plasma will be macroscopically neutral (or quasi-neutral), an equal mix of
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The main laser-solid acceleration scheme is Target Normal Sheath
Acceleration, TNSA as it is usually referred as. TNSA like other laser based acceleration techniques is not capable of directly accelerating the ions. Instead it is a multi-step process consisting of several stages each with its
1180:
Maier, Andreas R.; Delbos, Niels M.; Eichner, Timo; Hübner, Lars; Jalas, Sören; Jeppe, Laurids; Jolly, Spencer W.; Kirchen, Manuel; Leroux, Vincent; Messner, Philipp; Schnepp, Matthias; Trunk, Maximilian; Walker, Paul A.; Werle, Christian; Winkler, Paul (18 August 2020).
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In the linear regime, plasma electrons aren't completely removed from the center of the wake. In this case, the linear plasma wave equation can be applied. However, the wake appears very similar to the blowout regime, and the physics of acceleration is the same.
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using the
Facility for Advanced Accelerator Experimental Tests (FACET) published proof of the viability of plasma acceleration technology. It was shown to be able to achieve 400 to 500 times higher energy transfer compared to a general linear accelerator design.
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with RF accelerators. It is hoped that a compact particle accelerator can be created based on plasma acceleration techniques or accelerators for much higher energy can be built, if long accelerators are realizable with an accelerating field of 10 GV/m.
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Similar to a beam-driven wake, a laser pulse can be used to excite the plasma wake. As the pulse travels through the plasma, the electric field of the light separates the electrons and nucleons in the same way that an external field would.
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Gizzi, Leonida A.; Boella, Elisabetta; Labate, Luca; Baffigi, Federica; Bilbao, Pablo J.; Brandi, Fernando; Cristoforetti, Gabriele; Fazzi, Alberto; Fulgentini, Lorenzo; Giove, Dario; Koester, Petra (2021-07-02).
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Laser–solid-target-based ion acceleration has become an active area of research, especially since the discovery of the target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA). This new scheme offers further improvements in
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Current experimental devices show accelerating gradients several orders of magnitude better than current particle accelerators over very short distances, and about one order of magnitude better (1
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can travel at speeds much higher than the wave they surf on by traveling across it. Accelerators designed to take advantage of this technique have been referred to colloquially as "surfatrons".
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Joshi, C.; Mori, W. B.; Katsouleas, T.; Dawson, J. M.; Kindel, J. M.; Forslund, D. W. (1984). "Ultrahigh gradient particle acceleration by intense laser-driven plasma density waves".
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associated difficulty to model mathematically. For this reason, so far there exists no perfect theoretical model capable of producing quantitative predictions for the TNSA mechanism.
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Responsible for the spiky, fast ion front of the expanding plasma is an ion wave breaking process that takes place in the initial phase of the evolution and is described by the
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Higginson, A.; Gray, R. J.; King, M.; Dance, R. J.; Williamson, S. D. R.; Butler, N. M. H.; Wilson, R.; Capdessus, R.; Armstrong, C.; Green, J. S.; Hawkes, S. J. (2018-02-20).
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In August 2020 scientists reported the achievement of a milestone in the development of laser-plasma accelerators and demonstrate their longest stable operation of 30 hours.
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Snavely, R. A.; Key, M. H.; Hatchett, S. P.; Cowan, T. E.; Roth, M.; Phillips, T. W.; Stoyer, M. A.; Henry, E. A.; Sangster, T. C.; Singh, M. S.; Wilks, S. C. (2000-10-02).
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Roth, M.; Cowan, T. E.; Key, M. H.; Hatchett, S. P.; Brown, C.; Fountain, W.; Johnson, J.; Pennington, D. M.; Snavely, R. A.; Wilks, S. C.; Yasuike, K. (2001-01-15).
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508:: The electron plasma wave arises based on different frequency generation of two laser pulses. The "Surfatron" is an improvement on this technique.
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and sources for fundamental research. Nonetheless, the maximum energies achieved so far with this scheme are in the order of 100 MeV energies.
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speed of the wakefield. Even higher energies can be reached by injecting the particle to travel across the face of the wakefield, much like a
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charge and thus strong fields. The high fields of the electron bunch then push the plasma electrons out from the center, creating the wake.
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The advantage of plasma acceleration is that its acceleration field can be much stronger than that of conventional radio-frequency (RF)
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accelerates them to higher velocities while retaining the bunch properties. Currently, plasma wakes are excited by appropriately shaped
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Blumenfeld, Ian; et al. (2007). "Energy doubling of 42 GeV electrons in a metre-scale plasma wakefield accelerator".
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The wakefield acceleration can be categorized into several types according to how the electron plasma wave is formed:
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Once fully developed, the technology can replace many of the traditional accelerators with applications ranging from
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was achieved using the SLAC SLC beam (42 GeV) in just 85 cm using a plasma wakefield accelerator (8.9×10 g
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Roth, Markus; Schollmeier, Marius (2013), McKenna, Paul; Neely, David; Bingham, Robert; Jaroszynski, Dino (eds.),
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845:"Multi-GeV Electron Beams from Capillary-Discharge-Guided Subpetawatt Laser Pulses in the Self-Trapping Regime"
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1692:"Enhanced laser-driven proton acceleration via improved fast electron heating in a controlled pre-plasma"
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The acceleration gradient produced by a plasma wake is in the order of the wave breaking field, which is
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A proof-of-principle plasma wakefield accelerator experiment using a 400 GeV proton beam from the
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pulses or electron bunches. Plasma electrons are driven out and away from the center of wake by the
987:"Proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration: a path to the future of high-energy particle physics"
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in 1979. The initial experimental designs for a "wakefield" accelerator were conceived at UCLA by
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requires 64 m to reach the same energy. Similarly, using plasmas an energy gain of more than 40
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The basic concepts of plasma acceleration and its possibilities were originally conceived by
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Bulanov, S.V; Esirkepov, T.Zh; Khoroshkov, V.S; Kuznetsov, A.V; Pegoraro, F. (2002-07-01).
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1579:"Near-100 MeV protons via a laser-driven transparency-enhanced hybrid acceleration scheme"
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structures. These plasma acceleration structures are created using either ultra-short
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517:: The formation of an electron plasma wave is achieved by a laser pulse modulated by
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902:"High-efficiency acceleration of an electron beam in a plasma wakefield accelerator"
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628:. In RF accelerators, the field has an upper limit determined by the threshold for
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88:
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Katsouleas, T.; Dawson, J. M. (1983). "A Plasma Wave
Accelerator - Surfatron I".
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1776:"A proposal for a 1 GeV plasma-wakefield acceleration experiment at SLAC"
1156:"Plasma accelerators could overcome size limitations of Large Hadron Collider"
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651:), and one conventional accelerator (highest electron energy accelerator) at
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1367:"Intense High-Energy Proton Beams from Petawatt-Laser Irradiation of Solids"
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1994:
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Proceedings of the 1997 Particle
Accelerator Conference (Cat. No.97CH36167)
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780:"Quasi-monoenergetic laser-plasma acceleration of electrons to 2 GeV"
286:{\displaystyle E_{0}={\sqrt {\frac {m_{e}n_{e}c^{2}}{\varepsilon _{0}}}}.}
1130:"Important Milestone Reached on the Road to Future Particle Accelerators"
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1183:"Decoding Sources of Energy Variability in a Laser-Plasma Accelerator"
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1644:"Stochastic heating in ultra high intensity laser-plasma interaction"
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simulations are usually employed to efficiently achieve predictions.
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to medical and industrial applications. Medical applications include
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1342:"The potential of plasma wakefield acceleration | symmetry magazine"
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accelerates electrons to 1 GeV over about 3.3 cm (5.4×10 g
640:/m vs 0.1 GeV/m for an RF accelerator) at the one meter scale.
490:: The electron plasma wave is formed by an electron or proton bunch.
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is the plasma electron density (in particles per unit volume), and
1079:"World record: Plasma accelerator operates right around the clock"
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1823:"Electron Linac Of Test Accelerator Facility For Linear collider"
972:"Researchers Hit Milestone in Accelerating Particles with Plasma"
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499:: A laser pulse is introduced to form an electron plasma wave.
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Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A
68:. The technique offers a way to build affordable and compact
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pulses or energetic particle beams that are matched to the
1469:"Fast Ignition by Intense Laser-Accelerated Proton Beams"
974:. SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. November 5, 2014.
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For example, an experimental laser plasma accelerator at
149:, when they produced electron beams up to 4.25 GeV.
1857:"GeV electron beams from a centimetre-scale accelerator"
1422:"Oncological hadrontherapy with laser ion accelerators"
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Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
2078:"Focus on Laser- and Beam-Driven Plasma Accelerators"
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1058:"AWAKE: Making waves in accelerator technology"
855:(24). American Physical Society (APS): 245002.
564:Plasma wakefield acceleration using positrons
549:Plasma wakefield acceleration using electrons
778:Wang, Xiaoming; et al. (June 11, 2013).
8:
1821:Takeda, S; et al. (November 27, 2014).
572:Plasma wakefield acceleration using protons
205:Wake created by an electron beam in a plasma
512:self-modulated laser wakefield acceleration
1533:Laser-Plasma Interactions and Applications
172:, started experiments at the end of 2016.
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2112:Plasma Wakefield Acceleration - A Guide
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27:Charged particle acceleration technique
1218:Text and images are available under a
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645:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
147:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
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2117:Riding the Plasma Wave of the Future
1774:Katsouleas, T.; et al. (1998).
991:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
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1987:10.1038/scientificamerican0206-40
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584:Target normal sheath acceleration
87:light sources for diagnostics or
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429:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}
33:is a technique for accelerating
1965:(2006). "Plasma Accelerators".
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620:Comparison with RF acceleration
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1446:10.1016/S0375-9601(02)00521-2
1021:10.1088/0741-3335/56/8/084013
541:Laser wakefield acceleration
485:plasma wakefield acceleration
132:University of Texas at Austin
1549:10.1007/978-3-319-00038-1_12
1108:scinexx | Das Wissensmagazin
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503:laser beat-wave acceleration
494:laser wakefield acceleration
1660:10.1016/j.physd.2005.04.017
1391:10.1103/physrevlett.85.2945
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673:Dielectric wall accelerator
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1726:10.1038/s41598-021-93011-3
1603:10.1038/s41467-018-03063-9
1493:10.1103/physrevlett.86.436
1268:10.1016/j.nima.2015.12.050
1208:10.1103/PhysRevX.10.031039
714:10.1103/PhysRevLett.43.267
438:permittivity of free space
164:is currently operating at
1529:"Ion Acceleration: TNSA"
1346:www.symmetrymagazine.org
1319:10.1109/TNS.1983.4336628
168:. The experiment, named
162:Super Proton Synchrotron
1798:10.1109/pac.1997.749806
1473:Physical Review Letters
1371:Physical Review Letters
849:Physical Review Letters
121:Chandrashekhar J. Joshi
2083:New Journal of Physics
544:BELLA, TREX, CLF, LUX
525:Some experiments are:
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184:Wakefield acceleration
1583:Nature Communications
1299:IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci
1232:Caldwell, A. (2016).
784:Nature Communications
614:Sack-Schamel equation
533:Type of acceleration
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402:{\displaystyle n_{e}}
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371:{\displaystyle m_{e}}
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316:{\displaystyle E_{0}}
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70:particle accelerators
630:dielectric breakdown
595:fusion fast ignition
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128:Texas Petawatt laser
51:electron plasma wave
2137:Accelerator physics
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2016:2004Natur.431..515K
1979:2006SciAm.294b..40J
1967:Scientific American
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1918:2007Natur.445..741B
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1311:1983ITNS...30.3241K
1260:2016NIMPA.829....3C
1199:2020PhRvX..10c1039M
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796:2013NatCo...4.1988W
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706:1979PhRvL..43..267T
529:
450:ponderomotive force
378:is the mass of the
77:high energy physics
31:Plasma acceleration
1696:Scientific Reports
804:10.1038/ncomms2988
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296:In this equation,
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2069:10.1063/1.1595054
2010:(7008): 515–516.
1558:978-3-319-00038-1
1426:Physics Letters A
1377:(14): 2945–2948.
1187:Physical Review X
743:(5986): 525–529.
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558:DESY FLASHForward
340:{\displaystyle c}
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89:radiation therapy
66:plasma parameters
35:charged particles
16:(Redirected from
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1830:Part. Accel
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1140:6 September
1114:6 September
1088:6 September
1042:October 13,
351:in vacuum,
2126:Categories
1709:2106.00814
1589:(1): 724.
1564:2021-06-10
1351:2024-03-22
1251:1511.09032
679:References
37:, such as
1963:Joshi, C.
1934:0028-0836
1891:1745-2473
1836:: 153–159
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1734:2045-2322
1668:0167-2789
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191:electrons
39:electrons
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1826:(PDF)
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999:arXiv
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