Ungulate - Knowledge

1463: 2950:, did not share this unique skeletal structure. The fusion of the radius and ulna prevents an ungulate from rotating its forelimb. Since this skeletal structure has no specific function in ungulates, it is considered a homologous characteristic that ungulates share with other mammals. This trait would have been passed down from a common ancestor. While the two orders of ungulates colloquial names were based on the number of toes of their members ("odd-toed" for the perissodactyls and "even-toed" for the terrestrial artiodactyls), it is not an accurate reason they were grouped. Tapirs have four toes in the front, yet they were members of the "odd-toed" order; peccaries and modern cetaceans were members of the "even-toed" order, yet peccaries have three toes in the front and whales were an extreme example as they have flippers instead of hooves. Scientists had classified them according to the distribution of their weight to their toes. 1414: 1354: 1591: 1544: 2043: 1666: 1517: 2224: 1835: 1571: 1256: 2597:(about 65 to 60 million years ago). They had relatively short limbs lacking specializations associated with their relatives (e.g. reduced side digits, fused bones, and hooves), and long, heavy tails. Their primitive anatomy makes it unlikely that they were able to run down prey, but with their powerful proportions, claws, and long canines, they may have been able to overpower smaller animals in surprise attacks. Evidently these mammals soon evolved into two separate lineages: the 2906: 1394: 1490: 178: 1815: 1760: 1740: 2063: 112: 817: 797: 1898: 1713: 1960: 1303: 1283: 2605: 3087: 2305: 2982: 2016: 2682: 1926: 827: 807: 1980: 2815: 2323: 2209: 2574: 837: 2699:. These animals had unusual triangular teeth very similar to those of primitive cetaceans. This is why scientists long believed that cetaceans evolved from a form of mesonychian. Today, many scientists believe cetaceans evolved from the same stock that gave rise to hippopotamuses. This hypothesized ancestral group likely split into two branches around 2768: 2392:(more specifically closer to elephants) – have been classified as a clade that is closely related to the perissodactyls. The desmostylians were large amphibious quadrupeds with massive limbs and a short tail. They grew to 1.8 metres (6 ft) in length and were thought to have weighed more than 200 kilograms (440 lb). Their 1871: 3113:. Male horn development has been linked to sexual selection, while the presence of horns in females is likely due to natural selection. The horns of females are usually smaller than those of males and are sometimes of a different shape. The horns of female bovids are thought to have evolved for defense against 3193:

cranial appendages are unique. Each "horn" of the pronghorn is composed of a slender, laterally flattened blade of bone that grows from the frontal bones of the skull, forming a permanent core. As in the Giraffidae, skin covers the bony cores, but in the pronghorn it develops into a keratinous sheath

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Perissodactyls were the dominant group of large terrestrial browsers right through the Oligocene. However, the rise of grasses in the Miocene (about 20 Mya) saw a major change: the artiodactyl species with their more complex stomachs were better able to adapt to a coarse, low-nutrition diet, and

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Perissodactyls have a mesaxonic foot, meaning that the weight is distributed on the third toe on all legs thanks to the plane symmetry of their feet. There has been a reduction of toes from the common ancestor, with the classic example being horses with their single hooves. In consequence, there was

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of that genus is now considered not a member of this family, but the other species have been split off into different genera. These early Equidae were fox-sized animals with three toes on the hind feet, and four on the front feet. They were herbivorous browsers on relatively soft plants, and were

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were among the first large herbivorous mammals, although their exact relationship with other mammals is still debated with one of the theories being that they might just be distant relatives to living ungulates; the most recent study recovers them as within the true ungulate assemblage, closest to

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habitats. Their name refers to their highly distinctive molars, in which each cusp was modified into hollow columns, so that a typical molar would have resembled a cluster of pipes, or in the case of worn molars, volcanoes. They were the only marine mammals to have gone extinct.

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for mammals. Many ungulates switched from browsing diets to grazing diets, and possibly driven by abrasive silica in grass, hypsodonty became common. However, recent evidence ties the evolution of hypsodonty to open, gritty habitats and not the grass itself. This is termed the

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from tapir-like animals and then colonised the Americas during the middle Eocene (about 45 Mya). Of the approximately 15 families, only three survive (McKenna and Bell, 1997; Hooker, 2005). These families were very diverse in form and size; they included the enormous

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called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom, and grow faster than any other mammal bone. Growth occurs at the tip, initially as

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Below is a simplified taxonomy (assuming that ungulates do indeed form a natural grouping) with the extant families, in order of the relationships. Keep in mind that there were still some grey areas of conflict, such as the case with the relationship between the

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instead to filter out the krill from the water. On the other spectrum teeth have been evolved as weapons or sexual display seen in pigs and peccaries, some species of deer, musk deer, hippopotamuses, beaked whales and the Narwhal, with its long canine tooth.

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were almost indistinguishable from the extant species. Asian and American tapirs were believed to have diverged around 20 to 30 million years ago; and tapirs migrated from North America to South America around 3 million years ago, as part of the

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of other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels. Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing it is covered with highly

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that is shed and regrown on an annual basis. Unlike the horns of the family Bovidae, the horn sheaths of the pronghorn are branched, each sheath possessing a forward-pointing tine (hence the name pronghorn). The horns of males are well developed.

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already adapted for running. The complexity of their brains suggest that they already were alert and intelligent animals. Later species reduced the number of toes, and developed teeth more suited for grinding up grass and other tough plant food.

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that is then mineralized to become bone. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by

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Mesonychians were depicted as "wolves on hooves" and were the first major mammalian predators, appearing in the Paleocene. Early mesonychians had five digits on their feet, which probably rested flat on the ground during walking

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and the antlers eventually fall off. As a result of their fast growth rate antlers place a substantial nutritional demand on deer; they thus can constitute an honest signal of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability.

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is said to be the closest artiodactyl family to the cetaceans. Consequentially, new theories in cetacean evolution hypothesize that whales and their ancestors escaped predation, not competition, by slowly adapting to the ocean.

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were known to have an omnivorous diet. Some cetaceans were the only modern ungulates that were carnivores; baleen whales consume significantly smaller animals in relation to their body size, such as small species of fish and

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Irwin, D.M. and Wilson, A.C. (1993). "Limitations of molecular methods for establishing the phylogeny of mammals, with special reference to the position of elephants". In: F.S. Szalay, M.J. Novacek, and M.C. McKenna (eds.),

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are also classified as artiodactyls, although they do not have hooves. Most terrestrial ungulates use the hoofed tips of their toes to support their body weight while standing or moving. Two other orders of ungulates,

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Terrestrial artiodactyls have a paraxonic foot, meaning that the weight is distributed on the third and the fourth toe on all legs. The majority of these mammals have cloven hooves, with two smaller ones known as the

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rolled around the tip of the toe. Both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall normally bear the weight of the animal. Hooves grow continuously, and are constantly worn down by use. In most modern ungulates, the

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locomotion), but later mesonychians had four digits that ended in tiny hooves on all of their toes and were increasingly well adapted to running. Like running members of the even-toed ungulates, mesonychians

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Nweeia, Martin T.; Nweeia, Frederick C.; Hauschka, Peter V.; Tyler, Ethan; Mead, James G.; Potter, Charles W.; Angnatsiak, David P.; Richard, Pierre R.; Orr, Jack R.; Black, Sandie R.; et al. (2012).

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group). Nevertheless, artiodactyls were far from dominant at that time: the perissodactyls were much more successful and far more numerous. Artiodactyls survived in niche roles, usually occupying marginal

3019:, while the pectoral fins together with the entire tail section provide directional control. All modern cetaceans still retain their digits despite the external appearance suggesting otherwise. 2245:, rapidly spreading to a wide variety of species on numerous continents, and have developed in parallel since that time. Some scientists believed that modern ungulates were descended from an 1413: 5253:

Jardine, Phillip E.; Janis, Christine M.; Sahney, Sarda; Benton, Michael J. (2012). "Grit not grass: Concordant patterns of early origin of hypsodonty in Great Plains ungulates and Glires".

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varies greatly but the basic structure is always a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted, or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of

2342:, small, sheep-sized animals that were already showing signs of anatomical features that their descendants would inherit (the reduction of digit I and V for example). By the start of the 4313:

Archibald, J. David; Zhang, Yue; Harper, Tony; Cifelli, Richard L. (2011). "Protungulatum, Confirmed Cretaceous Occurrence of an Otherwise Paleocene Eutherian (Placental?) Mammal".

2474:) than to other South American ungulates. A recent study based on bone collagen has found that at least litopterns and the notoungulates were closely related to the perissodactyls. 2513:

found in North America date to this period. This small hornless ancestor resembled a tapir or small horse more than a rhino. Three families, sometimes grouped together as the

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Ashley, M.V.; Norman, J.E.; Stross, L. (1996). "Phylogenetic analysis of the perissodactyl family tapiridae using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (COII) sequences".

3039:(high crowned) teeth. The development of hypsodonty has been of particular interest as this adaptation was strongly associated with the spread of grasslands during the 5750:"Major-histocompatibility-complex-associated variation in secondary sexual traits of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus): evidence for good-genes advertisement" 5451: 4523: 3701:"Cross-species chromosome painting in the golden mole and elephant-shrew: support for the mammalian clades Afrotheria and Afroinsectiphillia but not Afroinsectivora" 593:

The term means, roughly, "being hoofed" or "hoofed animal". As a descriptive term, "ungulate" normally excludes cetaceans as they do not possess most of the typical

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and the hind parts were internal and reduced. Occasionally, the genes that code for longer extremities cause a modern cetacean to develop miniature legs (known as

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and now invalid clade. The three orders of Paenungulata are now considered a clade and grouped in the Afrotheria clade, while Euungulata is now grouped under the

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and thereby invalid clade based on molecular data. As a result, true ungulates had since been reclassified to the newer clade Euungulata in 2001 within the clade

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Ungulates have developed specialized adaptations, especially in the areas of cranial appendages, dentition, and leg morphology including the modification of the

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Gatesy, J; Geisler, JH; Chang, J; Buell, C; Berta, A; Meredith, RW; Springer, MS; McGowen, MR (February 2013). "A phylogenetic blueprint for a modern whale".

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an alternative name for the perissodactyls the nearly obsolete Mesaxonia. Perissodactyls were not the only lineage of mammals to have evolved this trait; the

5285: 4399:"Why were There Fewer Marsupials than Placentals? On the Relevance of Geography and Physiology to Evolutionary Patterns of Mammalian Diversity and Disparity" 6172: 5840: 4370: 2743:

would have resembled skinny hippopotamuses with comparatively small and narrow heads. All branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into

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Sanchez-Villagra, M. R.; Narita, Y.; Kuratani, S. (2007). "Thoracolumbar vertebral number: the first skeletal synapomorphy for afrotherian mammals".

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Nery, M. F.; González, D. M. J.; Hoffmann, F. G.; Opazo, J. C. (2012). "Resolution of the laurasiatherian phylogeny: Evidence from genomic data".

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In 2009, morphological and molecular work found that aardvarks, hyraxes, sea cows, and elephants were more closely related to each other and to

6080: 3889:"Relationships of Cetacea (Artiodactyla) among mammals: increased taxon sampling alters interpretations of key fossils and character evolution" 5964: 5726: 5644: 4777: 4567: 4499: 3814: 3059:

to assist in browsing. It can be found in camels, ruminants, and some toothed whales; modern baleen whales were remarkable in that they have

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Osteological Correlates of Cephalic Skin Structures in Amniota: Documenting the Evolution of Display and Feeding Structures with Fossil Data

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Rhinoceros horns, unlike those of other horned mammals, consist only of keratin. These horns rest on the nasal ridge of the animal's skull.

6177: 5870: 1353: 784:. Other studies found the two orders not that closely related, as some place the perissodactyls as close relatives to bats and Ferae in 5565: 3402: 5080: 5798: 5184: 4546: 4281: 2529:, thus creating an explosion of diversity unmatched for a while until environmental changes drastically eliminated several species. 474: 3336:"Convergence of Afrotherian and Laurasiatherian Ungulate-Like Mammals: First Morphological Evidence from the Paleocene of Morocco" 1590: 3225:

Peter J. Waddell, Hirohisa Kishino, Rissa Ota (2001). "A Phylogenetic Foundation for Comparative Mammalian Genomics".

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66 million years ago. However, many authorities do not consider it a true placental, let alone an ungulate. The enigmatic

1543: 2042: 5017: 4906: 4213: 2315: 4585: 4349: 1516: 5796:"The Nashville Zoo at Grassmere - Animals :: Masai Giraffe". The Nashville Zoo at Grassmere, n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2010. 865:

families. See each family for the relationships of the species as well as the controversies in their respective articles.

4034:"Phylogenomic analysis resolves the interordinal relationships and rapid diversification of the Laurasiatherian mammals" 3750:"A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence" 3572:"A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence" 3109:. The unique horn structure is the only unambiguous morphological feature of bovids that distinguishes them from other 1665: 733:, while the aardvark has been considered as either a close relative to them or a close relative to sengis in the clade 5996: 2985: 682:

Euungulata is a clade (or in some taxonomies, a grand order) of mammals. The two extant orders of ungulates are the

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Ezenwa, V.; Jolles, A. (2008). "Horns honestly advertise parasite infection in male and female African buffalo".

4793: 4699:; Fischer, R; Baessmann, C; Kaspar, S; Olsen, JV; Kiley, P; Elliott, JA; Kelstrup, CD; Mullin, V; Hofreiter, M; 4351:

The Systematic Position of the Saber-Toothed and Horned Giants of the Eocene: The Uintatheres (Order Dinocerata)

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Springer, MS; Stanhope, MJ; Madsen, O; de Jong, WW (2004). "Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree".

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characteristics of other ungulates, but recent discoveries indicate that they were also descended from early

4999:"Closest Whale Cousin—A Fox-Size Deer? Researchers split on closest evolutionary kin to whales and dolphins" 2997: 2993: 820: 1570: 6107: 6030: 5974: 5959: 5879: 4083: 2707: 2676: 2466:

of Meridiungulata by suggesting that the pyrotheres may be more closely related to other mammals, such as

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soon rose to prominence. Nevertheless, many perissodactyl species survived and prospered until the late

1834: 590:, both native to South America, became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene, around 12,000 years ago. 4212:

Kim, S. L.; Thewissen, J. G.; Churchill, M. M.; Suydam, R. S.; Ketten, D. R.; Clementz, M. T. (2014).

5609: 5258: 5209: 4955: 4860: 4716: 4653: 4586:"Aquatic Adaptation and Swimming Mode Inferred from Skeletal Proportions in the Miocene Desmostylian 4128: 3900: 3347: 3274: 2346:, 55 million years ago (Mya), they had diversified and spread out to occupy several continents. 2287: 738: 594: 2630:. By the Late Eocene (46 million years ago), the three modern suborders had already developed: 5949: 5903: 5856: 5748:

Ditchkoff, S. S.; Lochmiller, R. L.; Masters, R. E.; Hoofer, S. R.; Den Bussche, R. A. Van (2001).

5412:"Phylogeny of the Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Mammalia), Based on Mitochondrial Ribosomal DNA Sequences" 4581: 2905: 2792:

locomotion). Mesonychians fared very poorly at the close of the Eocene epoch, with only one genus,

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to enable them to digest cellulose, though some members may deviate from this: several species of

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and other whales. In terms of ecosystem ungulates have colonized all corners of the planet, from

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ungulates and paraxonian ungulates to form a monophyletic lineage, closely related to either the

687: 368: 357: 172: 4297: 6144: 5198:"Origin of whales from early artiodactyls: hands and feet of Eocene Protocetidae from Pakistan" 4704: 4398: 4115:"Pegasoferae, an unexpected mammalian clade revealed by tracking ancient retroposon insertions" 2286:("pig-footed bandicoot") also developed hooves similar to those of artiodactyls, an example of 1489: 5771: 5722: 5716: 5697: 5640: 5632: 5592: 5491: 5433: 5361: 5227: 5180: 5085: 4971: 4888: 4773: 4742: 4692: 4542: 4505: 4495: 4277: 4246: 4194: 4156: 4065: 4014: 3963: 3928: 3866: 3810: 3781: 3730: 3673: 3603: 3552: 3495: 3429: 3375: 3302: 3016: 2971: 2736: 2660: 1814: 1759: 1739: 875: 734: 683: 317: 268: 160: 5802: 4907:"Scientists find missing link between the dolphin, whale and its closest relative, the hippo" 4440: 3981:

Beck, Robin MD; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf RP; Cardillo, Marcel; Liu, Fu-Guo; Purvis, Andy (2006).

3806: 3800: 2593:, which were unspecialized, superficially raccoon-like to bear-like omnivores from the Early 5761: 5687: 5679: 5582: 5574: 5526: 5481: 5423: 5351: 5266: 5217: 5118: 4963: 4878: 4868: 4819: 4732: 4724: 4696: 4661: 4612: 4604: 4413: 4322: 4236: 4228: 4186: 4146: 4136: 4055: 4047: 4004: 3994: 3955: 3918: 3908: 3856: 3846: 3771: 3761: 3720: 3712: 3665: 3630: 3593: 3583: 3542: 3534: 3521:

Tabuce, R.; Marivaux, L.; Adaci, M.; Bensalah, M.; Hartenberger, J. L.; et al. (2007).

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include the majority of large land mammals. These two groups first appeared during the late

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about 25 million years ago. As forest biomes declined, grasslands spread, opening new

2933:) covering. The hoof consists of a hard or rubbery sole, and a hard wall formed by a thick 2565:(about 10,000 years ago) when they faced the pressure of human hunting and habitat change. 111: 6085: 5923: 5616: 5428: 5411: 5094: 4700: 4374: 3887:

Spaulding, Michelle; O'Leary, Maureen A.; Gatesy, John (2009). Farke, Andrew Allen (ed.).

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are unique to cervids and found mostly on males: the only cervid females with antlers are

2459: 2417: 2381: 2369: 2360: 2339: 1897: 1755: 1072: 923: 816: 796: 274: 164: 5834: 5262: 5213: 4959: 4864: 4720: 4705:"Ancient proteins resolve the evolutionary history of Darwin's South American ungulates" 4657: 4132: 3904: 3351: 3278: 1712: 6041: 5766: 5749: 5692: 5667: 5587: 5560: 5387:

Bibi, F.; Bukhsianidze, M.; Gentry, A.; Geraads, D.; Kostopoulos, D.; Vrba, E. (2009).

4488: 4151: 4114: 4060: 4033: 4009: 3982: 3923: 3888: 3861: 3834: 3776: 3749: 3725: 3700: 3598: 3571: 3547: 3522: 3424: 3397: 3370: 3335: 3297: 3262: 3258: 3102: 3073: 2955: 2934: 2744: 2518: 2514: 2504: 2234: 1959: 1661: 1485: 1302: 1298: 1282: 1238: 1109: 1040: 999: 908: 850: 707: 602: 514: 502: 232: 124: 5388: 4883: 4846: 2604: 6161: 6001: 5486: 5469: 3263:"Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls" 3163:

are horn-like (or antler-like) protuberances found on the heads of giraffes and male

3090: 3032: 3004: 2947: 2939: 2590: 2583: 2522: 2491: 2441: 2413: 2255: 1866: 1735: 1435: 1166: 1115: 1088: 1066: 973: 777: 350: 285: 69: 5783: 5538: 5503: 5373: 5311: 5239: 4831: 4673: 4425: 4334: 4258: 3642: 3507: 3086: 3011:). The main method of moving is an up-and-down motion with the tail fin, called the 2695:

The traditional theory of cetacean evolution was that cetaceans were related to the

6067: 5913: 5090: 5051: 4983: 4936: 4754: 4626: 3685: 3523:"Early tertiary mammals from north Africa reinforce the molecular afrotheria clade" 3254: 3140: 3101:(with the exception of musk deer). In oxen and antelope, the size and shape of the 3093:

covers a growing antler and provides it with blood, supplying oxygen and nutrients.

3028: 2989: 2981: 2967: 2864: 2834:. Terrestrial ungulates were for the most part herbivores, with some of them being 2802:

epoch, as the climate changed and fierce competition arose from the better adapted

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Gingerich, P.D.; ul Haq, M.; Zalmout, I.S.; Khan, I.H.; Malkani, M.S. (Sep 2001).

4914: 2681: 1925: 5270: 3913: 3360: 3287: 2847:; toothed whales, depending on the species, can consume a wide range of species: 2589:

The artiodactyls were thought to have evolved from a small group of condylarths,

6057: 6036: 6021: 6011: 6006: 5969: 5907: 5044: 4190: 3959: 3203: 3135: 2975: 2891:(one of the ankle bones at the end of the lower leg) with a short, robust head. 2794: 2789: 2780: 2724: 2562: 2397: 2385: 2038: 2011: 1389: 1366: 1193: 1187: 958: 826: 785: 722: 699: 336: 292: 44: 6130: 3669: 3447: 3398:"Analyses of mitochondrial genomes strongly support a hippopotamus-whale clade" 3117:

or to express territoriality, as nonterritorial females, which are able to use

1979: 806: 6062: 6026: 4644:, sp. nov. (late Oligocene, Bolivia) and the pedal morphology of pyrotheres". 4608: 4417: 4378: 4326: 3634: 3153: 3056: 2888: 2827: 2755: 2696: 2647: 2619: 2598: 2548: 2526: 2445: 2437: 2389: 2264: 2250: 1790: 1708: 1512: 1458: 1445: 1124: 1081: 1060: 1005: 986: 980: 840: 757: 726: 651: 626: 614: 610: 587: 522: 510: 343: 302: 89: 54: 5666:

Malo, A. F.; Roldan, E. R. S.; Garde, J.; Soler, A. J.; Gomendio, M. (2005).

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For elephants and relatives, sometimes called ungulates or subungulates, see

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Zhou, X.; Xu, S.; Xu, J.; Chen, B.; Zhou, K.; Yang, G.; et al. (2011).

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Ungulates have evolved a variety of cranial appendages that can be found in

3036: 3012: 2868: 2799: 2719: 2594: 2578: 2539: 2509: 2463: 2458:. For a while their relationships with other ungulates were a mystery. Some 2454: 2421: 2282: 2278: 2242: 2227: 1921: 1893: 1695: 1566: 1349: 1278: 1145: 1139: 1130: 1054: 1017: 938: 902: 769: 761: 749: 745: 329: 189: 144: 136: 94: 37: 5775: 5701: 5683: 5596: 5578: 5495: 5365: 5231: 5119:"Carnivores, creodonts and carnivorous ungulates: Mammals become predators" 4975: 4892: 4746: 4250: 4198: 4160: 4069: 4018: 3999: 3967: 3932: 3870: 3785: 3734: 3716: 3677: 3607: 3556: 3538: 3499: 3490: 3473: 3415: 3379: 3306: 3237: 2814: 2322: 2208: 760:(similar, but not necessarily related). Some studies have indeed found the 5437: 4941:"Whales originated from aquatic artiodactyls in the Eocene epoch of India" 4770:

The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals

3433: 2573: 2452:. As a whole, meridiungulates were said to have evolved from animals like 1221:

Below is the general consensus of the phylogeny of the ungulate families.

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were in the past grouped within the clade "Ungulata", later found to be a

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are fused along the length of the forelimb; early ungulates, such as the

2910: 2860: 2856: 2831: 2803: 2748: 2739:, a large family of four-legged beasts, the earliest of whom in the late 2639: 2534: 2471: 2425: 2374: 2270: 2260: 2213: 1830: 1539: 1343: 1154: 1100: 1011: 932: 773: 578: 566: 538: 209: 140: 84: 79: 64: 59: 49: 4967: 4728: 3134:, whose antlers are normally smaller than males'. Nevertheless, fertile 2838:. However, there were exceptions to this as pigs, peccaries, hippos and 2354:

both evolved in North America; rhinoceroses appear to have developed in

5988: 5933: 5928: 5918: 5470:"The intensity of sexual selection predicts weapon size in male bovids" 4823: 4737: 3118: 3106: 3040: 3008: 2970:), also had this characteristic in the addition of also having both an 2930: 2835: 2732: 2543: 2482: 1975: 1685: 1586: 1251: 1160: 1047: 1023: 887: 695: 574: 546: 518: 152: 128: 99: 74: 2663:, and it is presumably at that time that they developed their complex 729:. Elephants, sea cows, and hyraxes were grouped together in the clade 5356: 5335: 4380:

Episode 17: Systematic position of the Uintatheres (Order Dinocerata)

4241: 3172: 3127: 3098: 3081: 3060: 2966:

that were located further up on the leg. The earliest cetaceans (the

2926: 2872: 2839: 2740: 2655: 2627: 2623: 2486: 2478: 2420:. Their dental and skeletal form suggests desmostylians were aquatic 2405: 2393: 2343: 1409: 993: 964: 858: 744:

There is now some dispute as to whether this smaller Euungulata is a

718: 606: 534: 219: 199: 6101: 5637:

Bones and Cartilage: Developmental and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology

5175:

Janis, Christine M.; Scott, Kathleen M. and Jacobs, Louis L. (1998)

2978:

in the ankle, which were further diagnostic traits of artiodactyls.

2712: 2701: 846: 4232: 4084:"Researchers Greatly Improve Evolutionary Tree of Life for Mammals" 2767: 489:("true ungulates"), which primarily consists of large mammals with 4845:

Boisserie, Jean-Renaud; Lihoreau, F.; Brunet, M. (February 2005).

4703:; Hublin, JJ; Orlando, L; Barnes, I; MacPhee, RD (18 March 2015). 3164: 3085: 2980: 2904: 2876: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2813: 2766: 2680: 2643: 2631: 2603: 2572: 2401: 2351: 2347: 2331: 2321: 2303: 2222: 2207: 1870: 1376: 952: 845: 835: 825: 815: 805: 795: 765: 714: 691: 601:. Ungulates are typically herbivorous and many employ specialized 570: 554: 550: 526: 483: 4665: 3055:

Some ungulates completely lack upper incisors and instead have a

2489:, 54 million years ago. They had been assigned to the genus 2253:. The earliest known member of this group may have been the tiny 5887: 5799:"The Nashville Zoo at Grassmere - Animals :: Masai Giraffe" 5389:"The fossil record and evolution of Bovidae: State of the field" 4357:. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology 75th Annual Meeting. Dallas 3474:"The new framework for understanding placental mammal evolution" 3180: 3143: 2943: 2900: 2651: 2614:, an early artiodactyl with unusual features such as a long tail 2373:, reached 15 tonnes (17 tons), more than twice the weight of an 2355: 725:

than to the perissodactyls and artiodactyls, and form the clade

558: 490: 148: 6105: 5852: 5833: 5179:, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 322-23. 4214:"Unique biochemical and mineral composition of whale ear bones" 4091: 3334:

Gheerbrant, Emmanuel; Filippo, Andrea; Schmitt, Arnaud (2016).

3184: 2922: 2635: 788:

and others place the artiodactyls as close relatives to bats.

781: 542: 16:

Group of animals that walk on the tips of their toes or hooves

5312:"Toothless cud chewers, To see ourselves as others see us..." 4566:

harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGheerbrantDomningTassy2005 (

3699:

Robinson, M. A. Yang; Fu, T. J.; Ferguson-Smith, B. (2004).

3253:

Cooper, L. N.; Seiffert, E. R.; Clementz, M.; Madar, S. I.;

460: 436: 418: 403: 412: 5668:"Antlers honestly advertise sperm production and quality" 2723:

and other early cetacean ancestors collectively known as

493:. Once part of the clade "Ungulata" along with the clade 445: 433: 430: 409: 406: 400: 2367:. The largest perissodactyl, an Asian rhinoceros called 5049:"The Loom : Whales: From So Humble A Beginning..." 5018:"Whales may be descended from a small deer-like animal" 4847:"The position of Hippopotamidae within Cetartiodactyla" 2388:– two lineages that have been previously classified as 2330:

of the Rhinoceros evolved at the same time as shearing

4561: 2259:, a mammal that co-existed with the last of non-avian 5410:

Gatesy, J.; Yelon, D., DeSalle, R., Vrba, E. (1992).

5136:"Mesonychids from Lushi Basin, Henan Province, China 2338:

Perissodactyls were thought to have evolved from the

479:-gyuu-layts, -⁠gyə-, -⁠lits, -⁠ləts 475: 466: 451: 424: 5715:

Whitaker, John O.; Hamilton, William J. Jr. (1998).

4465: 4463: 4461: 4459: 3882: 3880: 463: 457: 448: 442: 421: 415: 6114: 6050: 5987: 5942: 5896: 5886: 5336:"Vestigial tooth anatomy and tusk nomenclature for 4695:; Ashford, DA; Ashton, PD; Rowsell, K; Porter, DM; 3983:"A higher-level MRP supertree of placental mammals" 397: 5164:The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Animal Kingdom 4487: 5255:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4090:. UC Riverside. 22 September 2011. Archived from 513:. Living ungulates are divided into two orders: 3003:In modern cetaceans, the front limbs had become 2822:Ungulates were in high diversity in response to 2622:or pigs: small, short-legged creatures that ate 2380:It has been found in a cladistic study that the 613:are omnivorous, while cetaceans and the extinct 4935:Thewissen, J. G. M.; Cooper, LN; Clementz, MT; 4852:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4120:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4113:Nishihara, H.; Hasegawa, M.; Okada, N. (2006). 497:, "Ungulata" has since been determined to be a 5177:Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America 4445:(PhD dissertation). Ohio University. p. 3 4272:Rose, Kenneth D. (2006). "Archaic Ungulates". 3035:, including bunodont (low, rounded cusps) and 5864: 5550: 5548: 4276:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3835:"Nomenclature and placental mammal phylogeny" 3833:Asher, Robert J; Helgen, Kristofer M (2010). 2517:Rhinocerotoidea, evolved in the late Eocene: 8: 5450:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4522:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3248: 3246: 3221: 3219: 2958:have evolved mesaxonic feet numerous times. 5288:. Colorado State University. Archived from 4541:. London: Chapman & Hall. p. 343. 3179:, and that the ossicones remain covered in 2618:The first artiodactyls looked like today's 655: 645: 630: 6102: 5893: 5871: 5857: 5849: 4772:. London: Marshall Editions. p. 255. 110: 27: 5765: 5721:. Cornell University Press. p. 517. 5691: 5586: 5485: 5427: 5355: 5221: 4882: 4872: 4736: 4616: 4240: 4172: 4170: 4150: 4140: 4059: 4008: 3998: 3922: 3912: 3860: 3850: 3775: 3765: 3724: 3597: 3587: 3546: 3489: 3472:Asher, RJ; Bennet, N; Lehmann, T (2009). 3423: 3391: 3389: 3369: 3359: 3324:. pp. 257–267, Springer-Verlag, New York. 3296: 3286: 3175:save that they are derived from ossified 2314:, a mid- to late Eocene equid of Europe ( 696:Sirenia (sea cows) (dugongs and manatees) 509:has been reclassified to a distant clade 5827:Your Guide to the World's Hoofed Mammals 5561:"Evolution of weaponry in female bovids" 5113: 5111: 3828: 3826: 3121:for predator defense, often lack horns. 5626: 5624: 5463: 5461: 4640:Shockey, B.J. & Anaya, F. (2004). " 4348:Burger, Benjamin J. (15 October 2015). 3215: 2855:, and other species of mammals such as 2788:, for example) walked on their digits ( 2470:(an African order that were related to 2230:showing relationships within Euungulata 6081:Animal locomotion on the water surface 5443: 4515: 4490:Mammal Evolution: an illustrated guide 3027:Most ungulates have developed reduced 5429:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040734 4471:"Condylarths: Archaic hoofed mammals" 4298:"Condylarths: Archaic hoofed mammals" 4221:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 4179:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 3948:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 748:(evolution-based) group, or merely a 7: 5718:Mammals of the Eastern United States 5639:. Academic Press. pp. 103–114. 4792:Ballenger, L. and Myers, P. (2001). 4562:Gheerbrant, Domning & Tassy 2005 4486:Savage, RJG, & Long, MR (1986). 4397:Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R (2013). 3748:Seiffert, E.R.; Guillon, JM (2007). 4439:Hieronymus, Tobin L. (March 2009). 4274:The beginning of the Age of Mammals 3396:Ursing, B. M.; Arnason, U. (1998). 3167:. They are similar to the horns of 2875:and some have been domesticated by 2503:Rhinocerotoids diverged from other 2277:In Australia, the recently-extinct 2031: 2004: 1948: 1941: 1913: 1886: 1859: 1803: 1796: 1728: 1701: 1691: 1681: 1654: 1559: 1532: 1505: 1478: 1451: 1441: 1382: 1372: 1339: 1271: 1244: 1234: 1224: 684:Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates) 6173:Extant Paleocene first appearances 5767:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00794.x 5672:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 5566:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 4646:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 3705:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 3527:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 3403:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 688:Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) 14: 5138:(in Chinese with English summary) 5016:Sample, Ian (December 19, 2007). 3805:. Boston: Mariner Books. p. 2929:, strengthened by a thick horny ( 2751:without leaving any descendants. 5487:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00111.x 2507:by the early Eocene. Fossils of 2436:contain the somewhat tapir-like 2061: 2041: 2014: 1978: 1958: 1924: 1896: 1869: 1833: 1813: 1758: 1738: 1711: 1664: 1589: 1569: 1542: 1515: 1488: 1461: 1412: 1392: 1352: 1301: 1281: 1254: 737:. This is a striking example of 393: 176: 4377:. Explanation and conclusions: 5123:Paleocene mammals of the world 4812:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 4800:. Retrieved November 22, 2007. 4597:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 4475:Paleocene mammals of the world 4406:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 4315:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 4302:Paleocene mammals of the world 2830:events; most ungulates lack a 2735:. The other branch became the 2316:Natural History Museum, Berlin 1148:: Baiji (functionally extinct) 1: 5531:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.12.013 5286:"Dental Anatomy of Ruminants" 3448:"Online Etymology Dictionary" 2727:, which eventually underwent 2396:were known from the northern 482:) are members of the diverse 5829:– The Ultimate Ungulate Page 5271:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.09.001 4913:. 2005-01-25. Archived from 3914:10.1371/journal.pone.0007062 3361:10.1371/journal.pone.0157556 3322:Mammal Phylogeny: Placentals 3288:10.1371/journal.pone.0109232 2747:, became extinct during the 2731:into the completely aquatic 2532:The first tapirids, such as 119:Image from top to left with 6178:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus 5997:Comparative foot morphology 4537:Benton, Michael J. (1997). 4494:. New York: Facts on File. 4368:Conference abstract (p. 99) 4191:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.012 3960:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.04.012 2986:Pacific white-sided dolphin 2921:The hoof is the tip of the 2798:, surviving into the Early 2710:, possibly beginning about 6194: 5468:Bro-Jørgensen, J. (2007). 5393:Palaeontologia Electronica 3670:10.1016/j.tree.2004.05.006 3071: 3050:Grit, not grass hypothesis 2898: 2674: 2555:Great American Interchange 2297: 1163:: Amazonian river dolphins 1063:: Bowhead and right whales 890:: Horses, asses and zebras 18: 6076: 5880:Animal locomotion on land 4997:Minkel, JR (2007-12-19). 4609:10.1007/s10914-005-5719-1 4418:10.1007/s10914-012-9220-3 4327:10.1007/s10914-011-9162-1 3799:Dawkins, Richard (2005). 3635:10.1017/S1477200006002258 2462:have even challenged the 2412:and the Pacific coast of 2056: 2036: 2029: 2009: 2002: 1973: 1953: 1946: 1939: 1918: 1911: 1891: 1884: 1864: 1857: 1828: 1808: 1801: 1794: 1753: 1733: 1726: 1706: 1699: 1689: 1679: 1659: 1652: 1584: 1564: 1557: 1537: 1530: 1510: 1503: 1483: 1476: 1456: 1449: 1439: 1407: 1387: 1380: 1370: 1347: 1337: 1296: 1276: 1269: 1249: 1242: 1232: 669:(finger nail; toe nail). 374: 367: 261: 256: 173:Scientific classification 171: 118: 109: 30: 4768:Palmer, D., ed. (1999). 4539:Vertebrate Palaeontology 3987:BMC Evolutionary Biology 3852:10.1186/1471-2148-10-102 3839:BMC Evolutionary Biology 3754:BMC Evolutionary Biology 2249:of mammals known as the 5841:Encyclopædia Britannica 5631:Hall, Brian K. (2005). 5284:Rouge, Melissa (2001). 5223:10.1126/science.1063902 4874:10.1073/pnas.0409518102 4142:10.1073/pnas.0603797103 3767:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224 3589:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224 2998:Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 2994:The Museum of Osteology 2416:to the southern tip of 2294:Perissodactyl evolution 1118:: Indian river dolphins 928:(Paraxonian ungulates) 879:(Mesaxonian ungulates) 700:Proboscidea (elephants) 5960:Rectilinear locomotion 5844:(11th ed.). 1911. 5684:10.1098/rspb.2004.2933 5579:10.1098/rspb.2009.1256 5147:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 5081:"Pharyngula: Indohyus" 4642:Pyrotherium macfaddeni 4000:10.1186/1471-2148-6-93 3717:10.1098/rspb.2004.2754 3539:10.1098/rspb.2006.0229 3491:10.1002/bies.200900053 3416:10.1098/rspb.1998.0567 3238:10.11234/gi1990.12.141 3094: 3000: 2918: 2819: 2775: 2692: 2677:Evolution of cetaceans 2626:and the soft parts of 2615: 2601:and the artiodactyls. 2586: 2335: 2319: 2300:Evolution of the horse 2231: 2220: 1026:: Cattle and antelopes 853: 843: 833: 823: 813: 803: 656: 646: 631: 379:Irwin and Wilson, 1993 6140:Paleobiology Database 5955:Undulatory locomotion 5344:The Anatomical Record 5079:(December 19, 2007). 5047:(December 19, 2007). 4939:; Tiwari, BN (2007). 4052:10.1093/sysbio/syr089 3089: 2984: 2908: 2817: 2770: 2763:Mesonychian evolution 2717:with the proto-whale 2708:evolve into cetaceans 2684: 2611:Anoplotherium commune 2607: 2576: 2569:Artiodactyl evolution 2325: 2307: 2226: 2216:of the controversial 2211: 1103:: Lesser sperm whales 849: 839: 829: 819: 809: 799: 625:Ungulate is from the 5292:on 28 September 2011 4798:Animal Diversity Web 4582:Gingerich, Philip D. 3570:Seiffert, E (2007). 3132:caribou and reindeer 3015:, which is used for 2485:date from the early 2288:convergent evolution 2204:Evolutionary history 1184:: Beluga and narwhal 1008:: Giraffes and okapi 739:convergent evolution 692:Hyracoidea (hyraxes) 5950:Concertina movement 5904:Arboreal locomotion 5263:2012PPP...365....1J 5214:2001Sci...293.2239G 5003:Scientific American 4968:10.1038/nature06343 4960:2007Natur.450.1190T 4954:(7173): 1190–1194. 4865:2005PNAS..102.1537B 4729:10.1038/nature14249 4721:2015Natur.522...81W 4658:2004JVPal..24..481S 4133:2006PNAS..103.9929N 3905:2009PLoSO...4.7062S 3802:The Ancestor's Tale 3711:(1547): 1477–1484. 3533:(1614): 1159–1166. 3352:2016PLoSO..1157556G 3279:2014PLoSO...9j9232C 3259:Thewissen, J. G. M. 2915:Capreolus capreolus 2818:Skeleton of a horse 2706:. One branch would 2432:The South American 2311:Eurohippus parvulus 1069:: Pygmy right whale 941:: Camels and llamas 5615:2012-02-29 at the 5023:Guardian Unlimited 4911:Science News Daily 4824:10.1007/BF02077448 4794:"Family Tapiridae" 4373:2019-12-24 at the 4039:Systematic Biology 3452:www.etymonline.com 3257:; Hussain, S. T.; 3227:Genome Informatics 3187:rather than horn. 3095: 3068:Cranial appendages 3001: 2988:skeleton (missing 2919: 2820: 2776: 2729:aquatic adaptation 2693: 2688:Ambulocetus natans 2671:Cetacean evolution 2616: 2587: 2336: 2320: 2247:evolutionary grade 2232: 2221: 1196:: Oceanic dolphins 1169:: La Plata dolphin 854: 844: 834: 824: 814: 804: 257:Orders and clades 6155: 6154: 6108:Taxon identifiers 6099: 6098: 5983: 5982: 5728:978-0-8014-3475-4 5678:(1559): 149–157. 5646:978-0-12-319060-4 5573:(1677): 4329–34. 5338:Monodon monoceros 5257:. 365–366: 1–10. 5208:(5538): 2239–42. 4779:978-1-84028-152-1 4501:978-0-8160-1194-0 4127:(26): 9929–9934. 4094:on 1 October 2011 3816:978-0-618-61916-0 2992:), on exhibit at 2909:Cloven hooves of 2715:million years ago 2704:million years ago 2665:digestive systems 2546:, such genera as 2477:The oldest known 2326:The thick dermal 2200: 2199: 2191: 2190: 2182: 2181: 2173: 2172: 2164: 2163: 2155: 2154: 2146: 2145: 2137: 2136: 2128: 2127: 2119: 2118: 2110: 2109: 2101: 2100: 2092: 2091: 2083: 2082: 2074: 2073: 1991: 1990: 1846: 1845: 1780: 1779: 1771: 1770: 1638: 1637: 1629: 1628: 1620: 1619: 1611: 1610: 1602: 1601: 1425: 1424: 1323: 1322: 1314: 1313: 861:families and the 821:Père David's deer 735:Afroinsectiphilia 617:are carnivorous. 386: 385: 269:Panperissodactyla 252: 161:Indian rhinoceros 6185: 6148: 6147: 6135: 6134: 6133: 6103: 5894: 5873: 5866: 5859: 5850: 5845: 5837: 5835:"Ungulata" 5814: 5813: 5811: 5810: 5801:. Archived from 5794: 5788: 5787: 5769: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5695: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5628: 5619: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5590: 5555:Stankowich, T.; 5552: 5543: 5542: 5525:(6): 2013–2021. 5519:Animal Behaviour 5514: 5508: 5507: 5489: 5480:(6): 1316–1326. 5465: 5456: 5455: 5449: 5441: 5431: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5359: 5357:10.1002/ar.22449 5330: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5225: 5193: 5187: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5144: 5134:Jin, X. (2005). 5131: 5125: 5115: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5102: 5093:. Archived from 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5063: 5054:. Archived from 5041: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5013: 5007: 5006: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4945: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4886: 4876: 4859:(5): 1537–1541. 4842: 4836: 4835: 4807: 4801: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4740: 4684: 4678: 4677: 4637: 4631: 4630: 4620: 4603:(1/2): 183–194. 4594: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4521: 4513: 4493: 4483: 4477: 4467: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4403: 4394: 4388: 4381: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4356: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4310: 4304: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4244: 4218: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4174: 4165: 4164: 4154: 4144: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4080: 4074: 4073: 4063: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4012: 4002: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3926: 3916: 3884: 3875: 3874: 3864: 3854: 3830: 3821: 3820: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3769: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3728: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3658:Trends Ecol Evol 3653: 3647: 3646: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3601: 3591: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3550: 3518: 3512: 3511: 3493: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3427: 3410:(1412): 2251–5. 3393: 3384: 3383: 3373: 3363: 3331: 3325: 3317: 3311: 3310: 3300: 3290: 3250: 3241: 3223: 3031:and specialized 2917:), with dewclaws 2824:sexual selection 2716: 2705: 2510:Hyrachyus eximus 2448:and the diverse 2444:, the mesaxonic 2410:Aleutian Islands 2400:, from southern 2363:and the bizarre 2065: 2045: 2032: 2018: 2005: 1982: 1962: 1949: 1942: 1928: 1914: 1900: 1887: 1873: 1860: 1837: 1817: 1804: 1797: 1762: 1742: 1729: 1715: 1702: 1692: 1682: 1668: 1655: 1593: 1573: 1560: 1546: 1533: 1519: 1506: 1492: 1479: 1465: 1452: 1442: 1416: 1396: 1383: 1373: 1356: 1340: 1305: 1285: 1272: 1258: 1245: 1235: 1225: 1043:: Hippopotamuses 811:Black rhinoceros 668: 665: 662: 659: 649: 643: 640: 637: 634: 609:and the extinct 565:, among others. 478: 473: 472: 469: 468: 465: 462: 459: 454: 453: 450: 447: 444: 439: 438: 435: 432: 427: 426: 423: 420: 417: 414: 411: 408: 405: 402: 399: 246: 181: 180: 114: 104: 41: 34:Temporal range: 28: 6193: 6192: 6188: 6187: 6186: 6184: 6183: 6182: 6158: 6157: 6156: 6151: 6143: 6138: 6129: 6128: 6123: 6110: 6100: 6095: 6086:Fish locomotion 6072: 6046: 5979: 5938: 5924:Knuckle-walking 5882: 5877: 5832: 5823: 5818: 5817: 5808: 5806: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5747: 5746: 5742: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5714: 5713: 5709: 5665: 5664: 5660: 5651: 5649: 5647: 5630: 5629: 5622: 5617:Wayback Machine 5608: 5604: 5554: 5553: 5546: 5516: 5515: 5511: 5467: 5466: 5459: 5442: 5416:Mol. Biol. Evol 5409: 5408: 5404: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5317: 5315: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5295: 5293: 5283: 5282: 5278: 5252: 5251: 5247: 5195: 5194: 5190: 5174: 5170: 5162: 5158: 5142: 5133: 5132: 5128: 5116: 5109: 5100: 5098: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5061: 5059: 5043: 5042: 5038: 5029: 5027: 5015: 5014: 5010: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4943: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4920: 4918: 4905: 4904: 4900: 4844: 4843: 4839: 4809: 4808: 4804: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4767: 4766: 4762: 4715:(7554): 81–84. 4693:Thomas-Oates, J 4686: 4685: 4681: 4639: 4638: 4634: 4592: 4580: 4579: 4575: 4565: 4564:, pp. 95–6 4560: 4556: 4549: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4514: 4502: 4485: 4484: 4480: 4468: 4457: 4448: 4446: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4401: 4396: 4395: 4391: 4379: 4375:Wayback Machine 4360: 4358: 4354: 4347: 4346: 4342: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4271: 4270: 4266: 4216: 4211: 4210: 4206: 4176: 4175: 4168: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4095: 4082: 4081: 4077: 4031: 4030: 4026: 3980: 3979: 3975: 3945: 3944: 3940: 3886: 3885: 3878: 3832: 3831: 3824: 3817: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3747: 3746: 3742: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3655: 3654: 3650: 3620: 3619: 3615: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3520: 3519: 3515: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3446: 3445: 3441: 3395: 3394: 3387: 3346:(7): e0157556. 3333: 3332: 3328: 3318: 3314: 3273:(10): e109232. 3252: 3251: 3244: 3224: 3217: 3212: 3200: 3084: 3070: 3025: 2956:meridiungulates 2925:of an ungulate 2903: 2897: 2885: 2812: 2810:Characteristics 2771:Restoration of 2765: 2711: 2700: 2679: 2673: 2571: 2460:paleontologists 2434:meridiungulates 2418:Baja California 2370:Paraceratherium 2340:Phenacodontidae 2308:Restoration of 2302: 2296: 2206: 2201: 2192: 2183: 2174: 2165: 2156: 2147: 2138: 2129: 2120: 2111: 2102: 2093: 2084: 2075: 1992: 1847: 1781: 1772: 1756:Balaenopteridae 1639: 1630: 1621: 1612: 1603: 1426: 1324: 1315: 1219: 1133:: Beaked whales 1073:Balaenopteridae 924:Cetartiodactyla 794: 776:) in the clade 680: 675: 673:Classifications 666: 663: 660: 641: 638: 635: 623: 476: 456: 441: 429: 396: 392: 380: 275:Phenacodontidae 245: 175: 165:Brazilian tapir 127:at the bottom: 123:at the top and 105: 103: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 36: 35: 32: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6191: 6189: 6181: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6160: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6149: 6136: 6120: 6118: 6112: 6111: 6106: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6093: 6091:Volant animals 6088: 6083: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6054: 6052: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5993: 5991: 5985: 5984: 5981: 5980: 5978: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5900: 5898: 5891: 5884: 5883: 5878: 5876: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5830: 5822: 5821:External links 5819: 5816: 5815: 5789: 5760:(3): 616–625. 5740: 5727: 5707: 5658: 5645: 5620: 5602: 5544: 5509: 5457: 5422:(3): 433–446. 5402: 5379: 5350:(6): 1006–16. 5325: 5303: 5276: 5245: 5188: 5168: 5156: 5126: 5117:Jehle, Martin 5107: 5068: 5036: 5008: 4989: 4927: 4898: 4837: 4818:(4): 315–326. 4802: 4785: 4778: 4760: 4679: 4652:(2): 481–488. 4632: 4573: 4554: 4547: 4529: 4500: 4478: 4469:Jehle, Martin 4455: 4431: 4412:(4): 279–290. 4389: 4340: 4321:(3): 153–161. 4305: 4296:Jehle, Martin 4289: 4282: 4264: 4233:10.1086/676309 4227:(4): 576–584. 4204: 4185:(2): 479–506. 4166: 4105: 4075: 4024: 3973: 3954:(3): 685–689. 3938: 3876: 3822: 3815: 3791: 3740: 3691: 3664:(8): 430–438. 3648: 3623:Syst Biodivers 3613: 3562: 3513: 3484:(8): 853–864. 3464: 3439: 3385: 3326: 3312: 3261:(2014-10-08). 3242: 3214: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3206: 3199: 3196: 3074:Horn (anatomy) 3069: 3066: 3024: 3021: 2896: 2893: 2884: 2881: 2811: 2808: 2764: 2761: 2745:Hippopotamidae 2737:anthracotheres 2691:, a stem whale 2672: 2669: 2570: 2567: 2527:Rhinocerotidae 2519:Hyracodontidae 2505:perissodactyls 2382:anthracobunids 2295: 2292: 2235:Perissodactyla 2214:reconstruction 2205: 2202: 2198: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2189: 2188: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2171: 2170: 2167: 2166: 2162: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2144: 2143: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2104: 2103: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2090: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2080: 2077: 2076: 2072: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2055: 2052: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2035: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2008: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1994: 1993: 1989: 1988: 1985: 1984: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1964: 1952: 1947: 1945: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1931: 1930: 1917: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1903: 1902: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1863: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1840: 1839: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1807: 1802: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1777: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1768: 1765: 1764: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1732: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1705: 1700: 1698: 1690: 1688: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1662:Hippopotamidae 1658: 1653: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1627: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1536: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1525: 1522: 1521: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1486:Antilocapridae 1482: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1455: 1450: 1448: 1440: 1438: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1386: 1381: 1379: 1371: 1369: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1346: 1338: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1299:Rhinocerotidae 1295: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1287: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1248: 1243: 1241: 1239:Perissodactyla 1233: 1231: 1223: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1197: 1191: 1185: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1164: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1121: 1120: 1119: 1110:Platanistoidea 1106: 1105: 1104: 1098: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1070: 1064: 1044: 1041:Hippopotamidae 1031: 1030: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1021: 1015: 1009: 1003: 1000:Antilocapridae 990: 970: 969: 968: 962: 944: 943: 942: 916: 915: 914: 913: 912: 911:: Rhinoceroses 909:Rhinocerotidae 906: 893: 892: 891: 876:Perissodactyla 851:Common dolphin 793: 790: 708:Laurasiatheria 679: 676: 674: 671: 654:form of Latin 622: 619: 563:hippopotamuses 515:Perissodactyla 503:Laurasiatheria 384: 383: 382: 381: 378: 372: 371: 365: 364: 363: 362: 361: 360: 354: 347: 340: 322: 321: 320: 318:Perissodactyla 314: 305: 296: 289: 278: 259: 258: 254: 253: 240: 236: 235: 233:Pan-Euungulata 230: 223: 222: 217: 213: 212: 207: 203: 202: 197: 193: 192: 187: 183: 182: 169: 168: 125:Perissodactyla 116: 115: 107: 106: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 43: 42: 33: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6190: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6146: 6141: 6137: 6132: 6126: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6104: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6075: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6049: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6032: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6002:Arthropod leg 6000: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5986: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5909: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5874: 5869: 5867: 5862: 5860: 5855: 5854: 5851: 5843: 5842: 5836: 5831: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5820: 5805:on 2010-12-20 5804: 5800: 5793: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5741: 5730: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5711: 5708: 5703: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5662: 5659: 5648: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5627: 5625: 5621: 5618: 5614: 5611: 5606: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5513: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5447: 5439: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5403: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5383: 5380: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5339: 5329: 5326: 5313: 5307: 5304: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5277: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5249: 5246: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5189: 5186: 5185:9780521355193 5182: 5178: 5172: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5157: 5153:(2): 151–164. 5152: 5148: 5141: 5139: 5130: 5127: 5124: 5120: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5097:on 2007-12-20 5096: 5092: 5088: 5087: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5058:on 2007-12-21 5057: 5053: 5050: 5046: 5040: 5037: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5012: 5009: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4938: 4931: 4928: 4917:on 2007-03-04 4916: 4912: 4908: 4902: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4841: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4789: 4786: 4781: 4775: 4771: 4764: 4761: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4701:Willerslev, E 4698: 4694: 4690: 4683: 4680: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4636: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4619: 4618:2027.42/44971 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4589: 4583: 4577: 4574: 4569: 4563: 4558: 4555: 4550: 4548:0-412-73810-4 4544: 4540: 4533: 4530: 4525: 4519: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4492: 4491: 4482: 4479: 4476: 4472: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4444: 4443: 4435: 4432: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4400: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4372: 4369: 4353: 4352: 4344: 4341: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4309: 4306: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4290: 4285: 4283:9780801892219 4279: 4275: 4268: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4116: 4109: 4106: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4046:(1): 150–64. 4045: 4041: 4040: 4035: 4028: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3942: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3829: 3827: 3823: 3818: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3803: 3795: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3744: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3695: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3649: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3576:BMC Evol Biol 3573: 3566: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3517: 3514: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3465: 3453: 3449: 3443: 3440: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3404: 3399: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3228: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3209: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3188: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3005:pectoral fins 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2957: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2816: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2774: 2769: 2762: 2760: 2757: 2752: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2721: 2714: 2709: 2703: 2698: 2690: 2689: 2683: 2678: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2613: 2612: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2591:Arctocyonidae 2585: 2581: 2580: 2575: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2558: 2556: 2551: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2536: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2523:Amynodontidae 2520: 2516: 2512: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2493: 2492:Hyracotherium 2488: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2456: 2451: 2450:notoungulates 2447: 2443: 2442:astrapotheres 2439: 2435: 2430: 2427: 2424:dependent on 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414:North America 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386:desmostylians 2383: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2371: 2366: 2365:chalicotheres 2362: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2317: 2313: 2312: 2306: 2301: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2273: 2272: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2257: 2256:Protungulatum 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2218:Protungulatum 2215: 2210: 2203: 2196: 2195: 2187: 2186: 2178: 2177: 2169: 2168: 2160: 2159: 2151: 2150: 2142: 2141: 2133: 2132: 2124: 2123: 2115: 2114: 2106: 2105: 2097: 2096: 2088: 2087: 2079: 2078: 2070: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2027: 2026: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2007: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1996: 1995: 1987: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1956:Pontoporiidae 1951: 1950: 1944: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1916: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1888: 1882: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1867:Platanistidae 1862: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1842: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1826: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1776: 1775: 1767: 1766: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1736:Cetotheriidae 1731: 1730: 1724: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1704: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1673: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1656: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1634: 1633: 1625: 1624: 1616: 1615: 1607: 1606: 1598: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1582: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1562: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1535: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1501: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1454: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1437: 1436:Cetruminantia 1434: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1421: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1342: 1341: 1335: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1319: 1318: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1294: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1274: 1273: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1240: 1237: 1236: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1216: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1167:Pontoporiidae 1165: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1142: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1117: 1116:Platanistidae 1114: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1097:: Sperm whale 1096: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1090: 1089:Physeteroidea 1086: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1067:Cetotheriidae 1065: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1050: 1049: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1036: 1032: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1004: 1001: 998: 997: 996: 995: 991: 989:: Chevrotains 988: 985: 984: 983: 982: 978: 977: 976: 975: 974:Cetruminantia 971: 966: 963: 960: 957: 956: 955: 954: 950: 949: 948: 945: 940: 937: 936: 935: 934: 930: 929: 927: 925: 921: 917: 910: 907: 904: 901: 900: 899: 898: 894: 889: 886: 885: 884: 881: 880: 878: 877: 873: 872: 871: 868: 867: 866: 864: 860: 852: 848: 842: 838: 832: 828: 822: 818: 812: 808: 802: 798: 791: 789: 787: 783: 779: 778:Fereuungulata 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 742: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 677: 672: 670: 658: 653: 648: 633: 628: 620: 618: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 595:morphological 591: 589: 585: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 485: 481: 480: 471: 390: 376: 375: 373: 370: 366: 359: 355: 352: 351:Periptychidae 348: 345: 341: 338: 334: 333: 332: 331: 326: 323: 319: 315: 313: 309: 306: 304: 300: 297: 294: 290: 288: 287: 286:Anthracobunia 282: 279: 276: 272: 271: 270: 266: 263: 262: 260: 255: 250: 244: 241: 238: 237: 234: 231: 228: 225: 224: 221: 218: 215: 214: 211: 208: 205: 204: 201: 198: 195: 194: 191: 188: 185: 184: 179: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 117: 113: 108: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 39: 29: 26: 22: 6115: 6016: 5914:Hand-walking 5839: 5807:. 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