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2796:). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997, and by the middle of 1997 had almost completely overrun the country. The only thing that seemed to slow the AFDL forces down was the country's ramshackle infrastructure; irregularly used dirt paths and river ports were all that connected some areas to the outside world. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila, Mobutu fled into exile in Morocco on 17 May. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and marched unopposed into Kinshasa three days later. On 21 May, Kabila officially reverted the name of the country to the
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by implausibly high margins, claiming a unanimous or near-unanimous "yes" vote. The MPR was defined as the country's "single institution," and its president was vested with "plentitude of power exercise." Every five years, a single list of MPR candidates was returned to the
National Assembly, with official figures showing near-unanimous support. All citizens of Zaire automatically became members of the MPR at birth. For all intents and purposes, this gave the president of the MPR—Mobutu—complete political control over the country.
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Similarly, the JMPR was to act as a major link between the student population and the state. In reality, the government was attempting to bring under its control those sectors where opposition to the regime might be centred. By appointing key labour and youth leaders to the MPR Political Bureau, the regime hoped to harness syndical and student forces to the machinery of the state. Nevertheless, as has been pointed out by numerous observers, there is little evidence that
2414:, Mobutu later summed up the record of the First Republic as one of "chaos, disorder, negligence, and incompetence". Rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric. In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation. Creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutu's order of priority.
3084:, it was "alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire's economy". Blumenthal stated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the
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2854:. Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by the central government. The president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution. Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, which carried the force of law.
2580:
Furthermore, another consequence of the reform was to severely curtail the power of traditional authorities at the local level. Hereditary claims to authority would no longer be recognised; instead, all chiefs were to be appointed and controlled by the state via the administrative hierarchy. By then, the process of centralisation had theoretically eliminated all preexisting centres of local autonomy.
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2396:, however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind the scenes. From 1965, Mobutu dominated the political life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion, and claiming the title of "Father of the Nation". He announced the renaming of the country as the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971.
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2535:, did the regime agree to tone down its attacks on the Roman Catholic Church and return some of its control of the school system to the church. Meanwhile, in line with a December 1971 law, which allowed the state to dissolve "any church or sect that compromises or threatens to compromise public order", scores of unrecognised
2735:, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic–Parliament of Transition (HCR–PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and
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or, as governmental terminology shifted, Commissariats. Among these individuals were internationally respected appointees such as
Djamboleka Lona Okitongono who was named Secretary of Finance, under Citizen Namwisi (Minister of Finance), and later became President of OGEDEP, the National Debt Management Office.
2442:, the state was henceforth defined as the emanation of the party. Thus, in October 1967, party and administrative responsibilities were merged into a single framework, thereby automatically extending the role of the party to all administrative organs at the central and provincial levels, as well as to the
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came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his
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Running parallel to the efforts of the state to control all autonomous sources of power, important administrative reforms were introduced in 1967 and 1973 to strengthen the hand of the central authorities in the provinces. The central objective of the 1967 reform was to abolish provincial governments
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that consolidated his hold on the country. Every five years (seven years after 1978), the MPR elected a president who was simultaneously nominated as the only candidate for president of the republic; he was confirmed in office via a referendum. Under this system, Mobutu was reelected in 1977 and 1984
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against Mobutu. With rebel forces making gains westward, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabila's forces in charge of the country. The country's name was restored to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo the following year. Mobutu died less than four months later, on September 7, 1997, while in exile
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Quite aside from the merits or weaknesses of
Mobutism, the MPR drew much of its legitimacy from the model of the overarching mass parties that had come into existence in Africa in the 1960s, a model which had also been a source of inspiration for the MNC-Lumumba. It was this Lumumbist heritage which
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In the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu's government relied on a selected pool of technocrats, often referred to as the "nomenklatura", from which the Head of State drew, and periodically rotated, competent individuals. They comprised the
Executive Council and led the full spectrum of Ministries, Departments
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By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give the country a new constitution and a single party. The new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 per cent of those voting. It provided that executive powers be centralised in the president, who
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to Zaire on 2 May 1980, on the centenary of
Catholic evangelization. During his tour, he greeted over a million people, making him the first pontiff to visit Africa as a "messenger of peace". He left Zaire four days later on 6 May shortly after 9 people were trampled to death trying to attend mass.
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In reality, the conspicuous lack of popular enthusiasm for
Salongo led to widespread resistance and foot dragging (causing many local administrators to look the other way). Although failure to comply carried penalties of one month to six months in jail, by the late 1970s most Zairians shirked their
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was introduced to replace the franc as the new national currency. 100 makuta (singular likuta) equaled one zaïre. The likuta was also divided into 100 sengi. However this unit was worth very little, so the smallest coin was for 10 sengi. The currency and the cities named above had actually already
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The president served as the head of state of Zaïre whose role was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility. The ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute the programs and decisions of the president. The president also was to have
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Critics of the regime were quick to point out the shortcomings of
Mobutism as a legitimising formula, in particular its self-serving qualities and inherent vagueness; nonetheless, the MPR's ideological training centre, the Makanda Kabobi Institute, took seriously its assigned task of propagating
3184:
Mobutu used the concept of authenticity as a means of vindicating his own brand of leadership. As he himself stated, "in our
African tradition there are never two chiefs ... That is why we Congolese, in the desire to conform to the traditions of our continent, have resolved to group all the
3103:
The concept of authenticity was derived from the MPR's professed doctrine of "authentic
Zairian nationalism and condemnation of regionalism and tribalism". Mobutu defined it as being conscious of one's own personality and one's own values and of being at home in one's culture. In line with the
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Countries of the World and Their Leaders: The U.S. Department of State's Report on Status of the World's Nations, Combined with Its Series of Background Notes Portraying Contemporary Political and Economic Conditions, Governmental Policies and Personnel, Political Parties, Religion, History,
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With the January 1973 reform, another major step was taken in the direction of further centralisation. The aim, in essence, was to operate a complete fusion of political and administrative hierarchies by making the head of each administrative unit the president of the local party committee.
2496:
Ostensibly, the aim of the merger, in the terms of the Manifesto of N'Sele, was to transform the role of trade unions from "being merely a force of confrontation" into "an organ of support for government policy", thus providing "a communication link between the working class and the state".
2542:
Mobutu was careful also to suppress all institutions that could mobilise ethnic loyalties. Avowedly opposed to ethnicity as a basis for political alignment, he outlawed such ethnic associations as the Association of Lulua Brothers (Association des Lulua Frères), which had been organised in
2830:
as the only legally permitted party in the country, though the Congo had effectively been a one-party state since the MPR's formation. Despite the constitution nominally allowing for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party that was allowed to nominate a candidate for the
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through the land "the teachings of the Founder-President, which must be given and interpreted in the same fashion throughout the country". Members of the MPR Political Bureau, meanwhile, were entrusted with the responsibility of serving as "the repositories and guarantors of Mobutism".
2684:
In 1981, despite slow progress, Zaire launched an economic reform to revive its economy in order to keep up its rescheduled payment on the country's tremendous debt of $ 4.4 billion, which had recorded a small rate of economic growth in the last three quarters of 1980.
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the MPR tried to appropriate in its effort to mobilise the Zairian masses behind its founder-president. Intimately tied up with the doctrine of Mobutism was the vision of an all-encompassing single party reaching out to all sectors of the nation.
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In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop
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and sectors (the latter incorporating several chiefdoms). The unitary, centralised state system thus legislated into existence bore a striking resemblance to its colonial antecedent, except that from July 1972 provinces were called regions.
2531:, coupled with Mobutu's insistence on banning all Christian names and establishing JMPR sections in all seminaries, soon brought the Roman Catholic Church and the state into conflict. Not until 1975, and after considerable pressure from the
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2781:. In turn, these Zairian Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu, triggering the
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continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on elephant projects". "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.
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Salongo obligations. By resuscitating one of the most bitterly resented features of the colonial state, obligatory civic work contributed in no small way to the erosion of legitimacy suffered by the Mobutist state.
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in the final stage of Mobutu's government. His progress was fairly typical of the rotational pattern established by Mobutu, who retained the most sensitive ministerial portfolios (such as Defense) for himself.
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in 1974. By 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari ("the breaker of rocks") system of repression and brutality.
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after the Lingala term for work), in the form of one afternoon a week of compulsory labor on agricultural and development projects. Officially described as a revolutionary attempt to return to the values of
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3291:) was established. Zaire formally adopted a multiparty system on 24 April 1990, when Mobutu delivered a speech proclaiming the end of the one-party system. The country adopted a three-party system
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to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.
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dictates of authenticity, the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971, and that of the armed forces to Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises—FAZ).
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While the country began to stabilize after Mobutu took control, the economic situation began to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that in 1960. Starting in 1976 the
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3127:("river", by Nzadi o Nzere, "the river that swallows all the other rivers", another name of the Congo river). General Mobutu became Mobutu Sésé Seko and forced all his citizens to adopt
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and solidarity inherent in the traditional society, Salongo was intended to mobilise the population into the performance of collective work "with enthusiasm and without constraint".
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Education, Press, Radio and TV, and Other Characteristics of Each Nation: Includes Central Intelligence Agency's List of Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments
2485:. It meant, to begin with, the incorporation of youth groups and worker organisations into the matrix of the MPR. In July 1967, the Political Bureau announced the creation of the
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speakers in large cities. It helped Mobutu that his ethnic affiliation was blurred in the public mind. Nevertheless, as dissatisfaction arose, ethnic tensions surfaced again.
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The trend toward co-optation of key social sectors continued in subsequent years. Women's associations were eventually brought under the control of the party, as was the
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A third imperative was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, a process that began in 1970 and culminated in the adoption of a
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2217:. Zaire was established following Mobutu's seizure of power in a military coup in 1965, after five years of political upheaval following independence from
2773:-led government, had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the
2259:, Mobutu was forced to declare a new republic in 1990 to cope with demands for change. By the time of its downfall, Zaire was characterised by widespread
2583:
The analogy with the colonial state becomes even more compelling when coupled with the introduction in 1973 of "obligatory civic work" (locally known as
2181:
2568:. The principle of centralisation was further extended to districts and territories, each headed by administrators appointed by the central government.
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The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by
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2692:(Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social—UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.
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proper. The confusion arose from the fact that the government of the Zaire officially recognized and referred to the language simply as "Kikongo".
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During the 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the
2493:(Union Nationale des Travailleurs Zaïrois—UNTZA), which brought together into a single organisational framework three preexisting trade unions.
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with the enactment of Law No. 90-002 of 5 July 1990, which amended its constitution accordingly, but retained the one-party system of the MPR
2880:. In May 1967, it was made public. Nationalism, revolution, and authenticity were identified as the major themes of what came to be known as "
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policy of the early 1970s, Zairians were obliged to adopt "authentic" names, Mobutu dropped Joseph-Désiré and officially changed his name to
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as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.
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The only units of government that still retained a fair measure of autonomy—but not for long—were the so-called local collectivities, i.e.
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2508:, and in December 1971 Mobutu proceeded to emasculate the power of the churches. From then on, only three churches were recognised: the
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was to be head of state, head of government, commander in chief of the armed forces and the police, and in charge of foreign policy.
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Translating the concept of "the nation politically organised" into reality implied a major expansion of state control of
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Zaire collapsed in the late 1990s, amid the destabilization of the eastern parts of the country in the aftermath of the
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2835:. Mobutu was confirmed in office by an implausible margin of over 10,131,000 votes against only 157 who voted "no." At
2407:, or, more commonly, Mobutu Sésé Seko, roughly meaning "the all-conquering warrior, who goes from triumph to triumph".
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the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces and the judges of all courts, including those of the
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held two weeks later, voters were presented with a single MPR list that was approved with over 99 per cent support.
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2902:". Thus, "neither right nor left" became one of the legitimising slogans of the regime, along with "authenticity".
2708:, where he was the first African head of state to be invited for a state meeting with newly elected U.S. President
2255:, was also launched under Mobutu's direction. Weakened by the termination of American support after the end of the
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3809:""Zaire's Mobutu Visits America", by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, June 29, 1989"
3624:. Historical Dictionaries of Africa. Vol. 112 (3, illustrated ed.). Scarecrow Press. pp. li, 102.
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This article is about the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997. For the present-day country, see
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The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth
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Memoir, Descriptive and Explanatory, to Accompany the New Chart of the Ethiopic Or Southern Atlantic Ocean
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Narrative of an Expedition to Explore the River Zaire, Usually Called the Congo, in South Africa, in 1816
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The term "Kikongo" in the Constitution was actually referring to the Kituba language – which is known as
2942:. In 1988, the province of Kivu was split into three regions. They were renamed into provinces in 1997.
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provided stabilizing loans to his regime. Much of this money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle.
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2894:, described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", meant "the repudiation of both
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A 5 makuta coin from 1977, which portrays Mobutu Sese Seko, the president of Zaire during this time
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with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers began
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as the name used by the local population (i.e. derived from Portuguese usage) remained common.
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2388:) between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the country's stability.
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2777:(FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire, known as the
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in 1953 in reaction to the growing political and economic influence in Kasai of the rival
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energies of the citizens of our country under the banner of a single national party."
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An Abstract of a Voyage to Congo River, Or the Zair and to Cabinde in the Year 1700
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The doctrinal foundation was disclosed shortly after its birth, in the form of the
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The bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the
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succeeded in mobilising support for the regime beyond the most superficial level.
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was the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to
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Three years after changing the country's name to Zaire, Mobutu promulgated a
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3430:. Springfield, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 1986. p. 271.
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from 1965 to 1997. With a population of over 23 million, Zaire was the
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Services, United States Dept of State Office of Media (15 July 1975).
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3405:, article 5: "Sa devise est : Paix — Justice — Travail" Source:
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2251:, ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the
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3965:"IMF and World Bank: Agents of Poverty or Partners of Development?"
3119:, was fundamentally authentic to pre-colonial African roots, while
2704:
of government funds for personal use. In June 1989, Mobutu visited
751:
3056:
2948:
2813:
2603:
2470:
2469:
2173:
4136:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
2934:
Administrative divisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2890:
implied the achievement of economic and political independence.
2793:
2762:
2287:
1287:
4225:
1731:
1522:
1417:
1332:
1206:
1161:
949:
858:
3357:
3328:
3213:
3207:
3074:
775:
3989:
Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
3621:
Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
3351:
2172:, it was, by area, the third-largest country in Africa after
99:
4192:
The State–Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective
3123:
is in fact a Portuguese corruption of another African word,
3322:
3181:
were subsequently promoted as expressions of authenticity.
3830:
3828:
3281:
one-party state since 20 May 1967, the date on which the
2434:
But the most far-reaching change was the creation of the
2564:
and replace them with state functionaries appointed by
2351:
gradually in English usage during the 18th century and
3348:
3319:
2769:), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of an
4209:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985,
3277:
one-party state on 23 December 1970, but had been a
3169:
In addition, the adoption of Zairian, as opposed to
4713:
4636:
4570:
4437:
4371:
4260:
4055:
IANA Report on Deletion of the .zr Top-Level Domain
3618:Kisangani, Emizet Francois; Bobb, Scott F. (2009).
3354:
3325:
2928:
Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
843:
769:
757:
747:
737:
713:
698:
678:
663:
649:
635:
625:
614:
604:
594:
589:
575:
562:
549:
539:
526:
512:
502:
486:
474:
460:
444:
430:
399:
389:
340:
324:
286:
276:
232:
45:
2938:Zaire was divided into 8 regions with its capital
4187:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
3986:Emizet Francois Kisangani; Scott F. Bobb (2010).
3232:and other international sporting events like the
2924:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2715:In May 1990, Mobutu agreed to the principle of a
3080:According to the 1982 report by the IMF's envoy
2810:Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2318:
115:
3107:This decision was curious, given that the name
3053:Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2343:('river that swallows all rivers'). The use of
4098:Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim, eds. (1994).
4026:. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 211.
4020:Young, Crawford; Turner, Thomas Edwin (1985).
4861:States and territories disestablished in 1997
4237:
4194:. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984,
3881:
3795:
3776:
3733:
3694:
3671:
3644:
3605:
3580:
2236:. The period is sometimes referred to as the
2138:
1534:
1429:
961:
870:
83:
8:
4082:. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing.
4079:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002
3286:
2757:and genocide had spilled over to Zaire (see
2308:
2279:
2244:
194:
176:
51:
3508:. New York: Oxford University Press. 1990.
2623:In 1977 and 1978, Katangan rebels based in
2487:Youth of the Popular Revolutionary Movement
2338:
2332:
600:2,345,409 km (905,567 sq mi)
4856:States and territories established in 1971
4642:
4576:
4443:
4377:
4244:
4230:
4222:
4061:. 20 June 2001. Retrieved on 11 June 2009.
3407:Journal Officiel de la République du Zaïre
3228:, which the nation's athletes used at the
2477:, the president of Zaire from 1965 to 1997
2145:
2131:
1811:
1728:
1541:
1527:
1519:
1436:
1422:
1414:
1329:
1203:
1158:
968:
954:
946:
877:
863:
855:
224:
42:
4207:The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State
4023:The rise and decline of the Zairian state
3942:. Africa World Press, 1986. p. 226.
3131:names and many cities were also renamed.
2666:miners held as hostages by pro-Communist
2539:were dissolved and their leaders jailed.
2405:Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga
2192:. Zaire played a central role during the
3939:The Crisis in Zaire: Myths and Realities
3460:Sandra W. Meditz and Tim Merrill (eds.)
3134:Some of the conversions are as follows:
2753:By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring
3395:
3249:
2690:Union for Democracy and Social Progress
1825:
1814:
648:
613:
603:
588:
275:
4143:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3877:
3875:
3846:
3834:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3403:Constitution de la République du Zaïre
2615:, visiting Mobutu in Zaire during The
2410:In retrospective justification of his
2278:and growing ethnic violence. In 1996,
1377:Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3785:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3703:
3690:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3653:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3417:
3415:
3378:
2833:1 November 1970 presidential election
2654:, fought in May 1978, resulted in an
2327:, which in turn was derived from the
1139:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
662:
634:
624:
620:
593:
574:
561:
548:
538:
525:
521:
485:
473:
469:
459:
443:
439:
429:
285:
27:Country in Central Africa (1971–1997)
7:
3515:from the original on 2 February 2014
3288:Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution
3070:been renamed between 1966 and 1971.
1829:the Democratic Republic of the Congo
4059:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
3905:Congo: The Epic History of a People
3437:from the original on 13 April 2021.
2743:First Congo War and demise of Zaire
2512:(L'Église du Christ au Zaïre), the
2313:, was derived from the name of the
1755:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency
4161:Further reading and external links
4104:(4th ed.). Washington, D.C.:
3451:Third Edition, First Printing 1979
2909:Djamboleka became Governor of the
2824:Popular Movement of the Revolution
2721:looting Kinshasa in September 1991
2436:Popular Movement of the Revolution
2215:Popular Movement of the Revolution
288:Recognised national languages
25:
4344:Transitional Government (2003–06)
2491:National Union of Zairian Workers
2186:most populous Francophone country
2182:11th-largest country in the world
1745:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
4876:1997 disestablishments in Africa
4253:Democratic Republic of the Congo
4167:
4131:
3344:
3315:
2822:The country was governed by the
2798:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2166:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2114:
1836:
848:Democratic Republic of the Congo
827:
823:Democratic Republic of the Congo
810:Democratic Republic of the Congo
802:
670:
669:
205:
156:
142:
32:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3550:(1746). James Hingston Tuckey,
3503:"Human Development Report 1990"
2658:in an aim of rescuing Zairian,
2392:again seized power. Unlike the
4280:Colonial governors (1885–1960)
3992:. Scarecrow Press. p. i.
2818:Presidential standard of Zaire
2168:from 1971 to 1997. Located in
1144:Torture and killing of Lumumba
1:
3963:Aikins Adusei (30 May 2009).
3554:(1818). "Congo River, called
3111:, which referred both to the
2733:Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba
4871:1971 establishments in Zaire
4361:M23 offensive (2022–present)
4334:Second Congo War (1998–2003)
4309:Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65)
4285:Congo Free State (1885–1908)
3562:by the natives" John Purdy,
3211:". It has since changed to "
2731:as its chairman, along with
1661:M23 offensive (2022–present)
1589:2009 Eastern Congo offensive
1261:Assassination of Habyarimana
4476:Foreign policy under Mobutu
4205:Young, C., and Turner, T.,
3197:Standards and abbreviations
2380:, the division of power in
2092:Félix Tshisekedi presidency
1797:Child soldiers in the Congo
1320:Ascension of Laurent Kabila
1195:Non-aggression pact of 1979
4902:
4851:Former countries in Africa
4319:State of Katanga (1960–63)
4150:: CS1 maint: postscript (
3260:by its speakers – not the
3236:. It has since changed to
3096:
3050:
2947:
2931:
2921:
2861:
2807:
2746:
2232:, and foreign assets were
1273:Great Lakes refugee crisis
29:
4765:
4645:
4579:
4446:
4380:
4329:First Congo War (1996–98)
4106:Federal Research Division
3882:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3796:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3777:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3734:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3695:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3672:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3645:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3606:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3581:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3491:– via Google Books.
3481:. Gale Research Company.
2729:Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya
2510:Church of Christ in Zaire
2280:
2238:Second Congolese Republic
1946:Intl. African Association
1740:
1599:2014 North Kivu offensive
1558:
1453:
1345:
1241:War in Uganda (1986–1994)
1236:Second Sudanese Civil War
1219:
1174:
1149:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
985:
895:
781:
645:
621:
585:
522:
498:
476:• 1977–1979 (first)
470:
456:
440:
223:
189:
185:"Peace — Justice — Work"
172:
138:
133:
4451:Administrative divisions
3934:Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja
3409:(N. 1 du 1 janvier 1983)
3380:[ʁepyblikdyzaiʁ]
2918:Administrative divisions
2643:, particularly from the
2627:launched two invasions,
2525:universities of Kinshasa
2082:Joseph Kabila presidency
1792:Western DR Congo clashes
1772:2011 coup d'etat attempt
553:Constitution promulgated
178:Paix — Justice — Travail
4356:M23 rebellion (2012–13)
4297:Belgian Congo (1908–60)
3912:, 2012. p. 374ff.
3424:The World Factbook 1986
2837:parliamentary elections
2804:Government and politics
2559:Centralisation of power
2523:Nationalisation of the
2347:seems to have replaced
2225:. Zaire had a strongly
1787:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion
1594:M23 rebellion (2012–13)
1584:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign
989:Force Publique mutinies
577:• Death of Mobutu
277:Official languages
116:
68:
4881:Military dictatorships
4314:Congo Crisis (1960–65)
4275:Colonization (1867–85)
4101:Zaire: a country study
4076:Abbott, Peter (2014).
3462:Zaire: A Country Study
3449:Zaire: A Country Study
3374:
3287:
3150:Élisabethville became
3062:
2953:
2819:
2620:
2478:
2466:Totalitarian expansion
2440:emanation of the state
2426:Constitutional changes
2339:
2333:
2319:
2309:
2269:economic mismanagement
2245:
2164:, was the name of the
1703:Kasindi church bombing
1482:October 2020 offensive
1074:Port Francqui incident
195:
177:
100:
84:
52:
36:Zaire (disambiguation)
34:. For other uses, see
4183:Macgaffey, J., 1991.
3447:Kaplan, Irving (ed.)
3115:and to the mediaeval
3060:
2952:
2922:Further information:
2817:
2808:Further information:
2790:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
2607:
2518:Roman Catholic Church
2473:
2452:student organisations
2412:1965 seizure of power
2386:former Belgian colony
2282:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
2207:military dictatorship
1782:2013 Kinshasa attacks
1666:Anti-MONUSCO protests
1288:Formation of the AFDL
606:• Water (%)
425:military dictatorship
3144:Stanleyville became
3138:Léopoldville became
3099:Authenticité (Zaire)
2775:Zairian armed forces
2390:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
2307:The country's name,
2243:A wider campaign of
1604:2017 CNPSC offensive
1118:Violettes Imperiales
4886:Totalitarian states
4818: /
4110:Library of Congress
3900:David van Reybrouck
3464:Fourth Edition 1993
3375:République du Zaïre
3162:Albertville became
2870:Manifesto of N'sele
2852:Legislative Council
2317:, sometimes called
1956:Intl. Congo Society
1698:August 2022 attacks
1362:Gbadolite Agreement
1315:Overthrow of Mobutu
1251:Burundian Civil War
541:• Established
507:Legislative Council
488:• 1997 (last)
257: /
202:"The Song of Zaire"
69:Repubilika ya Zaïre
53:République du Zaïre
4614:Telecommunications
4461:Court of Cassation
4425:Former place names
3156:Jadotville became
3063:
2954:
2820:
2717:multi-party system
2656:airborne operation
2621:
2514:Kimbanguist Church
2479:
2382:Congo-Léopoldville
2286:, the head of the
2199:The country was a
2096:2019–present
2033:Congo–Léopoldville
1777:Batwa–Luba clashes
1750:Katanga insurgency
1718:Kirindera massacre
1497:Nyamamba and Mbogi
1388:Effacer le tableau
1382:Kisangani massacre
1367:Sun City Agreement
1293:Massacres of Hutus
1133:Other major events
1014:Congo-Stanleyville
941:Léopoldville riots
934:1944 Kivu uprising
659:1983 estimate
326:Ethnic groups
85:Republíki ya Zaïre
4801:
4800:
4761:
4760:
4680:Human trafficking
4632:
4631:
4566:
4565:
4534:Political parties
4527:National Assembly
4471:Foreign relations
4433:
4432:
4215:978-0-299-10110-7
4146:cite encyclopedia
4089:978-1-78200-076-1
3919:978-0-06-220011-2
3902:(25 March 2014).
3849:, pp. 34–35.
3837:, pp. 33–35.
3044:
3043:
2759:History of Rwanda
2755:Rwandan Civil War
2710:George H. W. Bush
2674:Pope John Paul II
2652:Battle of Kolwezi
2292:popular rebellion
2162:Republic of Zaire
2160:, officially the
2155:
2154:
2100:
2099:
1999:
1998:
1922:
1921:
1904:Kingdom of Chokwe
1809:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1727:
1726:
1671:Kishishe massacre
1574:Makobola massacre
1518:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1467:North Night Final
1409:ICC investigation
1328:
1327:
1256:Rwandan Civil War
1246:1991 Zaire unrest
1202:
1201:
1188:Battle of Kolwezi
1157:
1156:
993:Secession crisis
853:
852:
839:
838:
835:
834:
815:
814:
566:Mobutu overthrown
446:• 1965–1997
216:
117:Ditunga dia Zaïre
47:Republic of Zaire
16:(Redirected from
4893:
4866:One-party states
4833:
4832:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4822:4.400°S 15.400°E
4819:
4816:
4815:
4814:
4811:
4781:
4774:
4643:
4604:Franc (currency)
4577:
4444:
4378:
4246:
4239:
4232:
4223:
4177:
4172:
4171:
4170:
4155:
4149:
4141:
4135:
4134:
4093:
4062:
4051:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4040:
4017:
4011:
4010:
4008:
4006:
3983:
3977:
3976:
3974:
3972:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3930:
3924:
3923:
3896:
3885:
3879:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3823:
3822:
3821:on 21 July 2006.
3820:
3814:. Archived from
3813:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3780:
3774:
3737:
3731:
3698:
3692:
3675:
3669:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3584:
3578:
3567:
3544:
3538:
3533:Forbath, Peter.
3531:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3471:
3465:
3458:
3452:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3429:
3419:
3410:
3400:
3383:
3382:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3343:
3335:
3334:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3321:
3314:
3306:
3300:
3290:
3271:
3265:
3254:
3234:All-Africa Games
3203:top-level domain
3082:Erwin Blumenthal
2983:Kasaï-Occidental
2945:
2944:
2765:militia forces (
2706:Washington, D.C.
2637:Katanga Province
2619:Conflict in 1977
2600:Growing conflict
2475:Mobutu Sese Seko
2459:new constitution
2419:new constitution
2399:When, under the
2342:
2336:
2322:
2312:
2285:
2284:
2276:Rwandan genocide
2250:
2211:Mobutu Sese Seko
2147:
2140:
2133:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2072:Second Congo War
2005:
2004:
1966:Congo Free State
1928:
1927:
1884:Kingdom of Lunda
1864:Kingdom of Kongo
1846:
1845:
1840:
1830:
1812:
1760:Operation Shujaa
1735:
1729:
1713:Mukondi massacre
1708:Makugwe massacre
1693:Otomabere attack
1579:Makombo massacre
1553:
1543:
1536:
1529:
1520:
1448:
1438:
1431:
1424:
1415:
1357:Lusaka Ceasefire
1351:Operation Kitona
1340:
1338:
1337:Second Congo War
1330:
1268:Rwandan genocide
1214:
1212:
1204:
1169:
1167:
1159:
1038:Battle of Kabalo
980:
970:
963:
956:
947:
912:Congo Free State
890:
879:
872:
865:
856:
831:
830:
819:
818:
806:
805:
799:
798:
783:
782:
724:
723:
694:
693:
685:
673:
672:
656:
581:7 September 1997
535:24 November 1965
451:Mobutu Sese Seko
289:
272:
271:
269:
268:
267:
262:
261:4.317°S 15.317°E
258:
255:
254:
253:
250:
235:and largest city
228:
218:
217:
200:
183:
180:
160:
146:
128:
127:
119:
112:
111:
103:
101:Jamhuri ya Zaïre
96:
95:
87:
80:
79:
71:
64:
63:
55:
43:
21:
4901:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4891:
4890:
4836:
4835:
4826:
4824:
4820:
4817:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4797:
4784:
4777:
4770:
4757:
4753:Public holidays
4709:
4628:
4562:
4500:Law enforcement
4429:
4367:
4324:Zaire (1965–97)
4256:
4250:
4220:
4173:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4158:
4142:
4132:
4120:
4097:
4090:
4075:
4071:
4066:
4065:
4052:
4048:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4019:
4018:
4014:
4004:
4002:
4000:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3970:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3950:
3932:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3898:
3897:
3888:
3880:
3853:
3845:
3841:
3833:
3826:
3818:
3811:
3807:
3806:
3802:
3794:
3783:
3775:
3740:
3732:
3701:
3693:
3678:
3670:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3632:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3604:
3587:
3579:
3570:
3566:, 1822, p. 112.
3545:
3541:
3535:The River Congo
3532:
3528:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3496:
3489:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3459:
3455:
3446:
3442:
3434:
3427:
3421:
3420:
3413:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3386:
3372:
3368:
3347:
3338:
3337:
3318:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3303:
3273:Zaire became a
3272:
3268:
3258:Kikongo ya leta
3255:
3251:
3246:
3199:
3101:
3095:
3055:
3049:
2936:
2930:
2920:
2866:
2860:
2828:one-party state
2812:
2806:
2783:First Congo War
2751:
2749:First Congo War
2745:
2611:, president of
2602:
2561:
2537:religious sects
2468:
2448:youth movements
2428:
2374:
2369:
2305:
2290:militia, led a
2151:
2115:
2113:
2086:2001–2019
2076:1998–2003
2066:1996–1997
2062:First Congo War
2056:1971–1997
2037:1960–1971
2027:1960–1965
2016:post–1960
1995:1940–1945
1985:1908–1960
1975:1885–1908
1960:1879–1885
1950:1876–1879
1939:1876–1960
1918:1856–1891
1908:1800–1891
1898:1625–1884
1888:1600–1887
1878:1585–1889
1874:Kingdom of Luba
1868:1390–1914
1828:
1821:
1810:
1801:
1736:
1733:
1723:
1722:
1626:Kipupu massacre
1569:Kasika massacre
1564:Lemera massacre
1554:
1549:
1547:
1510:
1487:Boga and Tchabi
1449:
1444:
1442:
1413:
1399:Pretoria Accord
1394:Bogoro massacre
1341:
1336:
1334:
1324:
1277:
1231:Shaba Invasions
1215:
1211:First Congo War
1210:
1208:
1198:
1170:
1166:Shaba Invasions
1165:
1163:
1153:
1091:Simba rebellion
1086:Kwilu rebellion
1081:Kanyarwanda War
1021:UN intervention
981:
976:
974:
945:
891:
885:
883:
828:
803:
721:
717:
691:
690:
689:
683:
666:
654:
638:
628:
607:
597:
578:
568:
555:
545:27 October 1971
542:
532:
493:Likulia Bolongo
489:
477:
447:
385:
344:
320:
302:Kikongo ya leta
287:
265:
263:
259:
256:
251:
248:
246:
244:
243:
242:
236:
219:
206:
203:
201:
184:
181:
168:
167:
166:
161:
153:
152:
147:
129:
121:
114:
113:
105:
98:
97:
89:
82:
81:
73:
66:
65:
57:
50:
48:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4899:
4897:
4889:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4838:
4837:
4827:-4.400; 15.400
4799:
4798:
4796:
4795:
4790:
4783:
4782:
4775:
4767:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4759:
4758:
4756:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4719:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4650:Child marriage
4646:
4640:
4634:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4580:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4551:Prime Minister
4548:
4547:
4546:
4536:
4531:
4530:
4529:
4524:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4510:Chief of Staff
4502:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4485:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4266:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4255: articles
4251:
4249:
4248:
4241:
4234:
4226:
4219:
4218:
4203:
4190:Callaghy, T.,
4188:
4180:
4179:
4178:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4156:
4118:
4095:
4088:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4046:
4032:
4012:
3998:
3978:
3967:. Modern Ghana
3955:
3948:
3925:
3918:
3886:
3851:
3839:
3824:
3800:
3781:
3738:
3699:
3676:
3649:
3637:
3630:
3610:
3585:
3568:
3546:James Barbot,
3539:
3537:(1977), p. 19.
3526:
3494:
3487:
3466:
3453:
3440:
3411:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3366:
3301:
3266:
3262:Kongo language
3248:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3198:
3195:
3167:
3166:
3160:
3154:
3148:
3142:
3097:Main article:
3094:
3091:
3051:Main article:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3034:
3033:
3026:
3025:
3018:
3017:
3010:
3009:
3002:
3001:
2994:
2993:
2991:Kasaï–Oriental
2986:
2985:
2978:
2977:
2970:
2969:
2962:
2961:
2955:
2919:
2916:
2862:Main article:
2859:
2856:
2805:
2802:
2747:Main article:
2744:
2741:
2737:Kengo wa Dondo
2601:
2598:
2560:
2557:
2467:
2464:
2427:
2424:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2304:
2301:
2170:Central Africa
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2142:
2135:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1936:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:pre–1876
1854:
1842:
1841:
1833:
1832:
1823:
1822:
1815:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1767:Dongo conflict
1764:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1747:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1688:Masambo attack
1685:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1523:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1446:Ituri conflict
1443:
1441:
1440:
1433:
1426:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1333:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1207:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1180:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1162:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1069:Kindu atrocity
1066:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1009:
999:
991:
986:
983:
982:
975:
973:
972:
965:
958:
950:
944:
943:
938:
937:
936:
931:
921:
920:
919:
909:
903:
902:
896:
893:
892:
884:
882:
881:
874:
867:
859:
851:
850:
845:
841:
840:
837:
836:
833:
832:
825:
816:
813:
812:
807:
795:
794:
789:
779:
778:
773:
767:
766:
761:
755:
754:
749:
745:
744:
741:
735:
734:
715:
711:
710:
700:
696:
695:
686:
684:(1990 formula)
676:
675:
667:
664:
661:
660:
657:
647:
646:
643:
642:
639:
636:
633:
632:
629:
626:
623:
622:
619:
618:
612:
611:
608:
605:
602:
601:
598:
595:
592:
591:
587:
586:
583:
582:
579:
576:
573:
572:
569:
563:
560:
559:
558:15 August 1974
556:
550:
547:
546:
543:
540:
537:
536:
533:
527:
524:
523:
520:
519:
514:
513:Historical era
510:
509:
504:
500:
499:
496:
495:
490:
487:
484:
483:
481:Mpinga Kasenda
478:
475:
472:
471:
468:
467:
464:
462:Prime Minister
458:
457:
454:
453:
448:
445:
442:
441:
438:
437:
434:
428:
427:
403:
397:
396:
393:
387:
386:
384:
383:
372:
366:
360:
354:
352:Roman Catholic
347:
345:
342:
338:
337:
328:
322:
321:
292:
290:
284:
283:
278:
274:
273:
266:-4.317; 15.317
237:
234:
230:
229:
221:
220:
204:
187:
186:
170:
169:
162:
155:
154:
148:
141:
140:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
49:
46:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4898:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4843:
4841:
4834:
4831:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4780:
4776:
4773:
4769:
4768:
4764:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4700:Social issues
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4635:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4515:
4511:
4508:
4507:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4494:
4491:
4490:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4395:Deforestation
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4351:Kivu conflict
4349:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4270:Early history
4268:
4267:
4265:
4263:
4259:
4254:
4247:
4242:
4240:
4235:
4233:
4228:
4227:
4224:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4201:
4200:0-231-05720-2
4197:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4182:
4181:
4176:
4165:
4160:
4153:
4147:
4139:
4138:public domain
4129:
4125:
4121:
4119:0-8444-0795-X
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4102:
4096:
4091:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4050:
4047:
4035:
4033:9780299101107
4029:
4025:
4024:
4016:
4013:
4001:
3999:9780810863255
3995:
3991:
3990:
3982:
3979:
3966:
3959:
3956:
3951:
3949:0-86543-023-3
3945:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3929:
3926:
3921:
3915:
3911:
3910:HarperCollins
3907:
3906:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3884:, p. 50.
3883:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3847:Abbott (2014)
3843:
3840:
3836:
3835:Abbott (2014)
3831:
3829:
3825:
3817:
3810:
3804:
3801:
3798:, p. 53.
3797:
3792:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3779:, p. 52.
3778:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3739:
3736:, p. 51.
3735:
3730:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3704:
3700:
3697:, p. 49.
3696:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3674:, p. 48.
3673:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3647:, p. 45.
3646:
3641:
3638:
3633:
3631:9780810863255
3627:
3623:
3622:
3614:
3611:
3608:, p. 44.
3607:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3590:
3586:
3583:, p. 46.
3582:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3527:
3511:
3504:
3498:
3495:
3490:
3488:9780810310469
3484:
3480:
3479:
3470:
3467:
3463:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3433:
3426:
3425:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3399:
3396:
3389:
3381:
3376:
3370:
3367:
3362:
3341:
3333:
3312:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3253:
3250:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3230:Olympic Games
3227:
3223:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3147:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3076:
3071:
3068:
3059:
3054:
3046:
3040:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3008:
3004:
3003:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2925:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2911:Bank of Zaire
2907:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2848:
2846:
2845:Supreme Court
2840:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2811:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2500:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2483:civil society
2476:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2425:
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2326:
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2316:
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2300:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2253:Belgian Congo
2249:
2248:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:known as the
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2148:
2143:
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2136:
2134:
2129:
2128:
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2040:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1982:
1981:Belgian Congo
1979:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1885:
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1881:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1851:Early history
1848:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1824:
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1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1682:
1681:2nd Kitshanga
1679:
1677:
1676:1st Kitshanga
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1656:Kagogo ambush
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
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1610:
1609:Uvira clashes
1607:
1606:
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1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1551:Kivu conflict
1544:
1539:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1498:
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1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
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1470:
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1452:
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1439:
1434:
1432:
1427:
1425:
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1416:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
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1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1344:
1339:
1331:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1205:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1186:
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1179:
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1173:
1168:
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1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1033:Niemba ambush
1031:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
994:
992:
990:
987:
984:
979:
971:
966:
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959:
957:
952:
951:
948:
942:
939:
935:
932:
930:
927:
926:
925:
924:Belgian Congo
922:
918:
915:
914:
913:
910:
908:
905:
904:
901:
898:
897:
894:
889:
886:Conflicts in
880:
875:
873:
868:
866:
861:
860:
857:
849:
846:
844:Today part of
842:
826:
824:
821:
820:
817:
811:
808:
801:
800:
797:
796:
793:
790:
788:
785:
784:
780:
777:
774:
772:
768:
765:
762:
760:
759:ISO 3166 code
756:
753:
750:
746:
742:
740:
736:
732:
728:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
701:
697:
687:
681:
677:
674:$ 4.5 billion
668:
658:
652:
644:
640:
630:
617:
609:
599:
584:
580:
570:
567:
557:
554:
544:
534:
531:
518:
515:
511:
508:
505:
501:
497:
494:
491:
482:
479:
465:
463:
455:
452:
449:
435:
433:
426:
423:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
402:
398:
394:
392:
388:
381:
377:
373:
371:
367:
365:
361:
359:
355:
353:
349:
348:
346:
339:
336:
335:section below
334:
333:Ethnic groups
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
282:
279:
270:
241:
238:
231:
227:
222:
199:
198:
192:
188:
179:
175:
171:
165:
159:
151:
145:
137:
132:
125:
118:
109:
102:
93:
86:
77:
70:
61:
54:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4803:
4690:Prostitution
4665:Demographics
4589:Central Bank
4488:Human rights
4456:Constitution
4390:Conservation
4323:
4302:World War II
4206:
4191:
4184:
4175:Zaïre portal
4100:
4078:
4049:
4037:. Retrieved
4022:
4015:
4003:. Retrieved
3988:
3981:
3969:. Retrieved
3958:
3938:
3928:
3903:
3842:
3816:the original
3803:
3640:
3620:
3613:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3542:
3534:
3529:
3517:. Retrieved
3497:
3476:
3469:
3461:
3456:
3448:
3443:
3423:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3369:
3304:
3296:
3292:
3278:
3274:
3269:
3257:
3252:
3237:
3225:
3219:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3168:
3133:
3124:
3120:
3117:Kongo Empire
3108:
3106:
3102:
3079:
3072:
3064:
2937:
2908:
2904:
2886:
2867:
2849:
2847:of Justice.
2841:
2821:
2787:
2779:Banyamulenge
2752:
2725:
2714:
2702:embezzlement
2694:
2687:
2683:
2672:
2670:guerrillas.
2649:
2641:Western Bloc
2622:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2570:
2562:
2541:
2522:
2503:
2495:
2480:
2456:
2444:trade unions
2433:
2429:
2416:
2409:
2404:
2401:authenticité
2398:
2375:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2306:
2273:
2247:Authenticité
2242:
2237:
2234:nationalized
2230:constitution
2223:Congo Crisis
2204:totalitarian
2198:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2049: /
2042:
2023:Congo Crisis
2015:
2010:Independence
2008:
1991:World War II
1938:
1933:Colonization
1931:
1914:Yeke Kingdom
1894:Kuba Kingdom
1856:
1849:
1386:
1349:
1298:
1280:
1223:
1132:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1097:Dragon Rouge
1096:
1062:
1055:Camp Massart
1048:
1026:
978:Congo Crisis
907:Colonization
899:
792:Succeeded by
791:
786:
771:Internet TLD
748:Calling code
665:• Total
637:• 1997
627:• 1971
596:• Total
422:totalitarian
415:presidential
374:10% Others (
330:
313:
305:
297:
190:
182:
174:Motto:
173:
40:
4825: /
4584:Agriculture
4069:Works cited
3113:river Congo
2888:Nationalism
2874:Congo River
2767:Interahamwe
2761:). Rwandan
2645:Safari Club
2635:, into the
2590:communalism
2549:Luba people
2499:co-optation
2315:Congo River
1827:History of
1492:Plaine Savo
1372:Six-Day War
1299:Thunderbolt
1111:White Giant
1104:Dragon Noir
1002:South Kasai
929:during WWII
787:Preceded by
571:18 May 1997
530:Coup d'état
503:Legislature
364:Kimbanguism
264: /
197:La Zaïroise
4840:Categories
4655:Corruption
4517:Parliament
4483:Government
4400:Ecoregions
4290:Atrocities
3390:References
3152:Lubumbashi
3086:World Bank
3039:South Kivu
3023:North Kivu
2932:See also:
2896:capitalism
2892:Revolution
2678:papal trip
2516:, and the
2394:first time
2378:as in 1960
2325:Portuguese
2265:corruption
2227:centralist
2180:, and the
2121:DRC Portal
2105:See also:
1970:Atrocities
1310:Kinsangani
1305:Lubumbashi
1224:Background
1043:Jadotville
917:Atrocities
900:Background
641:46,498,539
631:18,400,000
616:Population
401:Government
391:Demonym(s)
358:Protestant
124:Luba-Lulua
4685:Languages
4670:Education
4624:Transport
4594:Companies
4539:President
4466:Elections
4415:Volcanoes
4405:Mountains
4373:Geography
3175:Christian
3146:Kisangani
3031:Orientale
2967:Bas-Congo
2900:communism
2573:chiefdoms
2529:Kisangani
2376:In 1965,
2303:Etymology
2209:, run by
2201:one-party
1063:Grandslam
1027:Rum Punch
739:Drives on
714:Time zone
655:(nominal)
432:President
412:one-party
341:Religion
134:1971–1997
4788:Category
4738:Football
4695:Religion
4505:Military
4439:Politics
4420:Wildlife
4128:30666705
4005:29 April
3971:30 March
3936:(1986).
3510:Archived
3432:Archived
3373:French:
3297:de facto
3279:de facto
3222:IOC code
3220:Zaire's
3201:Zaire's
3140:Kinshasa
3007:Kinshasa
2975:Équateur
2959:Bandundu
2940:Kinshasa
2882:Mobutism
2878:Kinshasa
2864:Mobutism
2858:Mobutism
2700:massive
2697:Cold War
2668:Katangan
2633:Shaba II
2609:Idi Amin
2566:Kinshasa
2261:cronyism
2257:Cold War
2213:and his
2194:Cold War
1818:a series
1816:Part of
1631:Kangbayi
1502:Response
1183:Shaba II
1007:Invasion
888:DR Congo
722:+1 to +2
699:Currency
517:Cold War
420:under a
418:republic
409:Mobutist
318:Tshiluba
240:Kinshasa
4813:15°24′E
4772:Outline
4728:Cuisine
4715:Culture
4638:Society
4619:Tourism
4572:Economy
4262:History
4039:11 July
3519:23 July
3293:de jure
3275:de jure
3179:abacost
3171:Western
3164:Kalemie
3129:African
3093:Culture
3047:Economy
3015:Maniema
2695:As the
2676:made a
2660:Belgian
2629:Shaba I
2617:Shaba I
2585:Salongo
2553:Lingala
2533:Vatican
2367:History
2329:Kikongo
2297:Morocco
2219:Belgium
2178:Algeria
2047:Shaba I
1651:Bulongo
1621:Virunga
1506:UN 1484
1472:Marabho
1462:Artemis
1404:MONUSCO
1178:Shaba I
997:Katanga
564:•
551:•
528:•
406:Unitary
395:Zairian
310:Swahili
294:Lingala
252:15°19′E
233:Capital
191:Anthem:
108:Swahili
92:Lingala
18:Zairian
4810:4°24′S
4793:Portal
4723:Cinema
4675:Health
4609:Mining
4599:Energy
4522:Senate
4410:Rivers
4385:Cities
4213:
4198:
4126:
4116:
4086:
4030:
3996:
3946:
3916:
3628:
3485:
3158:Likasi
2664:French
2625:Angola
2613:Uganda
2450:, and
2372:Mobutu
2190:Africa
1820:on the
1646:Mwenda
1641:Tingwe
1636:Lisasa
1477:Ndjala
1457:Bogoro
1049:UNOKAT
682:
653:
466:
436:
376:Baluba
343:(1986)
314:·
312:
306:·
304:
298:·
296:
281:French
249:4°19′S
193:
164:Emblem
120:
104:
88:
76:Kituba
72:
60:French
56:
4846:Zaire
4779:Index
4748:Music
4743:Media
4705:Women
4660:Crime
4339:2000s
3819:(PDF)
3812:(PDF)
3560:Zaire
3556:Zahir
3513:(PDF)
3506:(PDF)
3435:(PDF)
3428:(PDF)
3244:Notes
3205:was "
3125:Nzadi
3121:Zaire
3109:Congo
3067:zaïre
2999:Shaba
2876:from
2826:as a
2545:Kasai
2506:press
2361:Zaire
2357:Zahir
2353:Congo
2349:Zaire
2345:Congo
2340:nzadi
2334:nzere
2331:word
2320:Zaire
2310:Zaïre
2174:Sudan
2158:Zaire
2107:Years
2043:Zaire
1734:Other
1616:Oicha
1125:South
743:right
703:Zaïre
688:0.294
380:Bantu
370:Islam
316:
308:
300:
4733:Flag
4556:List
4544:List
4493:LGBT
4211:ISBN
4196:ISBN
4152:link
4124:OCLC
4114:ISBN
4084:ISBN
4041:2020
4028:ISBN
4007:2016
3994:ISBN
3973:2015
3944:ISBN
3914:ISBN
3626:ISBN
3521:2021
3483:ISBN
3224:was
3065:The
3037:11.
3029:10.
2926:and
2898:and
2794:AFDL
2763:Hutu
2662:and
2650:The
2631:and
2527:and
2288:AFDL
2267:and
2176:and
752:+243
729:and
610:3.32
590:Area
368:10%
362:10%
356:20%
350:50%
331:See
150:Flag
4057:".
3558:or
3358:ɪər
3329:ɪər
3283:MPR
3238:COD
3226:ZAI
3217:".
3214:.cd
3208:.zr
3173:or
3075:IMF
3021:9.
3013:8.
3005:7.
2997:6.
2989:5.
2981:4.
2973:3.
2965:2.
2957:1.
2884:".
2771:RPF
2384:(a
2359:or
2337:or
2323:in
2295:in
2188:in
1281:War
776:.zr
731:CAT
727:WAT
719:UTC
707:ZRN
692:low
680:HDI
651:GDP
4842::
4148:}}
4144:{{
4130:.
4122:.
4112:.
4108:,
3908:.
3889:^
3854:^
3827:^
3784:^
3741:^
3702:^
3679:^
3652:^
3588:^
3571:^
3414:^
3377:,
3352:ɑː
3342::
3340:US
3336:,
3323:aɪ
3313::
3311:UK
3240:.
2800:.
2785:.
2712:.
2647:.
2520:.
2454:.
2446:,
2299:.
2271:.
2263:,
2240:.
2196:.
2051:II
764:ZR
378:,
4245:e
4238:t
4231:v
4217:.
4202:.
4154:)
4140:.
4094:.
4092:.
4053:"
4043:.
4009:.
3975:.
3952:.
3922:.
3634:.
3523:.
3361:/
3355:ˈ
3349:z
3346:/
3332:/
3326:ˈ
3320:z
3317:/
3299:.
3285:(
2146:e
2139:t
2132:v
2053:)
2045:(
1972:)
1968:(
1542:e
1535:t
1528:v
1437:e
1430:t
1423:v
969:e
962:t
955:v
878:e
871:t
864:v
733:)
725:(
709:)
705:(
382:)
126:)
122:(
110:)
106:(
94:)
90:(
78:)
74:(
62:)
58:(
38:.
20:)
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