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limitations for this type of source, however: (i) unrejected charged particles accidentally hitting the detectors produce non-negligible random background counts; this compromises measurements after a few muon lifetimes, when the random background exceeds the true decay events; and (ii) the requirement to detect muons one at a time sets a maximum event rate. The background problem can be reduced by the use of electrostatic deflectors to ensure that no muons enter the sample before the decay of the previous muon. PSI and TRIUMF host the two continuous muon sources available for μSR experiments.
701:). In these beams, muons arise from pions decaying at rest inside but near the surface of the production target. Such muons are 100% polarized, ideally monochromatic, and have a very low momentum of 29.8 MeV/c (corresponding to a kinetic energy of 4.1 MeV). They have a range width in matter of the order of 180 mg/cm. The paramount advantage of this type of beam is the ability to use relatively thin samples. Beams of this type are available at PSI (Swiss Muon Source SμS), TRIUMF, J-PARC,
733:
The tunable energy range of such muon beams corresponds to implantation depths in solids of less than a nanometer up to several hundred nanometers. Therefore, the study of magnetic properties as a function of the distance from the surface of the sample is possible. At the present time, PSI is the only facility where such a low-energy muon beam is available on a regular basis. Technical developments have been also conducted at RIKEN-RAL, but with a strongly reduced low-energy muon rate.
1213:, roughly 10 μs. The asymmetry in the muon decay correlates the positron emission and the muon spin directions. The simplest example is when the spin direction of all muons remains constant in time after implantation (no motion). In this case the asymmetry shows up as an imbalance between the positron counts in two equivalent detectors placed in front and behind the sample, along the beam axis. Each of them records an exponentially decaying rate as a function of the time
33:
772:
after the incoming muon pulse, strongly reducing the accidental background counts. The virtual absence of background allows the extension of the time window for measurements up to about ten times the muon mean lifetime. The principal downside is that the width of the muon pulse limits the time resolution. ISIS Neutron and Muon Source and J-PARC are the two
1936:
order for it to effectively influence the probe's dynamics: for every excitation interacting with the muon (lattice vibrations, charge and electronic spin waves) only those spectral components very closely matching the muon precession frequency in the specific experimental condition can cause a significant muon spin motion.
666:
Although such a high energy beam requires the use of suitable moderators and samples with sufficient thickness, it guarantees a homogeneous implantation of the muons in the sample volume. Such beams are also used to study specimens inside of recipients, e.g. samples inside pressure cells. Such muon beams are available at
1352:
for the detector looking towards and away from the spin arrow, respectively. Considering that the huge muon spin polarization is completely outside thermal equilibrium, a dynamical relaxation towards the equilibrium unpolarized state typically shows up in the count rate, as an additional decay factor
1935:
Resonance techniques are often characterized by the use of resonant circuits, which is not the case for muon spin spectroscopy. However the true resonant nature of all these techniques, muon spectroscopy included, lies in the very narrow, resonant requirement upon any time dependent perturbation in
732:
ions (i.e., Mu or μ e e) in vacuum. In 1987, the slow μ production rate was increased 100-fold using thin-film rare-gas solid moderators, producing a usable flux of low-energy positive muons. This production technique was subsequently adopted by PSI for their low-energy positive muon beam facility.
1364:
A special case of LF μSR is Zero Field (ZF) μSR, when the external magnetic field is zero. This experimental condition is particularly important since it allows to probe any internal quasi-static (i.e. static on the muon time-scale) magnetic field of field distribution at the muon site. Internal
789:
The muons are implanted into the sample of interest where they lose energy very quickly. Fortunately, this deceleration process occurs in such a way that it does not jeopardize a μSR measurement. On one side it is very fast (much faster than 100 ps), which is much shorter than a typical μSR time
771:
hitting the production target are bunched into short, intense, and widely separated pulses that provide a similar time structure in the secondary muon beam. An advantage of pulsed muon sources is that the event rate is only limited by detector construction. Furthermore, detectors are active only
665:
with a field of several tesla. If the pion momentum is not too high, a large fraction of the pions will have decayed before they reach the end of the solenoid. In the laboratory frame the polarization of a high-energy muon beam is limited to about 80% and its energy is of the order of ~40-50MeV.
759:
muon sources no dominating time structure is present. By selecting an appropriate incoming muon rate, muons are implanted into the sample one-by-one. The main advantage is that the time resolution is solely determined by the detector construction and the read-out electronics. There are two main
1892:(JINR) in Dubna, Russia. The International Society for μSR Spectroscopy (ISMS) exists to promote the worldwide advancement of μSR. Membership in the society is open free of charge to all individuals in academia, government laboratories and industry who have an interest in the society's goals.
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More generally speaking, muon spin spectroscopy includes any study of the interactions of the muon's magnetic moment with its surroundings when implanted into any kind of matter. Its two most notable features are its ability to study local environments, due to the short effective range of muon
130:
216:
interactions with matter, and the characteristic time-window (10 – 10 s) of the dynamical processes in atomic, molecular and condensed media. The closest parallel to μSR is "pulsed NMR", in which one observes time-dependent transverse nuclear polarization or the so-called "
1824:
on temperature and magnetic field directly indicates the symmetry of the superconducting gap. Muon spin spectroscopy provides a way to measure the penetration depth, and so has been used to study high-temperature cuprate superconductors since their discovery in 1986.
439:
1365:
quasi-static fields may appear spontaneously, not induced by the magnetic response of the sample to an external field They are produced by disordered nuclear magnetic moments or, more importantly, by ordered electron magnetic moments and orbital currents.
1606:
Mrad(sT), the frequency spectrum obtained by means of this experimental arrangement provides a direct measure of the internal magnetic field intensity distribution. The distribution produces an additional decay factor of the experimental asymmetry
254:. Indeed, with one muon hitting each square centimeter of the earth's surface every minute, the muons constitute the foremost constituent of cosmic rays arriving at ground level. However, μSR experiments require muon fluxes of the order of
817:, markedly distinguished by their electronic (charge) state. The spectroscopy of a muon chemically bound to an unpaired electron is remarkably different from that of all other muon states, which motivates the historical distinction in
1615:
1529:
196:, muon spin spectroscopy is also known as μSR. The acronym stands for muon spin rotation, relaxation, or resonance, depending respectively on whether the muon spin motion is predominantly a rotation (more precisely a
133:
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137:
136:
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131:
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Harshman, D. R.; Mills, A. P. Jr.; Beveridge, J. L.; Kendall, K. R.; Morris, G. D.; Senba, M.; Warren, J. B.; Rupaal, A. S.; Turner, J. H. (1987). "Generation of Slow
Positive Muons from Solid Rare-Gas Moderators".
138:
1318:
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spin spectroscopy is an atomic, molecular and condensed matter experimental technique that exploits nuclear detection methods. In analogy with the acronyms for the previously established spectroscopies
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135:
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are ejected with spin antiparallel to their momentum in the pion rest frame. This is the key to provide spin-polarised muon beams. According to the value of the pion momentum different types of
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In addition to the above-mentioned classification based on energy, muon beams are also divided according to the time structure of the particle accelerator, i.e. continuous or pulsed.
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to deduce the sample properties. In contrast, the implanted muons are not diffracted but remain in a sample until they decay. Only a careful analysis of the decay product (i.e. a
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1350:
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220:" of the nuclear polarization. However, a key difference is that in μSR one uses a specifically implanted spin (the muon's) and does not rely on internal nuclear spins.
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984:) to an anisotropic distribution of the positron emission with respect to the spin direction of the μ at the decay time. The positron emission probability is given by
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As with many of the other nuclear methods, μSR relies on discoveries and developments made in the field of particle physics. Following the discovery of the muon by
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with energy down to the eV-keV range) can be obtained by further reducing the energy of an
Arizona beam by utilizing the energy-loss characteristics of large
134:
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is an intrinsic asymmetry parameter determined by the weak decay mechanism. This anisotropic emission constitutes in fact the basics for the μSR technique.
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antiparallel to their linear momentum (likewise only right-handed anti-neutrino are found in nature). Since the pion is spinless both the neutrino and the
223:
Although particles are used as a probe, μSR is not a diffraction technique. A clear distinction between the μSR technique and those involving neutrons or
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in matter and on the detection of the influence of the atomic, molecular or crystalline surroundings on their spin motion. The motion of the muon
50:
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is measured over a statistical ensemble of implanted muons and it depends on further experimental parameters, such as the beam spin polarization
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is due to the magnetic field experienced by the particle and may provide information on its local environment in a very similar way to other
1889:
1223:
990:
1357:. A magnetic field parallel to the initial muon spin direction probes the dynamical relaxation rate as a function of the additional muon
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for the production of a muon beam. This is presently achieved at few large scale facilities in the world: the CMMS continuous source at
165:
1178:=1/3 is obtained if all emitted positrons are detected with the same efficiency, irrespective of their energy. Practically, values of
306:
The collision of an accelerated proton beam (typical energy 600 MeV) with the nuclei of a production target produces positive pions (
97:
116:
69:
806:) in origin and do not interact with the muon spin, so that the muon is thermalized without any significant loss of polarization.
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with the field direction. In this case the muon spin precession describes a cone which results in both a longitudinal component,
1775:, of the total asymmetry. ZF μSR experiments in the presence of a spontaneous internal field fall into this category as well.
519:
193:
1361:, without introducing additional coherent spin dynamics. This experimental arrangement is called Longitudinal Field (LF) μSR.
76:
2152:
1877:
434:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}p+p&\rightarrow &p+n+\pi ^{+}\\p+n&\rightarrow &n+n+\pi ^{+}\\\end{array}}}
54:
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are formed by the pions escaping the production target at high energies. They are collected over a certain solid angle by
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Muon spin rotation and relaxation are mostly performed with positive muons. They are well suited to the study of
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The decay of the positive muon into a positron and two neutrinos occurs via the weak interaction process after a
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A more general case is when the initial muon spin direction (coinciding with the detector axis) forms an angle
814:
679:
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The figure shows the precession cone of the muon spin around the external magnetic field, that forms an angle
204:), a relaxation towards an equilibrium direction, or a more complex dynamic dictated by the addition of short
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a collective screening cannot take place and the muon will usually pick up one electron and form a so-called
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Other important fields of application of μSR exploit the fact that positive muons capture electrons to form
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239:) provides information about the interaction between the implanted muon and its environment in the sample.
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electrons. Thus, in metals, the muon is not bound to a single electron, hence it is in the so-called
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window (up to 20 μs), and on the other side, all the processes involved during the deceleration are
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solid moderators. This technique was pioneered by researchers at the TRIUMF cyclotron facility in
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2027:
Harshman, D. R.; et al. (1986). "Observation of Low Energy μ Emission from Solid
Surfaces".
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in some of the simplest types of chemical reactions, as well as the early stages of formation of
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655:
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muon states really behave like paramagnetic centers, according to the standard definition of a
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as the moderating solid. The same 1986 paper also reported the observation of negative
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of the muons being produced: high-energy, surface or "Arizona", and ultra-slow muon beams.
724:. It was christened with the acronym μSOL (muon separator on-line) and initially employed
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Integrated
Infrastructure Initiative for Neutron Scattering and Muon Spectroscopy (NMI3)
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2005:
1970:
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in
Tsukuba, Japan. Muon beams are also available at the Laboratory of Nuclear Problems,
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muons per second per square centimeter. Such fluxes can only be obtained in high-energy
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facility in Tokai, Japan, where a new pulsed source is being built to replace that at
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The London penetration depth is one of the most important parameters characterizing a
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in the weak interactions implies that only left-handed neutrinos exist, with their
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17:
1524:{\displaystyle N_{\alpha }(t)=N_{0}\exp(-t/\tau _{\mu })(1+\alpha A\cos \omega t)}
1957:
Pifer, A.E.; Bowen, T.; Kendall, K.R. (1976). "A high stopping density μ+ beam".
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techniques, for example, use the change in energy and/or momentum of a scattered
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encountered in compounds occurring in nature or artificially produced by modern
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251:
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at the atomic scale inside matter, such as those produced by various kinds of
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Parity violation in the weak interaction leads in this more complicated case (
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in organic chemicals. Muonium is also studied as an analogue of hydrogen in
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970:{\displaystyle \mu ^{+}\rightarrow e^{+}+\nu _{e}+{\bar {\nu }}_{\mu }~.}
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is projecting the development of a high-intensity low-energy muon beam.
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Another simple type of μSR experiment is when implanted all muon spins
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The muon spin motion may be measured over a time scale dictated by the
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768:
729:
232:
1614:
2013:
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1865:
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1313:{\displaystyle N_{\alpha }(t)=N_{0}\exp(-t/\tau _{\mu })(1+\alpha A)}
1054:{\displaystyle W(\theta )d\theta \propto (1+a\cos \theta )d\theta ~,}
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1611:. This method is usually referred to as Transverse Field (TF) μSR.
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in 1936, pioneer experiments on its properties were performed with
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is the angle between the positron trajectory and the μ-spin, and
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because its inverse square provides a measure of the density
153:, is an experimental technique based on the implantation of
1852:, where hydrogen is one of the most ubiquitous impurities.
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coherently around the external magnetic field of modulus
565:{\displaystyle \pi ^{+}\rightarrow \mu ^{+}+\nu _{\mu }.}
644:
Muon beams are classified into three types based on the
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in
Vancouver, Canada; the SμS continuous source at the
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and directed onto a decay section consisting of a long
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atom. This allows investigation of the largest known
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state and behaves like a free muon. In insulators or
833:. For example, in most metallic samples, which are
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which have been developed during the last 50 years.
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2133:Video - What are muons and how are they produced?
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685:The second type of muon beam is often called the
1768:{\displaystyle A\sin ^{2}\theta \cos \omega t}
1416:between the same two detectors, according to
873:atom. This is the prototype of the so-called
837:, the muon's positive charge is collectively
693:beam (recalling the pioneering work of Pifer
8:
776:muon sources available for μSR experiments.
1992:Bowen, T. (1985). "The Surface Muon Beam".
636:-beams are available for μSR measurements.
1727:, and a transverse precessing component,
708:Positive muon beams of even lower energy (
142:Muon Spin Resonance basic principle (Musr)
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117:Learn how and when to remove this message
1217:elapsed from implantation, according to
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1832:atoms which behave chemically as light
1563:{\displaystyle \omega =\gamma _{\mu }B}
1599:{\displaystyle \gamma _{\mu }=851.616}
1155:
444:From the subsequent weak decay of the
2128:The NMI3 Muon Joint Research Activity
1638:with the initial muon spin direction
212:technique to align the probing spin.
7:
1890:Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
1880:in Chilton, United Kingdom; and the
1876:and RIKEN-RAL pulsed sources at the
1872:(PSI) in Villigen, Switzerland; the
227:is that scattering is not involved.
55:adding citations to reliable sources
857:(Mu=μ+e), which has similar size (
25:
1720:{\displaystyle A\cos ^{2}\theta }
809:The positive muons usually adopt
208:pulses. μSR does not require any
475:{\displaystyle \tau _{\pi ^{+}}}
172:(ESR or EPR) and, more closely,
31:
1959:Nuclear Instruments and Methods
1198:≈ 0.25 are routinely obtained.
42:needs additional citations for
1878:Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
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1534:Since the Larmor frequency is
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881:Detection of muon polarization
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333:) via the possible reactions:
1:
1917:Perturbed angular correlation
1345:{\displaystyle \alpha =\pm 1}
287:{\displaystyle 10^{4}-10^{7}}
1979:10.1016/0029-554X(76)90823-5
1874:ISIS Neutron and Muon Source
703:ISIS Neutron and Muon Source
640:Energy classes of muon beams
482:= 26.03 ns) positive muons (
2049:10.1103/PhysRevLett.56.2850
2169:
1912:Nuclear magnetic resonance
1660:{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}
174:nuclear magnetic resonance
2093:10.1103/PhysRevB.36.8850
1147:{\displaystyle P_{\mu }}
815:crystallographic lattice
629:{\displaystyle \mu ^{+}}
602:{\displaystyle \mu ^{+}}
502:{\displaystyle \mu ^{+}}
326:{\displaystyle \pi ^{+}}
66:"Muon spin spectroscopy"
2029:Physical Review Letters
1684:{\displaystyle \theta }
1631:{\displaystyle \theta }
1409:{\displaystyle \omega }
1077:{\displaystyle \theta }
825:states. Note that many
780:Spectroscopic technique
170:electron spin resonance
1870:Paul Scherrer Institut
1842:kinetic isotope effect
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652:High-energy muon beams
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147:Muon spin spectroscopy
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2153:Scientific techniques
1817:. The dependence of
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699:University of Arizona
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509:) are formed via the
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296:particle accelerators
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2118:μSR basic literature
2079:(16): 8850–8853(R).
1862:particle accelerator
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218:free induction decay
168:techniques, such as
51:improve this article
2085:1987PhRvB..36.8850H
2041:1986PhRvL..56.2850H
2006:1985PhT....38g..22B
1971:1976NucIM.135...39P
1154:, close to one, as
893:= 2.197034(21) μs:
800:electron scattering
229:Neutron diffraction
18:Muon spin resonance
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2073:Physical Review B
2035:(26): 2850–2853.
1793:superconductivity
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1385:{\displaystyle B}
1191:{\displaystyle A}
1171:{\displaystyle A}
1156:already mentioned
1120:{\displaystyle A}
1097:{\displaystyle a}
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867:ionization energy
835:Pauli paramagnets
785:Muon implantation
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469:
468:
440:
438:
437:
432:
430:
426:
425:
384:
383:
332:
330:
329:
324:
322:
321:
293:
291:
290:
285:
283:
282:
270:
269:
248:Carl D. Anderson
244:Seth Neddermeyer
149:, also known as
140:
122:
115:
111:
108:
102:
100:
59:
35:
27:
21:
2168:
2167:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2138:
2137:
2114:
2109:
2108:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2026:
2025:
2021:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1898:
1860:μSR requires a
1858:
1822:
1811:
1785:magnetic fields
1781:
1737:
1729:
1728:
1701:
1693:
1692:
1673:
1672:
1640:
1639:
1620:
1619:
1580:
1575:
1574:
1547:
1536:
1535:
1478:
1448:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1398:
1397:
1374:
1373:
1325:
1324:
1279:
1249:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1212:
1180:
1179:
1160:
1159:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1109:
1108:
1086:
1085:
1066:
1065:
989:
988:
942:
929:
916:
903:
898:
897:
892:
883:
787:
782:
750:
718:Vancouver, B.C.
705:and RIKEN-RAL.
660:superconducting
642:
616:
611:
610:
589:
584:
583:
549:
536:
523:
518:
517:
489:
484:
483:
460:
455:
450:
449:
448:(MEAN lifetime
428:
427:
417:
403:
398:
386:
385:
375:
361:
356:
338:
337:
313:
308:
307:
304:
302:Muon production
274:
261:
256:
255:
210:radio-frequency
206:radio frequency
200:around a still
182:
129:
123:
112:
106:
103:
60:
58:
48:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2166:
2164:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2113:
2112:External links
2110:
2107:
2106:
2062:
2019:
1984:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1897:
1894:
1857:
1854:
1850:semiconductors
1820:
1809:
1804:superconductor
1780:
1777:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1716:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1680:
1653:
1650:
1627:
1595:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1532:
1531:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1405:
1381:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1321:
1320:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1210:
1187:
1167:
1141:
1137:
1116:
1093:
1073:
1062:
1061:
1050:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
978:
977:
966:
958:
951:
948:
941:
936:
932:
928:
923:
919:
915:
910:
906:
890:
882:
879:
851:semiconductors
841:by a cloud of
786:
783:
781:
778:
749:
739:
641:
638:
623:
619:
596:
592:
573:
572:
561:
556:
552:
548:
543:
539:
535:
530:
526:
511:two body decay
496:
492:
467:
463:
458:
442:
441:
424:
420:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
391:
388:
387:
382:
378:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
349:
346:
345:
320:
316:
303:
300:
281:
277:
273:
268:
264:
202:magnetic field
181:
178:
155:spin-polarized
125:
124:
39:
37:
30:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2165:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2066:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1943:
1932:
1929:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1823:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1776:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1714:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1678:
1648:
1625:
1616:
1612:
1610:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1573:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1431:
1427:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1403:
1395:
1379:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1360:
1359:Zeeman energy
1356:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1209:a few times τ
1208:
1204:
1199:
1185:
1165:
1157:
1139:
1135:
1114:
1105:
1091:
1071:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1000:
994:
987:
986:
985:
983:
964:
956:
946:
939:
934:
930:
926:
921:
917:
908:
904:
896:
895:
894:
888:
887:mean lifetime
880:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
813:sites of the
812:
807:
805:
801:
797:
793:
784:
779:
777:
775:
770:
767:muon sources
766:
761:
758:
753:
747:
743:
740:
738:
736:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
706:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
664:
661:
657:
653:
649:
647:
639:
637:
621:
617:
594:
590:
581:
577:
559:
554:
550:
546:
541:
537:
528:
524:
516:
515:
514:
512:
494:
490:
465:
461:
456:
447:
422:
418:
414:
411:
408:
405:
395:
392:
389:
380:
376:
372:
369:
366:
363:
353:
350:
347:
336:
335:
334:
318:
314:
301:
299:
297:
279:
275:
271:
266:
262:
253:
249:
245:
240:
238:
234:
230:
226:
221:
219:
213:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
186:
179:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
156:
152:
148:
121:
118:
110:
107:December 2010
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82:
78:
75:
71:
68: –
67:
63:
62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
2148:Spectroscopy
2076:
2072:
2065:
2032:
2028:
2022:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1965:(1): 39–46.
1962:
1958:
1952:
1931:
1859:
1827:
1818:
1815:Cooper pairs
1807:
1801:
1782:
1779:Applications
1670:
1608:
1533:
1367:
1363:
1354:
1322:
1214:
1206:
1200:
1106:
1063:
979:
884:
875:paramagnetic
874:
863:reduced mass
846:
826:
822:
819:paramagnetic
818:
811:interstitial
808:
788:
773:
764:
762:
756:
754:
751:
745:
741:
709:
707:
694:
690:
686:
684:
651:
650:
643:
574:
443:
305:
241:
222:
214:
183:
180:Introduction
150:
146:
145:
113:
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
1994:Phys. Today
859:Bohr radius
847:diamagnetic
827:diamagnetic
823:diamagnetic
252:cosmic rays
2142:Categories
1944:References
1856:Facilities
1396:frequency
1203:muon decay
843:conduction
831:paramagnet
798:of atoms,
796:ionization
757:continuous
748:muon beams
742:Continuous
198:precession
77:newspapers
2000:(7): 22.
1789:magnetism
1760:ω
1757:
1751:θ
1748:
1715:θ
1712:
1679:θ
1652:^
1626:θ
1586:μ
1582:γ
1570:, with a
1553:μ
1549:γ
1542:ω
1513:ω
1510:
1501:α
1484:μ
1480:τ
1468:−
1462:
1432:α
1404:ω
1337:±
1331:α
1302:α
1285:μ
1281:τ
1269:−
1263:
1233:α
1140:μ
1072:θ
1043:θ
1034:θ
1031:
1013:∝
1010:θ
1001:θ
957:μ
950:¯
947:ν
931:ν
914:→
905:μ
792:Coulombic
697:from the
680:RIKEN-RAL
618:μ
591:μ
555:μ
551:ν
538:μ
534:→
525:π
491:μ
462:π
457:τ
419:π
401:→
377:π
359:→
315:π
272:−
2057:10033111
1896:See also
1846:radicals
1838:hydrogen
1834:isotopes
871:hydrogen
839:screened
714:band gap
663:solenoid
237:positron
2101:9942727
2081:Bibcode
2037:Bibcode
2002:Bibcode
1967:Bibcode
1907:Muonium
1836:of the
1830:muonium
1791:and/or
1594:851.616
1370:precess
877:state.
869:to the
855:muonium
769:protons
730:muonium
691:Arizona
687:surface
233:neutron
176:(NMR).
91:scholar
2099:
2055:
1882:J-PARC
1866:TRIUMF
1394:Larmor
1064:where
1046:
962:
865:, and
774:pulsed
765:pulsed
746:pulsed
735:J-PARC
722:Canada
695:et al.
676:J-PARC
672:TRIUMF
646:energy
225:X-rays
93:
86:
79:
72:
64:
1923:Notes
1323:with
446:pions
158:muons
98:JSTOR
84:books
2097:PMID
2053:PMID
1902:Muon
1207:i.e.
889:of τ
821:and
755:For
744:vs.
678:and
580:spin
246:and
192:and
185:Muon
162:spin
70:news
2089:doi
2045:doi
2010:doi
1975:doi
1963:135
1886:KEK
1813:of
1754:cos
1739:sin
1703:cos
1507:cos
1459:exp
1260:exp
1028:cos
861:),
763:At
726:LiF
689:or
668:PSI
194:ESR
190:NMR
151:μSR
53:by
2144::
2095:.
2087:.
2077:36
2075:.
2051:.
2043:.
2033:56
2031:.
2008:.
1998:38
1996:.
1973:.
1961:.
1799:.
1205:,
802:,
720:,
682:.
674:,
670:,
513::
276:10
263:10
2103:.
2091::
2083::
2059:.
2047::
2039::
2016:.
2012::
2004::
1981:.
1977::
1969::
1821:s
1819:n
1810:s
1808:n
1763:t
1743:2
1735:A
1707:2
1699:A
1649:x
1609:A
1591:=
1558:B
1545:=
1519:)
1516:t
1504:A
1498:+
1495:1
1492:(
1489:)
1475:/
1471:t
1465:(
1454:0
1450:N
1446:=
1443:)
1440:t
1437:(
1428:N
1380:B
1355:A
1340:1
1334:=
1308:)
1305:A
1299:+
1296:1
1293:(
1290:)
1276:/
1272:t
1266:(
1255:0
1251:N
1247:=
1244:)
1241:t
1238:(
1229:N
1215:t
1211:μ
1186:A
1166:A
1136:P
1115:A
1092:a
1049:,
1040:d
1037:)
1025:a
1022:+
1019:1
1016:(
1007:d
1004:)
998:(
995:W
965:.
940:+
935:e
927:+
922:+
918:e
909:+
891:μ
794:(
622:+
595:+
560:.
547:+
542:+
529:+
495:+
466:+
423:+
415:+
412:n
409:+
406:n
396:n
393:+
390:p
381:+
373:+
370:n
367:+
364:p
354:p
351:+
348:p
319:+
280:7
267:4
120:)
114:(
109:)
105:(
95:·
88:·
81:·
74:·
47:.
20:)
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