703:, part of a whole family of FF proteins. Felix Rey, of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, has constructed the 3D structure of the EFF-1 protein and shown it does the work of linking one cell to another, in viral infections. The fact that all known cell fusion molecules are viral in origin suggests that they have been vitally important to the inter-cellular communication systems that enabled multicellularity. Without the ability of cellular fusion, colonies could have formed, but anything even as complex as a sponge would not have been possible.
4669:
368:
611:
497:(cooperation) of different species of single-cell organisms, each with different roles. Over time these organisms would become so dependent on each other that they would not be able to survive independently, eventually leading to the incorporation of their genomes into one multicellular organism. Each respective organism would become a separate lineage of differentiated cells within the newly created species.
4679:
31:
685:(MGEs) have recently been identified as playing a crucial role in the differentiation of multicellular tissues and organs and even in sexual reproduction, in the fusion of egg cells and sperm. Such fused cells are also involved in metazoan membranes such as those that prevent chemicals from crossing the
899:
Whether all of these can be seen as advantages however is debatable: The vast majority of living organisms are single celled, and even in terms of biomass, single celled organisms are far more successful than animals, although not plants. Rather than seeing traits such as longer lifespans and greater
764:
The snowball Earth hypothesis in regards to multicellularity proposes that the
Cryogenian period in Earth's history could have been the catalyst for the evolution of complex multicellular life. Brocks suggests that the time between the Sturtian Glacian and the more recent Marinoan Glacian allowed for
711:
This theory suggests that the oxygen available in the atmosphere of early Earth could have been the limiting factor for the emergence of multicellular life. This hypothesis is based on the correlation between the emergence of multicellular life and the increase of oxygen levels during this time. This
800:
that can turn single-celled organisms into multicellular ones. This would demonstrate the possibility of such an event. Unicellular species can relatively easily acquire mutations that make them attach to each other—the first step towards multicellularity. Multiple normally unicellular species have
371:
370:
372:
305:) has often been described as a loss of multicellularity and an atavistic reversion towards a unicellular-like state. Many genes responsible for the establishment of multicellularity that originated around the appearance of metazoans are deregulated in cancer cells, including genes that control
369:
822:. "Snowflake" yeast grow into multicellular clusters that sediment quickly; they were identified by directed evolution. More recently (2024), snowflake yeast were subject to over 3,000 generations of further directed evolution, forming macroscopic assemblies on the scale of
921:
must have substantially changed so that individual cells become more specialized in their function relative to reproduction and survival. As the multicellular organism emerged, gene expression patterns became compartmentalized between cells that specialized in reproduction
777:
The predation hypothesis suggests that to avoid being eaten by predators, simple single-celled organisms evolved multicellularity to make it harder to be consumed as prey. Herron et al. performed laboratory evolution experiments on the single-celled green alga,
599:) whereas for the majority of multicellular types (those that evolved within aquatic environments), multicellularity occurs as a consequence of cells failing to separate following division. The mechanism of this latter colony formation can be as simple as incomplete
578:
form from individual amoeboid cells, like syncitial tissues of some multicellular organisms, not the other way round. To be deemed valid, this theory needs a demonstrable example and mechanism of generation of a multicellular organism from a pre-existing syncytium.
104:. However, it can often be hard to separate colonial protists from true multicellular organisms, because the two concepts are not distinct; colonial protists have been dubbed "pluricellular" rather than "multicellular". There are also macroscopic organisms that are
916:
associated with reproduction and survival likely changed. In the unicellular state, genes associated with reproduction and survival are expressed in a way that enhances the fitness of individual cells, but after the transition to multicellularity, the pattern of
874:
predation, the "clump" becomes a persistent structure: only some cells become propagules. Some populations go further and evolved multi-celled propagules: instead of peeling off single cells from the clump, the clump now reproduces by peeling off smaller clumps.
633:, the latter of which consists of up to 500–50,000 cells (depending on the species), only a fraction of which reproduce. For example, in one species 25–35 cells reproduce, 8 asexually and around 15–25 sexually. However, it can often be hard to separate colonial
3371:
Grochau-Wright ZI, Nedelcu AM, Michod RE. The
Genetics of Fitness Reorganization during the Transition to Multicellularity: The Volvocine regA-like Family as a Model. Genes (Basel). 2023 Apr 19;14(4):941. doi: 10.3390/genes14040941. PMID 37107699; PMCID:
508:. In these cases, it is extremely doubtful whether either species would survive very long if the other became extinct. However, the problem with this theory is that it is still not known how each organism's DNA could be incorporated into one single
3048:
Smukalla, Scott; Caldara, Marina; Pochet, Nathalie; Beauvais, Anne; Guadagnini, Stephanie; Yan, Chen; Vinces, Marcelo D.; Jansen, An; Prevost, Marie
Christine; Latgé, Jean-Paul; Fink, Gerald R.; Foster, Kevin R.; Verstrepen, Kevin J. (2008-11-14).
402:). A third hypothesis is that as a unicellular organism divided, the daughter cells failed to separate, resulting in a conglomeration of identical cells in one organism, which could later develop specialized tissues. This is what plant and animal
2358:
Mikhailov, Kirill V.; Konstantinova, Anastasiya V.; Nikitin, Mikhail A.; Troshin, Peter V.; Rusin, Leonid Yu.; Lyubetsky, Vassily A.; Panchin, Yuri V.; Mylnikov, Alexander P.; Moroz, Leonid L.; Kumar, Sudhir; Aleoshin, Vladimir V. (2009).
3173:
Bozdag, G. Ozan; Zamani-Dahaj, Seyed
Alireza; Day, Thomas C.; Kahn, Penelope C.; Burnetti, Anthony J.; Lac, Dung T.; Tong, Kai; Conlin, Peter L.; Balwani, Aishwarya H.; Dyer, Eva L.; Yunker, Peter J.; Ratcliff, William C. (2023-05-25).
1282:
Popper, Zoë A.; Michel, Gurvan; Hervé, Cécile; Domozych, David S.; Willats, William G.T.; Tuohy, Maria G.; Kloareg, Bernard; Stengel, Dagmar B. (2011). "Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: From algae to flowering plants".
870:; this single cell asexually reproduces by undergoing 2–5 rounds of mitosis as a small clump of non-motile cells, then all cells become single-celled propagules and the clump dissolves. With a few generations under
891:
advantages of an increase in size without its limitations. They can have longer lifespans as they can continue living when individual cells die. Multicellularity also permits increasing complexity by allowing
398:. A membrane would then form around each nucleus (and the cellular space and organelles occupied in the space), thereby resulting in a group of connected cells in one organism (this mechanism is observable in
887:: single cells with increased size have a decreased surface-to-volume ratio and have difficulty absorbing sufficient nutrients and transporting them throughout the cell. Multicellular organisms thus have the
1460:
595:, which suggests the symbiosis of different species) led to a multicellular organism. At least some - it is presumed land-evolved - multicellularity occurs by cells separating and then rejoining (e.g.,
373:
205:
and red algae. The first evidence of multicellular organization, which is when unicellular organisms coordinate behaviors and may be an evolutionary precursor to true multicellularity, is from
2058:(paperback). An excellent book on the early history of life, very accessible to the non-specialist; includes extensive discussions of early signatures, fossilization, and organization of life.
413:
Because the first multicellular organisms were simple, soft organisms lacking bone, shell, or other hard body parts, they are not well preserved in the fossil record. One exception may be the
2981:
Herron, Matthew D.; Borin, Joshua M.; Boswell, Jacob C.; Walker, Jillian; Chen, I.-Chen
Kimberly; Knox, Charles A.; Boyd, Margrethe; Rosenzweig, Frank; Ratcliff, William C. (2019-02-20).
930:). As the transition progressed, cells that specialized tended to lose their own individuality and would no longer be able to both survive and reproduce outside the context of the group.
621:
groups together in a colony that moves as one to a new location. Some of these amoeba then slightly differentiate from each other. Other examples of colonial organisation in protista are
1802:
Gaspar, T.; Hagege, D.; Kevers, C.; Penel, C.; Crèvecoeur, M.; Engelmann, I.; Greppin, H.; Foidart, J. M. (1991). "When plant teratomas turn into cancers in the absence of pathogens".
4401:
301:, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development. Changes in tissue morphology can be observed during this process. Cancer in animals (
765:
planktonic algae to dominate the seas making way for rapid diversity of life for both plant and animal lineages. Complex life quickly emerged and diversified in what is known as the
2634:
Mohler, William A.; Shemer, Gidi; del Campo, Jacob J.; Valansi, Clari; Opoku-Serebuoh, Eugene; Scranton, Victoria; Assaf, Nirit; White, John G.; Podbilewicz, Benjamin (March 2002).
3247:
Herron, Matthew D.; Borin, Joshua M.; Boswell, Jacob C.; Walker, Jillian; Chen, I-Chen
Kimberly; Knox, Charles A.; Boyd, Margrethe; Rosenzweig, Frank; Ratcliff, William C. (2019).
734:
is a geological event where the entire surface of the Earth is covered in snow and ice. The term can either refer to individual events (of which there were at least two) or to the
617:
The advantage of the
Colonial Theory hypothesis is that it has been seen to occur independently in 16 different protoctistan phyla. For instance, during food shortages the amoeba
474:
evolution time to mimic similarities and accumulate differences between groups of modern and extinct ancestral species. Modern phylogenetics uses sophisticated techniques such as
826:. Changes in multiple genes were identified. In addition, the authors reported that only anaerobic cultures of snowflake yeast evolved this trait, while the aerobic ones did not.
560:. However, the simple presence of multiple nuclei is not enough to support the theory. Multiple nuclei of ciliates are dissimilar and have clear differentiated functions. The
1384:
1233:
524:), it has happened only extremely rarely and, even then, the genomes of the endosymbionts have retained an element of distinction, separately replicating their DNA during
209:-like organisms that lived 3.0–3.5 billion years ago. To reproduce, true multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from
2681:
Pérez-Vargas, Jimena; Krey, Thomas; Valansi, Clari; Avinoam, Ori; Haouz, Ahmed; Jamin, Marc; Raveh-Barak, Hadas; Podbilewicz, Benjamin; Rey, Félix A. (2014).
3450:
1197:
2579:
Mi, S.; Lee, X.; Li, X.; Veldman, G. M.; Finnerty, H.; Racie, L.; Lavallie, E.; Tang, X. Y.; Edouard, P.; Howes, S.; Keith Jr, J. C.; McCoy, J. M. (2000).
796:
It is impossible to know what happened when single cells evolved into multicellular organisms hundreds of millions of years ago. However, we can identify
637:
from true multicellular organisms, as the two concepts are not distinct; colonial protists have been dubbed "pluricellular" rather than "multicellular".
237:
Loss of multicellularity occurred in some groups. Fungi are predominantly multicellular, though early diverging lineages are largely unicellular (e.g.,
4654:
4109:
1461:"The principle of counter-directional morphological evolution and its significance for constructing the megasystem of protists and other eukaryotes"
2854:
2129:
Chen, L.; Xiao, S.; Pang, K.; Zhou, C.; Yuan, X. (2014). "Cell differentiation and germ–soma separation in
Ediacaran animal embryo-like fossils".
3460:
761:" and the snowball Earth, simple life could have had time to innovate and evolve, which could later lead to the evolution of multicellularity.
3106:
Oud, Bart; Guadalupe-Medina, Victor; Nijkamp, Jurgen F.; De Ridder, Dick; Pronk, Jack T.; Van Maris, Antonius J. A.; Daran, Jean-Marc (2013).
4417:
4177:
2238:
2198:
2068:
El Albani, Abderrazak; et al. (1 July 2010). "Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago".
1128:
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532:, although dependent on each other for survival, have to separately reproduce and then re-form to create one individual organism once more.
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One hypothesis for the origin of multicellularity is that a group of function-specific cells aggregated into a slug-like mass called a
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3822:
222:
2360:
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Some authors suggest that the origin of multicellularity, at least in
Metazoa, occurred due to a transition from temporal to spatial
2055:
2047:
1013:
417:, which may have left a chemical signature in ancient rocks. The earliest fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested
1405:
4234:
3832:
2918:
Brocks, Jochen J.; Jarrett, Amber J.M.; Sirantoine, Eva; Hallmann, Christian; Hoshino, Yosuke; Liyanage, Tharika (August 2017).
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is not necessary for complex life and therefore is unlikely to have been the driving factor for the origin of multicellularity.
4479:
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281:). In other groups, generally parasites, a reduction of multicellularity occurred, in the number or types of cells (e.g., the
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4254:
3998:
3700:
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3742:
4708:
4672:
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1427:
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4114:
2855:"After the boring billion and before the freezing millions: Evolutionary patterns and innovations in the Tonian Period"
1491:
Medina, M.; Collins, A. G.; Taylor, J. W.; Valentine, J. W.; Lipps, J. H.; Zettler, L. A. Amaral; Sogin, M. L. (2003).
669:
protein-interaction domain (GK-PID) may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.
4682:
4276:
485:
The evolution of multicellularity could have occurred in several different ways, some of which are described below:
4378:
3552:
428:
2853:
Lyons, Timothy W.; Droser, Mary L.; Lau, Kimberly V.; Porter, Susannah M.; Xiao, Shuhai; Tang, Qing (2018-09-28).
4172:
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3779:
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843:
780:
317:. There is a discussion about the possibility of existence of cancer in other multicellular organisms or even in
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4363:
4266:
4259:
4199:
3947:
3915:
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893:
604:
1694:"Phylostratigraphic tracking of cancer genes suggests a link to the emergence of multicellularity in metazoa"
466:
are more than 500 million years removed from their single-cell ancestors. Such a passage of time allows both
4600:
4530:
4439:
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3413:
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Mills, D. B.; Ward, L. M.; Jones, C.; Sweeten, B.; Forth, M.; Treusch, A. H.; Canfield, D. E. (2014-02-18).
1205:
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841:, it starts forming small colonies, which are harder to ingest due to the larger size. The same is true for
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4119:
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3964:
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3557:
2721:
Slezak, Michael (2016), "No
Viruses? No skin or bones either" (New Scientist, No. 2958, 1 March 2014) p.16
2422:
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size as an advantage, many biologists see these only as examples of diversity, with associated tradeoffs.
837:
699:
39:
500:
This kind of severely co-dependent symbiosis can be seen frequently, such as in the relationship between
267:), but they may be primitively unicellular. Loss of multicellularity is also considered probable in some
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but before the most recent rise in oxygen. Mills concludes that the amount of oxygen present during the
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2138:
2079:
1976:
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1493:"Phylogeny of Opisthokonta and the evolution of multicellularity and complexity in Fungi and Metazoa"
954:
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to constitute them as a single species. Although such symbiosis is theorized to have occurred (e.g.,
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Kirk, D. L. (2005). "A twelve-step program for evolving multicellularity and a division of labor".
1745:"Origin and evolution of animal multicellularity in the light of phylogenomics and cancer genetics"
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and other molecular markers to describe traits that are shared between distantly related lineages.
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line evolved. However, Weismannist development is relatively rare (e.g., vertebrates, arthropods,
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in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants and fungi.
1120:
1114:
814:. One of the first yeast genes found to cause this phenotype is FLO1. A more strikingly clumped
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610:
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do. Another hypothesis is that a primitive cell underwent nucleus division, thereby becoming a
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of the host species. For instance, the two or three symbiotic organisms forming the composite
425:
97:
2581:"Syncytin is a captive retroviral envelope protein involved in human placental morphogenesis"
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1218:
1146:"The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists"
285:, multicellular organisms, earlier thought to be unicellular, are probably extremely reduced
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1992:
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A range of green algae species have been experimentally evolved to form larger clumps. When
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243:
101:
3051:"FLO1 is a variable green beard gene that drives biofilm-like cooperation in budding yeast"
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185:(green algae and land plants), once for animals, once for brown algae, three times in the
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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1980:
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1997:
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and the brain body separation. Two viral components have been identified. The first is
387:
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182:
153:
109:
56:
17:
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1882:
1847:
591:, 1874, proposes that the symbiosis of many organisms of the same species (unlike the
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4204:
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3732:
3727:
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1091:
S. M. Miller (2010). "Volvox, Chlamydomonas, and the evolution of multicellularity".
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has yielded 600 million year old microfossils with evidence of multicellular traits.
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105:
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85:
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784:, using paramecium as a predator. They found that in the presence of this predator,
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2361:"The origin of Metazoa: A transition from temporal to spatial cell differentiation"
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1940:
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342:
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Multicellularity allows an organism to exceed the size limits normally imposed by
649:, rather than through a gradual evolution of cell differentiation, as affirmed in
157:. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups:
4649:
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About 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called
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241:) and there have been numerous reversions to unicellularity across fungi (e.g.,
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30:
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1760:
1550:"Evolution and Cytological Diversification of the Green Seaweeds (Ulvophyceae)"
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is used for sexual reproduction with exchange of genetic material. Slime molds
297:
Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, face the challenge of
79:, whereas a few organisms are partially uni- and partially multicellular, like
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2636:"The Type I Membrane Protein EFF-1 Is Essential for Developmental Cell Fusion"
1988:
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Strickberger's evolution: the integration of genes, organisms and populations
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Life at the Edge of Sight: A Photographic Exploration of the Microbial World
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is called "snowflake", caused by the loss of a single transcription factor
458:) similarities. This is inexact, as living multicellular organisms such as
1932:
1872:
493:
This theory suggests that the first multicellular organisms occurred from
4547:
3895:
3749:
2870:
1953:
Ridley M (2004) Evolution, 3rd edition. Blackwell Publishing, p. 295–297.
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318:
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52:
35:
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1963:
Fairclough, Stephen R.; Dayel, Mark J.; King, Nicole (26 October 2010).
1598:
The gene content of diverse choanoflagellates illuminates animal origins
1446:
Kingdoms and Domains: An illustrated guide to the phyla of life on Earth
1357:
1340:
1113:
Brian Keith Hall; Benedikt Hallgrímsson; Monroe W. Strickberger (2008).
100:
are the result of many identical individuals joining together to form a
4189:
4089:
3937:
3932:
3646:
3398:
2879:
2324:
904:
Gene expression changes in the transition from uni- to multicellularity
678:
650:
634:
588:
525:
451:
282:
190:
158:
2756:
1448:(4th ed.). Amsterdam, NL: Academic Press / Elsevier. p. 116.
1305:
2920:"The rise of algae in Cryogenian oceans and the emergence of animals"
2604:
1923:
1906:
1406:
10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6
1234:"Multicellularity arose several times in the evolution of eukaryotes"
630:
540:
This theory states that a single unicellular organism, with multiple
529:
509:
459:
403:
351:
326:
298:
254:
64:
2503:"Viruses and mobile elements as drivers of evolutionary transitions"
2280:
2255:
693:, which came from a virus. The second identified in 2002 is called
4145:
3954:
3853:
1637:"Cancer tumors as Metazoa 1.0: tapping genes of ancient ancestors"
745:
period and consisted of two global glaciation events known as the
603:, though multicellularity is also typically considered to involve
463:
432:
366:
214:
186:
162:
76:
72:
29:
3384:
1610:
1548:
Cocquyt, E.; Verbruggen, H.; Leliaert, F.; De Clerck, O. (2010).
4104:
3312:
2022:"In a Single-Cell Predator, Clues to the Animal Kingdom's Birth"
1743:
Jacques, F.; Baratchart, E.; Pienta, K.; Hammarlund, E. (2022).
913:
548:
partitions around each of its nuclei. Many protists such as the
390:, which moved as a multicellular unit. This is essentially what
218:
125:
Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times in
3402:
3249:"De novo origins of multicellularity in response to predation"
2983:"De novo origins of multicellularity in response to predation"
1198:"The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition?"
92:
Multicellular organisms arise in various ways, for example by
2554:"An Ancient Virus May Be Responsible for Human Consciousness"
3112:
cause multicellular, fast-sedimenting phenotypes in evolved
1341:"The evolutionary-developmental origins of multicellularity"
329:, but some authors argue that plants do not develop cancer.
2418:"Early metazoan life: divergence, environment and ecology"
3306:
Bar-On, Yinon M.; Phillips, Rob; Milo, Ron (2018-06-19).
2472:"Genetic Flip Helped Organisms Go From One Cell to Many"
757:. suggest that between the period of time known as the "
2733:"Oxygen as a Prerequisite to the Origin of the Metazoa"
3367:
3365:
3363:
741:
The most recent snowball Earth took place during the
359:(e.g., land plants, most algae, many invertebrates).
355:), as a great part of species have the capacity for
4563:
4488:
4392:
4319:
4275:
4130:
4034:
3851:
3810:
3679:
3469:
3176:"De novo evolution of macroscopic multicellularity"
225:. Animals have evolved a considerable diversity of
1034:Lyons, Nicholas A.; Kolter, Roberto (April 2015).
788:does indeed evolve simple multicellular features.
2683:"Structural Basis of Eukaryotic Cell-Cell Fusion"
1965:"Multicellular development in a choanoflagellate"
556:can have several nuclei, lending support to this
1481:Parfrey, L.W. & Lahr, D.J.G. (2013), p. 344.
1036:"On the evolution of bacterial multicellularity"
3120:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2792:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1828:Lauckner, G. (1980). Diseases of protozoa. In:
926:cells) and those that specialized in survival (
337:In some multicellular groups, which are called
1531:Seckbach, Joseph, Chapman, David J. . (2010).
1416:. Archived from the original on March 8, 2012.
1334:
1332:
1191:
1189:
1108:
1106:
912:to multicellular organisms, the expression of
3414:
2788:"Oxygen requirements of the earliest animals"
2496:
2494:
8:
1635:Davies, P. C. W.; Lineweaver, C. H. (2011).
1029:
1027:
1025:
108:though technically unicellular, such as the
43:stained to highlight the nuclei of its cells
27:Organism that consists of more than one cell
1119:(4th ed.). Hall/Hallgrímsson. p.
1002:Chimileski, Scott; Kolter, Roberto (2017).
424:and the fossils of the black shales of the
3421:
3407:
3399:
1907:"Cell cycle. Why don't plants get cancer?"
1535:. New York, NY, U.S.A.: Springer, p. 252,
866:normally starts as a motile single-celled
801:been evolved to exhibit such early steps:
738:all the known total glaciations occurred.
4229:
3343:
3333:
3282:
3272:
3215:
3149:
3139:
3082:
3024:
3006:
2878:
2829:
2811:
2698:
2528:
2518:
2443:
2279:
2256:"Multicellularity: Evolution and the egg"
2186:Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution
1996:
1922:
1881:
1871:
1768:
1719:
1709:
1668:
1565:
1516:
1356:
1304:
1161:
1067:
592:
567:serves the organism's needs, whereas the
4655:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1836:, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK.
1219:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
908:During the evolutionary transition from
609:
96:or by aggregation of many single cells.
1144:Adl, Sina; et al. (October 2005).
965:
2225:Hickman CP, Hickman FM (8 July 1974).
2020:Carroll, Sean B. (December 14, 2010).
1419:
973:Becker, Wayne M.; et al. (2008).
536:The cellularization (syncytial) theory
4418:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
3108:"Genome duplication and mutations in
2416:Erwin, Douglas H. (9 November 2015).
1497:International Journal of Astrobiology
1297:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809
1196:Grosberg, RK; Strathmann, RR (2007).
257:). It may also have occurred in some
83:and social amoebae such as the genus
7:
1692:Domazet-Loso, T.; Tautz, D. (2010).
1232:Parfrey, L.W.; Lahr, D.J.G. (2013).
333:Separation of somatic and germ cells
221:cells), an issue that is studied in
3308:"The biomass distribution on Earth"
2254:Wolpert, L.; Szathmáry, E. (2002).
896:of cell types within one organism.
736:larger geologic period during which
3823:Evolutionary developmental biology
1816:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1991.tb02489.x
223:evolutionary developmental biology
25:
1385:"The origins of multicellularity"
712:would have taken place after the
341:, a separation between a sterile
4677:
4668:
4667:
2859:Emerging Topics in Life Sciences
2227:Integrated Principles of Zoology
1163:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x
450:reconstruction has been through
201:) and perhaps several times for
4480:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3669:Gene-centered view of evolution
1040:Current Opinion in Microbiology
697:, which helps form the skin of
75:are multicellular, as are many
55:that consists of more than one
4608:Hologenome theory of evolution
4475:History of molecular evolution
3701:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3590:Last universal common ancestor
2042:. Princeton University Press.
1285:Annual Review of Plant Biology
707:Oxygen availability hypothesis
1:
4402:Renaissance and Enlightenment
2731:Nursall, J. R. (April 1959).
2652:10.1016/s1534-5807(02)00129-6
1905:Doonan, J.; Hunt, T. (1996).
1792:Richter, D. J. (2013), p. 11.
148:Magnetoglobus multicellularis
4613:Missing heritability problem
4240:Gamete differentiation/sexes
2552:Letzter, Rafi (2018-02-02).
1848:"Plant tumors: Introduction"
1661:10.1088/1478-3975/8/1/015001
1533:Red algae in the genomic age
1008:. Harvard University Press.
769:shortly after the Marinoan.
181:. It evolved repeatedly for
2347:Volvox Linnaeus, 1758: 820.
325:have been characterized as
112:that can reach 20 cm.
4725:
4245:Life cycles/nuclear phases
3797:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
3274:10.1038/s41598-019-39558-8
3200:10.1038/s41586-023-06052-1
3067:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.037
3008:10.1038/s41598-019-39558-8
2700:10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.020
1830:Diseases of Marine Animals
1761:10.1007/s12032-022-01740-w
1345:American Journal of Botany
808:are long known to exhibit
520:in animal and plant cells—
429:Francevillian Group Fossil
315:cell-to-cell communication
4663:
3743:Parent–offspring conflict
3548:Earliest known life forms
3436:
1989:10.1016/j.cub.2010.09.014
1518:10.1017/s1473550403001551
1426:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1052:10.1016/j.mib.2014.12.007
979:Pearson Benjamin Cummings
919:expression of these genes
844:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
835:is grown with a predator
781:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
724:Snowball Earth hypothesis
4596:Cultural group selection
4460:The eclipse of Darwinism
4432:On the Origin of Species
4407:Transmutation of species
3114:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1596:Richter, Daniel Joseph:
1444:; Chapman, M.J. (2009).
605:cellular differentiation
233:Loss of multicellularity
4601:Dual inheritance theory
4440:History of paleontology
3385:Tree of Life Eukaryotes
3335:10.1073/pnas.1711842115
3141:10.1073/pnas.1305949110
2813:10.1073/pnas.1400547111
1459:Seravin, L. N. (2001).
1206:Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst
850:Brachionus calyciflorus
683:mobile genetic elements
587:The colonial theory of
544:, could have developed
406:do as well as colonial
382:consists of four cells.
18:Multicellular organisms
4289:Punctuated equilibrium
3610:Non-adaptive radiation
3558:Evolutionary arms race
2520:10.1098/rstb.2015.0442
2501:Koonin, E. V. (2016).
2436:10.1098/rstb.2015.0036
2430:(20150036): 20150036.
2423:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B
2380:10.1002/bies.200800214
2040:Life on a Young Planet
1711:10.1186/1741-7007-8-66
1253:10.1002/bies.201200143
1150:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
856:Paramecium tetraurelia
792:Experimental evolution
700:Caenorhabditis elegans
641:The synzoospore theory
614:
383:
49:multicellular organism
44:
40:Caenorhabditis elegans
4704:Developmental biology
4581:Evolutionary medicine
4455:Mendelian inheritance
4163:Biological complexity
4151:Programmed cell death
3843:Phenotypic plasticity
3563:Evolutionary pressure
3553:Evidence of evolution
3451:Timeline of evolution
1873:10.1073/pnas.44.4.338
1846:Riker, A. J. (1958).
1804:Physiologia Plantarum
1567:10.1093/molbev/msq091
1339:Niklas, K.J. (2014).
975:The world of the cell
910:unicellular organisms
714:Great Oxidation Event
613:
376:
357:somatic embryogenesis
61:unicellular organisms
33:
4709:Evolutionary biology
4555:Teleology in biology
4450:Blending inheritance
3828:Genetic assimilation
3691:Artificial selection
3430:Evolutionary biology
2871:10.1042/ETLS20170165
955:Unicellular organism
838:Ochromonas vallescia
773:Predation hypothesis
677:Genes borrowed from
647:cell differentiation
597:cellular slime molds
506:Riterri sea anemones
489:The symbiotic theory
441:Doushantuo Formation
307:cell differentiation
116:Evolutionary history
4618:Molecular evolution
4576:Ecological genetics
4445:Transitional fossil
4235:Sexual reproduction
4075:endomembrane system
4004:pollinator-mediated
3960:dolphins and whales
3738:Parental investment
3326:2018PNAS..115.6506B
3265:2019NatSR...9.2328H
3192:2023Natur.617..747B
3132:2013PNAS..110E4223O
2999:2019NatSR...9.2328H
2944:10.1038/nature23457
2936:2017Natur.548..578B
2804:2014PNAS..111.4168M
2749:1959Natur.183.1170N
2743:(4669): 1170–1172.
2597:2000Natur.403..785M
2272:2002Natur.420..745W
2151:10.1038/nature13766
2143:2014Natur.516..238C
2092:10.1038/nature09166
2084:2010Natur.466..100A
1981:2010CBio...20.R875F
1864:1958PNAS...44..338R
1832:. Kinne, O. (ed.).
1653:2011PhBio...8a5001D
1509:2003IJAsB...2..203M
1393:Integrative Biology
1358:10.3732/ajb.1300314
847:under predation by
673:The role of viruses
583:The colonial theory
379:Tetrabaena socialis
163:symbiomycotan fungi
129:, and also in some
4591:Cultural evolution
3706:Fisher's principle
3635:Handicap principle
3625:Parallel evolution
3489:Adaptive radiation
3391:2012-01-29 at the
3253:Scientific Reports
2987:Scientific Reports
2640:Developmental Cell
2470:(7 January 2016).
2325:10.1002/bies.20197
2026:The New York Times
1381:Bonner, John Tyler
832:Chlorella vulgaris
767:Cambrian explosion
753:glaciations. Xiao
615:
384:
274:Chlorella vulgaris
98:Colonial organisms
45:
4691:
4690:
4307:Uniformitarianism
4260:Sex-determination
3765:Sexual dimorphism
3760:Natural selection
3664:Unit of selection
3630:Signalling theory
3320:(25): 6506–6511.
3186:(7962): 747–754.
2930:(7669): 578–581.
2798:(11): 4168–4172.
2757:10.1038/1831170b0
2591:(6771): 785–789.
2240:978-0-8016-2184-0
2200:978-0-465-07272-9
2137:(7530): 238–241.
2078:(7302): 100–104.
2038:A H Knoll, 2003.
1975:(20): R875–R876.
1130:978-0-7637-0066-9
988:978-0-321-55418-5
546:internal membrane
426:Palaeoproterozoic
408:choanoflagellates
374:
363:Origin hypotheses
63:. All species of
16:(Redirected from
4716:
4681:
4671:
4670:
4470:Modern synthesis
4230:Multicellularity
4225:Mosaic evolution
4110:auditory ossicle
3792:Social selection
3775:Flowering plants
3770:Sexual selection
3423:
3416:
3409:
3400:
3373:
3369:
3358:
3357:
3347:
3337:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3286:
3276:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3219:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3153:
3143:
3126:(45): E4223-31.
3103:
3097:
3096:
3086:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3028:
3010:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2882:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2833:
2815:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2605:10.1038/35001608
2576:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2532:
2522:
2498:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2447:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2398:. Archived from
2365:
2355:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2283:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2229:(5th ed.).
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2203:. Archived from
2177:
2171:
2170:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2065:
2059:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1926:
1924:10.1038/380481a0
1902:
1896:
1895:
1885:
1875:
1843:
1837:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1772:
1749:Medical Oncology
1740:
1734:
1733:
1723:
1713:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1672:
1641:Physical Biology
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1607:
1601:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1569:
1560:(9): 2052–2061.
1545:
1539:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1425:
1417:
1389:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1360:
1336:
1327:
1326:
1308:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1238:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1202:
1193:
1184:
1183:
1165:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1110:
1101:
1100:
1093:Nature Education
1088:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1031:
1020:
1019:
999:
993:
992:
970:
940:Bacterial colony
667:guanylate kinase
593:symbiotic theory
446:Until recently,
375:
244:Saccharomycotina
21:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4714:
4713:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4659:
4586:Group selection
4559:
4484:
4388:
4315:
4277:Tempo and modes
4271:
4126:
4030:
3847:
3806:
3682:
3675:
3652:Species complex
3465:
3456:History of life
3432:
3427:
3393:Wayback Machine
3381:
3376:
3370:
3361:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3105:
3104:
3100:
3047:
3046:
3042:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2564:
2562:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2500:
2499:
2492:
2482:
2480:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2402:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2344:
2340:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2281:10.1038/420745a
2253:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2233:. p. 112.
2224:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2208:
2201:
2193:. p. 160.
2179:
2178:
2174:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2037:
2033:
2019:
2018:
2014:
1969:Current Biology
1962:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1917:(6574): 481–2.
1904:
1903:
1899:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1827:
1823:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1595:
1591:
1554:Mol. Biol. Evol
1547:
1546:
1542:
1530:
1526:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1418:
1387:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1338:
1337:
1330:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1236:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1200:
1195:
1194:
1187:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1112:
1111:
1104:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1033:
1032:
1023:
1016:
1001:
1000:
996:
989:
981:. p. 480.
972:
971:
967:
963:
936:
906:
894:differentiation
881:
794:
775:
726:
709:
675:
663:
655:gastraea theory
643:
585:
538:
491:
431:B Formation in
367:
365:
335:
321:. For example,
295:
235:
123:
118:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4722:
4720:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4696:
4695:
4689:
4688:
4686:
4685:
4675:
4664:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4539:
4538:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4498:
4492:
4490:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4426:Charles Darwin
4423:
4422:
4421:
4409:
4404:
4398:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4364:Non-ecological
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4325:
4323:
4317:
4316:
4314:
4313:
4304:
4295:
4281:
4279:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4269:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4252:
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4242:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4181:
4180:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4137:
4135:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4122:
4117:
4115:nervous system
4112:
4107:
4102:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4041:
4039:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4007:
4006:
3996:
3995:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3935:
3925:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3892:
3891:
3881:
3876:
3875:
3874:
3864:
3858:
3856:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3719:
3718:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3685:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3661:
3656:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3615:Origin of life
3612:
3607:
3602:
3600:Microevolution
3597:
3595:Macroevolution
3592:
3587:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3533:Common descent
3530:
3529:
3528:
3518:
3513:
3511:Baldwin effect
3508:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3475:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3418:
3411:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3380:
3379:External links
3377:
3375:
3374:
3359:
3298:
3239:
3165:
3098:
3061:(4): 726–737.
3040:
2973:
2910:
2865:(2): 161–171.
2845:
2778:
2723:
2714:
2693:(2): 407–419.
2673:
2646:(3): 355–362.
2626:
2571:
2544:
2490:
2477:New York Times
2459:
2408:
2405:on 2016-03-05.
2374:(7): 758–768.
2350:
2338:
2319:(3): 299–310.
2303:
2246:
2239:
2217:
2199:
2181:Margulis, Lynn
2172:
2121:
2060:
2031:
2012:
1955:
1946:
1897:
1838:
1821:
1810:(4): 696–701.
1794:
1785:
1735:
1684:
1627:
1602:
1589:
1540:
1524:
1503:(3): 203–211.
1483:
1474:
1451:
1433:
1372:
1328:
1274:
1247:(4): 339–347.
1224:
1185:
1156:(5): 399–451.
1136:
1129:
1102:
1083:
1021:
1014:
994:
987:
964:
962:
959:
958:
957:
952:
947:
942:
935:
932:
905:
902:
880:
877:
861:
860:
827:
793:
790:
786:C. reinhardtii
774:
771:
759:Boring Billion
731:snowball Earth
725:
722:
708:
705:
674:
671:
662:
659:
642:
639:
584:
581:
537:
534:
490:
487:
454:(particularly
364:
361:
334:
331:
294:
291:
234:
231:
199:basidiomycetes
183:Chloroplastida
154:Methanosarcina
122:
119:
117:
114:
110:Xenophyophorea
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4721:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4674:
4666:
4665:
4662:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4634:
4631:
4630:
4629:
4628:Phylogenetics
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4562:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4532:
4531:Structuralism
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4506:Catastrophism
4504:
4503:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4465:Neo-Darwinism
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4433:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4424:
4420:
4419:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4379:Reinforcement
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4318:
4312:
4311:Catastrophism
4308:
4305:
4303:
4302:Macromutation
4299:
4298:Micromutation
4296:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4274:
4268:
4265:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4205:Immune system
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4129:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4065:symbiogenesis
4063:
4062:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4038:
4033:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4005:
4002:
4001:
4000:
3997:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3890:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3850:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3734:
3733:Kin selection
3731:
3729:
3728:Genetic drift
3726:
3724:
3721:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3678:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3468:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3424:
3419:
3417:
3412:
3410:
3405:
3404:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3378:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3302:
3299:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3102:
3099:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2630:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2572:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2548:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2495:
2491:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2424:
2419:
2412:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2266:(6917): 745.
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2218:
2207:on 2010-04-20
2206:
2202:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2072:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2056:0-691-12029-3
2053:
2050:(hardcover),
2049:
2048:0-691-00978-3
2045:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2013:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1834:Vol. 1, p. 84
1831:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1786:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1755:(160): 1–14.
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1647:(1): 015001.
1646:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1616:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1455:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1015:9780674975910
1011:
1007:
1006:
998:
995:
990:
984:
980:
976:
969:
966:
960:
956:
953:
951:
950:Organogenesis
948:
946:
945:Embryogenesis
943:
941:
938:
937:
933:
931:
929:
928:somatic cells
925:
920:
915:
911:
903:
901:
897:
895:
890:
886:
878:
876:
873:
869:
865:
864:C. reinhartii
858:
857:
852:
851:
846:
845:
840:
839:
834:
833:
828:
825:
821:
817:
813:
812:
807:
804:
803:
802:
799:
791:
789:
787:
783:
782:
772:
770:
768:
762:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
732:
723:
721:
719:
715:
706:
704:
702:
701:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
672:
670:
668:
660:
658:
656:
652:
648:
640:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
619:Dictyostelium
612:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
582:
580:
577:
573:
571:
566:
564:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
535:
533:
531:
527:
523:
522:endosymbiosis
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
488:
486:
483:
481:
480:satellite DNA
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
456:embryological
453:
449:
444:
442:
438:
434:
430:
427:
423:
421:
416:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
381:
380:
362:
360:
358:
354:
353:
348:
344:
340:
332:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
292:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
275:
270:
266:
265:
260:
256:
252:
251:
246:
245:
240:
239:Microsporidia
232:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
207:cyanobacteria
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
155:
150:
149:
144:
143:actinomycetes
140:
136:
135:cyanobacteria
132:
128:
120:
115:
113:
111:
107:
106:multinucleate
103:
99:
95:
94:cell division
90:
88:
87:
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4640:Polymorphism
4623:Astrobiology
4571:Biogeography
4526:Saltationism
4516:Orthogenesis
4501:Alternatives
4430:
4416:
4349:Cospeciation
4344:Cladogenesis
4293:Saltationism
4250:Mating types
4173:Color vision
4158:Avian flight
4080:mitochondria
3818:Canalisation
3696:Biodiversity
3441:Introduction
3317:
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2559:Live Science
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2468:Zimmer, Carl
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2371:
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1442:Margulis, L.
1436:
1422:cite journal
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514:mitochondria
499:
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448:phylogenetic
445:
418:
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385:
377:
350:
343:somatic cell
339:Weismannists
336:
296:
272:
264:Porphyridium
262:
253:, and other
250:Cryptococcus
248:
242:
236:
152:
146:
139:myxobacteria
124:
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4650:Systematics
4521:Mutationism
4339:Catagenesis
4267:Snake venom
4200:Eusociality
4178:in primates
4168:Cooperation
4096:In animals
3916:butterflies
3889:Cephalopods
3879:Brachiopods
3811:Development
3785:Mate choice
3538:Convergence
3521:Coevolution
3479:Abiogenesis
3372:PMC10137558
3259:(1): 2328.
2993:(1): 2328.
2880:10919/86820
2345:AlgaeBase.
2191:Basic Books
1698:BMC Biology
1351:(1): 6–25.
1291:: 567–590.
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824:millimeters
623:Volvocaceae
601:cytokinesis
554:slime molds
476:alloenzymes
392:slime molds
345:line and a
323:plant galls
279:Ulvophyceae
269:green algae
203:slime molds
195:ascomycetes
179:land plants
175:green algae
167:brown algae
131:prokaryotes
81:slime molds
69:land plants
4698:Categories
4511:Lamarckism
4489:Philosophy
4412:David Hume
4374:Peripatric
4369:Parapatric
4354:Ecological
4334:Anagenesis
4329:Allopatric
4321:Speciation
4285:Gradualism
4210:Metabolism
4070:chromosome
4060:Eukaryotes
3838:Modularity
3755:Population
3681:Population
3642:Speciation
3620:Panspermia
3573:Extinction
3568:Exaptation
3543:Divergence
3516:Cladistics
3504:Reciprocal
3484:Adaptation
2565:2022-09-05
2211:2017-09-05
1704:(66): 66.
1615:tolweb.org
1306:10379/6762
961:References
879:Advantages
872:Paramecium
743:Cryogenian
625:, such as
558:hypothesis
502:clown fish
472:convergent
452:anatomical
437:Gabonionta
415:demosponge
400:Drosophila
287:cnidarians
227:cell types
211:germ cells
127:eukaryotes
121:Occurrence
4645:Protocell
4496:Darwinism
4384:Sympatric
4133:processes
4021:Tetrapods
3970:Kangaroos
3896:Dinosaurs
3833:Inversion
3802:Variation
3723:Gene flow
3716:Inclusive
3526:Mutualism
3471:Evolution
3234:236953093
3208:0028-0836
3075:1097-4172
3017:2045-2322
2968:205258987
2952:1476-4687
2889:2397-8554
2822:0027-8424
2765:1476-4687
2660:1534-5807
2483:7 January
2368:BioEssays
2313:BioEssays
2100:0028-0836
1611:"Myxozoa"
1576:0737-4038
1414:1093-4391
1241:BioEssays
1060:1879-0364
1046:: 21–28.
885:diffusion
868:propagule
816:phenotype
798:mutations
718:Ediacaran
495:symbiosis
468:divergent
396:coenocyte
347:germ cell
303:metazoans
283:myxozoans
277:and some
259:red algae
171:red algae
71:and most
59:, unlike
4673:Category
4548:Vitalism
4543:Theistic
4536:Spandrel
4220:Morality
4215:Monogamy
4090:plastids
4055:Flagella
4011:Reptiles
3992:sea cows
3975:primates
3884:Molluscs
3862:Bacteria
3750:Mutation
3683:genetics
3659:Taxonomy
3605:Mismatch
3585:Homology
3499:Cheating
3494:Altruism
3389:Archived
3354:29784790
3293:30787483
3226:37165189
3217:10425966
3160:24145419
3093:19013280
3035:30787483
2960:28813409
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1620:14 April
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1315:21351878
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1261:23315654
1172:16248873
1099:(9): 65.
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934:See also
924:germline
751:Marinoan
747:Sturtian
691:syncytin
687:placenta
635:protists
627:Eudorina
576:syncitia
550:ciliates
422:spiralis
420:Grypania
319:protozoa
311:adhesion
191:chytrids
53:organism
36:nematode
4564:Related
4394:History
4255:Meiosis
4190:Empathy
4185:Emotion
4085:nucleus
4026:Viruses
4016:Spiders
3928:Mammals
3911:Insects
3711:Fitness
3647:Species
3446:Outline
3345:6016768
3322:Bibcode
3284:6382799
3261:Bibcode
3188:Bibcode
3151:3831460
3128:Bibcode
3084:2703716
3026:6382799
2995:Bibcode
2932:Bibcode
2831:3964089
2800:Bibcode
2773:4200584
2745:Bibcode
2621:4367889
2593:Bibcode
2530:4958936
2445:4650120
2298:4385008
2268:Bibcode
2167:4448316
2139:Bibcode
2116:4331375
2080:Bibcode
1998:2978077
1977:Bibcode
1941:4318184
1933:8606760
1860:Bibcode
1770:9381480
1721:2880965
1670:3148211
1649:Bibcode
1600:, 2013.
1505:Bibcode
1471:: 6–14.
1180:8060916
1069:4380822
679:viruses
651:Haeckel
589:Haeckel
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565:nucleus
526:mitosis
460:animals
439:). The
404:embryos
271:(e.g.,
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3999:Plants
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3980:humans
3965:horses
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3943:wolves
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3872:origin
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530:lichen
510:genome
464:plants
352:Volvox
327:tumors
299:cancer
293:Cancer
255:yeasts
197:, and
177:, and
102:colony
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4146:Death
4141:Aging
4120:brain
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3867:Birds
3780:Fungi
3578:Event
3461:Index
3230:S2CID
2964:S2CID
2901:S2CID
2769:S2CID
2617:S2CID
2403:(PDF)
2392:S2CID
2364:(PDF)
2294:S2CID
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2163:S2CID
2112:S2CID
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1319:S2CID
1265:S2CID
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914:genes
806:yeast
755:et al
695:EFF-1
570:micro
563:macro
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