Cultural psychology - Knowledge (XXG)

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empathy and emotional empathy: taking on someone's feeling/experience. Duan, Wei, and Wang furthered this idea to include empathy in terms of being either dispositional (capacity for noticing/understanding empathy) or experiential (specific to a certain context or situation, observing the person and empathizing). This created four types of empathy to further examine: 1) dispositional intellectual empathy; 2) dispositional empathic emotion; 3) experienced intellectual empathy; and 4) experienced empathic emotion. These four branches allowed researchers to examine empathic proclivities among individuals of different cultures. While individualism was not shown to correlate with either types of dispositional empathy, collectivism was shown to have a direct correlation with both types of dispositional empathy, possibly suggesting that by having less focus on the self, there is more capacity towards noticing the needs of others. More so, individualism predicted experienced intellectual empathy, and collectivism predicted experienced empathic emotion. These results are congruent with the values of collectivistic and individualistic societies. The self-centered identity and egoistic motives prevalent in individualistic cultures perhaps acts as a hindrance in being open to (fully) experiencing empathy. Many individuals tend to harbor dislike towards those from different cultural backgrounds, often fixating on these differences. Failing to comprehend the diversity of others significantly impedes our understanding of their lives. This may happen as a result of unawareness when an individual is behaving in such way.

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and a Cultural Psychology section. The research aim of the latter was to study culture as a behavior regulating system, which in fact implied that culture was no longer seen as an explanatory concept, but as something to be explained. Instead of viewing culture as a domain in its own right, as something separate from individual human beings, culture was seen as the product of human interaction leading to patterned behavior characteristic of human groups. It looks so self-evident, but this shift has wide-reaching implications. The expression: "culture of...." – and one can fill in whatever nation or group – can no longer be used to explain behaviors. One has to look for other determinants of behavior than the ones associated with 'culture'. Expressions like: 'it is our culture to put women in a dependent position and men above them' can no longer be used. Such a way of reasoning obscures the real determinants of the behavioral patterning that causes this sex and gender related state of affairs. The main publication in the department in which this view is elaborated is the book

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wondered what was wrong with the singular fish and concluded that the school had kicked it out. Another study showed that in coverage of the same instance of violent crime, Western news focused on innate character flaws and the failings of the individual while Chinese news pointed out the lack of relationships of the perpetrator in a foreign environment and the failings of society. This is not to imply that collectivism and individualism are completely dichotomous, but these two cultural orientations are to be understood more so as a spectrum. Each representation is at either end; thus, some members of individualistic cultures may hold collectivistic values, and some collectivistic individual may hold some individualist values. The concepts of collectivism and individualism show a general idea of the values of a specific ethnic culture but should not be juxtaposed in competition.

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research for this specific selection of humans. It has also allowed us to divert from the idea that certain psychological processes can be considered basic or universal, and recognize humans' remarkable capacity to create cultures and then be shaped by them. Although cultural psychology has internalized the mutually constituting model, further implementation in our society is necessary. Being aware of this model promotes taking responsibility for one's actions and the effect that their actions have on their community. Through acceptance of ones responsibilities and conscious application, communities have opportunities for improvement which in turn supports the individuals within the community. These ideas can be found in the journal article "Cultures and Selves: A Cycle of Mutual Constitution" by Hazel Rose Markus and

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statements of businesses, schools, and foundations attempt to make promises regarding the environment and values that their establishment holds. However, these promises cannot be made in accordance with the mutually consisting theory without being upheld by all participants. The mission statement for the employees of Southwest Airlines, for example, claims that, "...We are committed to provide our Employees a stable work environment with equal opportunity for learning and personal growth". While the company can ensure the "equal opportunity for learning and personal growth", the aforementioned message cannot be promised. The work environment that Southwest provides includes paying consumers. While rules can be enforced to ensure

892:" or the tendency to explain people's behavior in terms of internal, inherent personality traits rather than external, situational considerations (e.g. attributing an instance of angry behavior to an angry personality). Outside W.E.I.R.D. cultures, however, this phenomenon is less prominent, as many non-W.E.I.R.D. populations tend to pay more attention to the context in which behavior occurs. Asians tend to reason holistically, for example by considering people's behavior in terms of their situation; someone's anger might be viewed as simply a result of an irritating day. Yet many long-standing theories of how humans think rely on the prominence of analytical thought. 876:

psychologies and therefore may not have enough intercultural expertise to claim, as it frequently does, that its theories have universal validity. Accordingly, cultural groups have diverse ways of defining emotional problems, as well as distinguishing between physical and mental distress. For example, Arthur Kleinman has shown how the notion of depression in Chinese culture has been associated with physiological problems, before becoming acknowledged more recently as an emotional concern. Furthermore, the type of therapy people pursue is influenced by cultural conceptions of privacy and shame, as well as the stigmas associated with specific problems.

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measurements to quantitatively collect data about culture products, such as painting and photos. These statistics data can also be national records, for example, Chiao & Blizinsky (2010) revealed that cultures of high collectivism is associated with lower prevalence of mood/anxiety disorders in study involving 29 countries. In addition to the experimental and statistics data, evidence from neuro-imaging studies, also help strengthen the reliability of cultural psychology research. For example, when thinking of mother, the brain region related to self-concept showed significant activation in Chinese, whereas no activation observed in Westerners.

1181:. This moves beyond merely accepting and understanding another culture, and also includes acknowledging how the values of a culture may affect empathy. This idea is meant to foster cultural empathy as well as engender cultural competence. One of the greatest barriers of empathy between cultures is people's tendency to operate from an ethnocentric point of view. Eysenck conceptualized ethnocentrism as using one's own culture to understand the rest of the world, while holding one's own values as correct. Concomitant with this barrier to intercultural empathy, Rasoal, Eklund, and Hansen posit five hindrances of intercultural empathy; these include: 1065:

discouraging others. In Japanese kindergartens, children learn about important cultural values such as teamwork, group harmony, and cooperation. During "birthday month celebration," for example, the class celebrates all the children who have birthdays that month. This institutional practice underscores the importance of a group over an individual. In US kindergartens, children learn their personal value when they celebrate their birthdays one by one, enforcing the cultural value of uniqueness and individualism. Everyday institutional practices such as classroom birthday celebrations propagate prominent cultural themes.

928: 850:. In addition to drawing from several other fields of psychology, cultural psychology in particular utilizes anthropologists, linguists, and philosophers to help in the pursuit of understanding a wide variety of cultural facets in a society. However, the constructivist perspective of cultural psychology, through which cultural psychologists study thought patterns and behaviors within and across cultures, tends to clash with the universal perspectives common in most fields of psychology, which seek to qualify fundamental psychological truths that are consistent across all of humanity. 981:. Psychologist Per Gjerde states that cultural psychology tends to "generalize about human development across nations and continents" and assigning characteristics to a culture promotes a disregard for heterogeneity and minimizes the role of the individual. Gjerde argues that individuals develop multiple perspectives about their culture, sometimes act in accord with their culture without sharing cultural beliefs, and sometimes outright oppose their culture. Stereotyping thus views individuals as homogeneous products of culture. 1047:

asked to describe themselves, Americans are likely to use adjectives to describe their personalities, such as "energetic", "friendly", or "hard-working". In Japan, studies show that individuals are more likely to think of themselves as "obligated to society", "interdependent", and "considerate". The self is adaptable to the situation. Japanese individuals are therefore more likely to describe themselves in relation to others, such as "I try not to upset anyone," or "I am a father, a son, and a brother."

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studies came from Western Industrialized countries, with 68% of them coming from the United States. This is largely because 99% of the authors of these journals were at Western Universities with 73% of them at American Universities. With this information, it is concluded that 96% of psychological findings come from W.E.I.R.D. countries. Findings from psychology research utilizing primarily W.E.I.R.D. populations are often labeled as universal theories and are inaccurately applied to other cultures.

1267:. This dissertation at the Amsterdam Free University Business School of Economics explores so called 'cultural change' and related practices in business boardrooms, institutions of care, but also in the customs of female sexual mutilation in African communities. The defence of these practices in terms of: "it is our culture" is cogently criticized. In cases of communal female circumcision practices this empirical program makes the replacement of these practices by alternative rituals more viable. 1094:

people, and norms of behavior". This environment is composed of several layers. A child's geographical context influences the history/anthropology of their greater community. This results in maintenance systems (i.e., sociological characteristics) that form a cultural learning environment. These factors inform learned behavior, or progressive expressive systems that take the form of religion, magic beliefs, ritual and ceremony, art, recreation, games and play, or crime rates.

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While this may be minimal in comparison to other people's oppression, it will still help with realizing that other people have been oppressed. The goal of bridging the gap should focus on building an alliance by finding the core commonalities of the human experience; this shows empathy to be a relational experience, not an independent one. Through this, the goal is that intercultural empathy can lend toward broader intercultural understanding across cultures and societies.

871:, there has been repeated failure to replicate Western psychology laboratory findings in non-Western settings. Therefore, a major goal of cultural psychology is to have many and varied cultures contribute to basic psychological theories in order to correct these theories so that they become more relevant to the predictions, descriptions, and explanations of all human behaviors, not just Western ones. This goal is shared by many of the scholars who promote the 1247:

how important it is to have a variety of mental health care professionals in the work setting. However, it is also true that the primary demographic receiving more mental health services compromises the majority population. This reflects the lack of universal accessibility to mental health care. In the past years, we have observed an increase in validation and understanding of cultural psychology in the many aspects of life.

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self-views (the premise that people see themselves as self-contained entities) often emphasize self-esteem, confidence in one's own worth and abilities. With self-esteem seen as a main source of happiness in Western cultures, the motivation to self-enhance generally follows as a way to maintain one's positive view about oneself. Some strategies employed when self-enhancing often include

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it. The values, morals, and ways of life a society exemplifies will have an immediate impact on the way an individual is shaped as a person. The atmosphere that a society provides for the individual is a determining factor for how an individual will develop. Furthermore, mutual constitution is a cyclical model in which the society and the individual both influence one another.

823:. Even though both fields influence each other, cultural psychology is distinct from cross-cultural psychology in that cross-cultural psychologists generally use culture as a means of testing the universality of psychological processes rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. So, whereas a cross-cultural psychologist might ask whether 6338: 1056:

signs emphasize the impact that smoke has on others by illustrating the path of smoke as it affects surrounding people. In the US, no-smoking signs focus on individual action by simply saying "No Smoking". These signs reflect underlying cultural norms and values, and when people see them they are encouraged to behave in accordance with the greater cultural values.

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increasingly began seeing clients with different ethnic backgrounds. Many of the problems that contribute to therapy not being beneficial for people of color include; therapy having an individual focus, an emphasis on expressiveness, and an emphasis on openness. For more on intercultural competence, see

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The next layer of culture is made up of the institutions in which everyday interactions take place. These determine and enforce the rules for a society and include legal, government, economic, scientific, philosophical, and religious bodies. Institutions encourage certain practices and products while

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Cultural psychologist, Richard Shweder argues that the psyche and culture are mutually constructed and inseparable. The failure of replicating many psychology findings in other regions of the world supported the idea that the mind and environment are interdependent and different throughout the world.

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Past research has been conducted by middle-class North Americans analyzing culturally different societies by using comparisons mostly involving middle-class North Americans and/or aforementioned W.E.I.R.D. societies. What has been characterized as Euro-American centrism, resulted in a great volume of

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Instead of making promises that depend on all of their students and faculty, they make statements that can refer to only a part of their student/ faculty body. The statement focuses more on what they offer, and how they uphold these promises. By providing evidence they provide readers with an example

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Mutual constitution is the notion that society and the individual have an influencing effect on one another. Because a society is composed of individuals, the behavior and actions of the individuals directly impact the society. In the same manner, society directly impacts the individual living within

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describes populations that are Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. Thus far, W.E.I.R.D. populations have been vastly overrepresented in psychological research. In an analysis of top journals in the psychology discipline, it was found that 96% of subjects who participated in those

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approach. In an attempt to show the interrelated interests of cultural and indigenous psychology, cultural psychologist Pradeep Chakkarath emphasizes that international mainstream psychology, as it has been exported to most regions of the world by the so-called West, is only one among many indigenous

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While self-enhancement is a person's motivation to view themselves positively, self-improvement is a person's motivation to have others view themselves positively. The distinction between the two modes of life is most evident between independent and collectivistic cultures. Cultures with independent

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Yale is committed to improving the world today and for future generations through outstanding research and scholarship, education, preservation, and practice. Yale educates aspiring leaders worldwide who serve all sectors of society. We carry out this mission through the free exchange of ideas in an

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Recent research is showing that cultures differ in many areas, such as logical reasoning and social values. The evidence that basic cognitive and motivational processes vary across populations has become increasingly difficult to ignore. For example, many studies have shown that Americans, Canadians

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Cultural psychology is also tightly related to the new field of "Historical Psychology" which aims to investigate how history and psychology build each other up in a dynamic way, seeking to better understand how collective behaviors, emotions, and cognitions vary over historical time periods and how

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These differences in values across cultures suggests that understanding and expressing empathy may be manifested differently throughout varying cultures. Duan and Hill first discussed empathy in subcategories of intellectual empathy: taking on someone's thoughts/perspective, also known as cognitive

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cultures. People from an individualistic culture typically demonstrate an independent view of the self; the focus is usually on personal achievement. Members of a collectivistic society have more of a focus on the group (interdependent view of self), usually focusing on things that will benefit the

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The first "I" concerns how an individual thinks about and expresses itself. Studies show that in the United States, individuals are more likely think of themselves as "independent", "equal", and "individualistic". Individuals have characteristics that are consistent across time and situation. When

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accounts of knowledge and argued that cultural differences should be understood within their contexts. This influence was an important factor in the emergence of the cultural psychology movement. Leading scholars of this movement were, among others, Richard Shweder and Clifford Richards. The launch

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Cultural psychology aims to define culture, its nature, and its function concerning psychological phenomena. Gerd Baumann argues: "Culture is not a real thing, but an abstract analytical notion. In itself, it does not cause behavior but abstracts from it. It is thus neither normative nor predictive

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Already in 1956 the department of cultural psychology and psychology of religion was founded at the Radboud University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands. One of its aims was to study culture and religion as psychological phenomena. In 1986 the department was split up in a Psychology of Religion section

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In some studies, there has been a correlation between client comfort and their therapists sharing a similar ethnicity. This occurs because the client may feel more at ease or feel a stronger sense of connection with their therapists. From 2010 through 2015 there was a research study that concluded

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The Whitings coined the term "cultural learning environment", to describe the surroundings that influence a child during development. Beatrice Whiting defined a child's environmental contexts as being "characterized by an activity in progress, a physically defined space, a characteristic group of

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level of the cycle, focuses on the big ideas that each culture has which answers the big questions of life, such as Why are we here, where did we come from, and where are we going. The culture around the ideas is what gives structure to the answers and allows for a greater understanding of what is

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In fact, cultural psychologists utilized multiple measurements and resources no different from other scientific researches – observation, experiment, data analysis etc. For example, Nisbett & Cohen (1996) investigated the relation between historical cultural background and regional aggression

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Another barrier to intercultural empathy is that there is often a power dynamic between different cultures. Bridging an oppressed culture with their (upper-echelon) oppressor is a goal of intercultural empathy. One approach to this barrier is to attempt to acknowledge one's personal oppression.

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Interactions with other people and products reinforce cultural behaviors on a daily basis. Stories, songs, architecture, and advertisements are all methods of interaction that guide individuals in a culture to promote certain values and teach them how to behave. For example, in Japan, no-smoking

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theory that the aggression is a defense mechanism which is rooted in the herding cultural origin for most of the southerners. In laboratory observations, Heine and his colleagues found that Japanese students spend more time than American students on tasks that they did poorly on, and the finding

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These four aspects may be especially helpful for practicing cultural competence in a clinical setting. Given that most psychological practices were founded on the parochial ideals of Euro-American psychologists, cultural competence was not considered much of a necessity until said psychologists

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was again shown as more common among Americans than Japanese individuals. This can be seen in a study involving an animation of fish, wherein Western viewers interpreted the scene of a fish swimming away from a school as an expression of individualism and independence, while Eastern individuals

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on their aircraft, customers will not be removed due to attitude or a lack of courtesy. This therefore contradicts the promise of a "stable work environment". On the contrary, some establishments do ensure that their mission statements agree with the mutually consistent model. For example, Yale

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Quantitative statistics of cultural products revealed that public media in western countries promote more individualistic components than East-Asian countries. These statistics are objective because it does not involve having people fill out questionnaire, instead, psychologists use physical

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While cultural psychology is reliant on this model, societies often fail to recognize this. Despite the overwhelming acceptance that people affect culture and that culture affects people, societal systems tend to minimize the effect that people form on their communities. For example, mission

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are among the earliest accounts of a cultural perspective within the discipline of psychology. He saw Völkerpsychologie as a cultural-developmental discipline that studied higher psychological processes in their social context. The proposed methods were comparative and historical analyses.

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By studying only W.E.I.R.D. populations, psychologists fail to account for a substantial amount of diversity of the global population as W.E.I.R.D. countries only represent 12% of the world's population. Applying the findings from W.E.I.R.D. populations to other populations can lead to a

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Self-reporting data is one of the easiest and most accessible methods of mass data collection, especially in cultural psychology. However, overemphasizing cross-cultural comparisons of self-reported attitudes and values can lead to relatively unstable and ultimately misleading data.

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In it, they refer to the mutually constitutive nature of culture and individual as a "culture cycle". The culture cycle consists of four layers (Individuals, Interactions, Institutions, Ideas) of cultural influence that help to explain the interaction between self and culture.

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Baumann, Gerd (1997). Dominant and demiotic discourses of culture. Their Relevance to Multi-Ethnic Alliances. In: P. Werbner & T. Modood (Eds.), Debating cultural hybridity. Multicultural Identities and the Politics of Anti-Racism. London & New Jersey: Zed

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Some criticisms state that using self-report may be a relatively unreliable method, and could be misleading especially in different cultural contexts. Regardless of the fact that self-report is an important way to obtain mass data, it is not the only way.

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To understand the social world, people may use cultural models, which "consist of culturally derived ideas and practices that are embodied, enacted, or instituted in everyday life." Cultural psychologists develop models to categorize cultural phenomena.

827:'s stages of development are universal across a variety of cultures, a cultural psychologist would be interested in how the social practices of a particular set of cultures shape the development of cognitive processes in different ways. 693:

It is based on the premise that the mind and culture are inseparable and mutually constitutive. The concept involves two propositions: firstly, that people are shaped by their culture, and secondly, that culture is shaped by its people.

1260:. In this book a tool kit is presented, which can be helpful in replacing the idea of culture as an explanatory variable with concepts and research instruments by means of which the behavioral patterning can be understood much better. 1129:. In contrast, collectivistic cultures often emphasize self-improvement as a leading motivating factor in their lives. This motivation is often derived from a desire to not lose face and to appear positively among social groups. 1008:

presents a self-improvement motivation often seen in East Asian that failure and success is interconvertible with effort. In terms of cognition styles, Chinese tend to perceive image using a holistic view compared to American.

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believed. In their book Hazel and Alana say, "In charting the course of your self, your postal code is just as important as your genetic code". The culture of the idea is just as important as the idea itself.

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difference in the U.S. In this study, researchers designed laboratory experiment to observe participants' aggression, and crime rate, demographic statistics were analyzed. The experiment results supported the

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Yoshihisa Kashima talks about cultural psychology in two senses, as a tradition and as a movement that emerged in the late 20th century. Cultural psychology as a tradition is traced back to Western

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Many researchers have expanded upon the Whiting model, and the Whiting model's influence is clear in both modern psychology and anthropology. According to an article by Thomas Weisner in the

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Cultural empathy became broadly understood as concurrent understanding and acceptance of a culture different from one's own. This idea has been further developed with the concept of

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This image is a representation derived from ideas found in the journal article "Cultures and Selves: A Cycle of Mutual Constitution" by Hazel Rose Markus and Shinoba Kitayama.

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and western Europeans rely on analytical reasoning strategies, which separate objects from their contexts to explain and predict behavior. Social psychologists refer to the "

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John W. Berry, Ype H. Poortinga, Marshall H. Segall, Pierre R. Dasen, Cambridge University Press, 1992, Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications: Second Edition

705:, one of the major proponents of the field, writes, "Cultural psychology is the study of how cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the 3527:

Wang, Y.W.; Blier, J.; Davidson, M.; Savoy, H.; Tan, J.; Tan, J.; Yakushka, O. (2003). "The scale of ethnocultural empathy: Development, validation, and reliability".

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While in psychological research interest in culture had declined, in part due to the popularity of behaviorism in the US, some researchers in anthropology, like

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Ridely, C.R.; Lingle, D.W. (1996). "Cultural empathy in multicultural counseling: A multidimensional process model.". In Pedersen, P.B.; Draguns, J.G. (eds.).

1103:, "All these approaches share a common intellectual project: to take culture and context deeply and seriously into account in studies of human development." 6349: 619: 1945: 2759:

Morling, Beth; Lamoreaux, Marika (2008-08-01). "Measuring Culture Outside the Head: A Meta-Analysis of Individualism—Collectivism in Cultural Products".

1004: 4334: 3096: 1090:, developed the "Whiting model" for child development during the 1970s and 1980s, which specifically focused on how culture influences development. 795: 329: 790:, started to explore the interaction between culture and personality. In the 1970s-1980s, there was an increasing call for an interpretive turn in 4938: 4429: 1301: 556: 2644: 936:

as to how their school community members participate in the environment they promise, accepting the community's role in their school culture.

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Markus, H. R., & Conner, A. C. (2013). Clash! Eight Cultural Conflicts that Make Us Who We Are. New York: Penguin (Hudson Street Press).

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Shweder, R.A.; & Levine, R.A. (Eds., 1984). Culture theory: Essays on mind, self, and emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press.

1745: 1319: 783:. They claimed that human activity is always embedded in a specific social and historical context and should therefore not be isolated. 3044:"John and Beatrice Whiting's Contributions to the Cross-Cultural Study of Human Development: Their Values, Goals, Norms, and Practices" 6376: 4492: 2920:

Fryberg, S.A.; Markus, H.R. (2007). "Cultural models of education in American Indian, Asian America, and European American contexts".

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has been shown to be more common in America (individualistic) as compared to in India (collectivistic). Along these same lines, the

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Turiel, Elliott (2002). The Culture of Morality: Social Development, Context, and Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Jovanović, Gordana; Allolio-Näcke, Lars; Ratner, Carl (2018-09-28). Jovanović, Gordana; Allolio-Näcke, Lars; Ratner, Carl (eds.).

1417:, second edition. Dov Cohen and Shinobo Kitayama, eds. New York: Guilford Press, 2019, 930 pp. $ 93.50, cloth. ISBN 9781462536238" 896:

miscalculation of psychological theories and may hinder psychologists' abilities to isolate fundamental cultural characteristics.

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Nisbett, R.E.; & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Denver, CO: Westview Press.

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These five points elucidate lack of both depth and breadth as hindrances in developing and practicing intercultural empathy.

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One of the most significant themes in recent years has been cultural differences between East Asians and North Americans in

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Zhu, Ying; Zhang, Li; Fan, Jin; Han, Shihui (2007-02-01). "Neural basis of cultural influence on self-representation".

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group. Research has shown such differences of the self when comparing collectivistic and individualistic cultures: The

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Shore, B. (1996). Culture in mind: Cognition, culture and the problem of meaning. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Kim, Hyunji (February 2016). "The Role of Positive Self-Evaluation on Cross-Cultural Differences in Well-Being".

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Being cognizant of how different cultures are treated by larger entities such as the job market and the media

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Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft (Journal of Folk Psychology and Language Science

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Cole, M. (1998). Cultural Psychology: A Once and Future Discipline. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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The social tuning of behavior, written by Paul Voestermans and Theo Verheggen. Oxford, Blackwell, 2014.

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Dyche, L.; Zayas, L.H. (2001). "Cross-cultural empathy and training the contemporary psychotherapist".

2595:"What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales: The reference-group problem" 3788:

Beyond the idea of culture: Understanding and changing cultural practices in business and life matters

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Beyond the Idea of Culture: Understanding and Changing Cultural Practices in Business and Life Matters

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DeTurk, S. (2001). "Intercultural empathy: Myth, competency, or possibility for alliance building?".

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The Whitings' Concepts of Culture and How They Have Fared in Contemporary Psychology and Anthropology

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Worthman, C. M. (2010). "The Ecology of Human Development: Evolving Models for Cultural Psychology".

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Markus, Hazel Rose; Kitayama, Shinobu (2010). "Cultures and Selves: A Cycle of Mutual Constitution".

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Accepting differences in cultural choices regarding language, clothing preference, food choice, etc.

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Cultural psychology research informs and is informed by several fields within psychology, including

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Nisbett, R.; Miyamoto, Y. (2005). "The influence of culture: holistic versus analytic perception".

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A main distinction to understand when looking at psychology and culture is the difference between

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Heine, Steven J.; Raineri, Andres (January 2009). "Self-Improving Motivations and Collectivism".

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are seen as important early inspirations in thinking about the influence of culture on people.

6187: 6080: 6070: 5905: 5842: 5837: 5737: 5727: 5722: 5541: 5536: 5521: 5516: 5501: 5496: 5479: 5469: 5454: 5427: 5417: 5329: 5322: 5305: 4871: 4861: 4786: 4761: 4442: 4399: 4324: 4225: 4210: 4094: 4059: 3985: 3909: 3745: 3727: 3455: 3315:(1986). "The self-serving bias in attributions as a coping strategy: A cross-cultural study". 3312: 3240: 3162: 2894: 2849: 2831: 2784: 2776: 2741: 2723: 2682: 2617: 2575: 2414: 2365: 2312: 2239: 2208: 2163: 2121: 2059: 1978: 1879: 1838: 1834: 1788: 1699: 1654: 1622: 1563: 1532: 1490: 1436: 1385: 1324: 1276: 1156: 1030: 835: 749: 730: 593: 394: 319: 225: 210: 96: 2702:

Jenkins, Lucas J.; Yang, Yung-Jui; Goh, Joshua; Hong, Ying-Yi; Park, Denise C. (2010-06-01).

1205:

inability to bridge different cultures by understanding the commonalities and dissimilarities

6318: 6204: 6157: 6105: 6085: 6060: 5995: 5952: 5910: 5874: 5857: 5847: 5822: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5636: 5591: 5581: 5437: 5422: 5359: 5300: 5265: 5204: 5169: 5164: 5091: 5076: 5015: 4881: 4876: 4741: 4736: 4636: 4457: 4404: 4359: 4344: 4339: 4215: 4190: 3977: 3946: 3882: 3735: 3719: 3685: 3650: 3620: 3566: 3536: 3445: 3437: 3406: 3324: 3275: 3232: 3189: 3154: 3119: 3055: 2991: 2929: 2886: 2839: 2823: 2768: 2731: 2715: 2659: 2609: 2567: 2513: 2406: 2357: 2304: 2200: 2155: 2111: 2049: 2041: 1970: 1918: 1871: 1830: 1780: 1768: 1726: 1691: 1646: 1618: 1590: 1559: 1524: 1482: 1428: 970: 941: 399: 354: 339: 334: 215: 190: 2812:"Culture–gene coevolution of individualism–collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene" 854:

the roots of our current psychology are buried in deep cultural and historical processes.

6294: 6289: 6214: 6075: 6030: 6020: 5947: 5942: 5879: 5852: 5827: 5797: 5792: 5772: 5767: 5551: 5526: 5459: 5317: 4851: 4816: 4756: 4706: 4195: 3898: 3819: 2054: 2026: 868: 776: 702: 195: 3608: 2392:"Perceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look" 2140: 1528: 3228: 3043: 2704:"Cultural differences in the lateral occipital complex while viewing incongruent scenes" 2107: 1516: 1474: 698:

but a heuristic means towards explaining how people understand and act upon the world."

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Understanding the verbal/behavioral expression that occurs during ethnocultural empathy

921:

ethical, interdependent, and diverse community of faculty, staff, students, and alumni.

745: 690:

is the study of how cultures reflect and shape their members' psychological processes.

4966: 1642:

The Challenges Of Cultural Psychology: Historical Legacies and Future Responsibilities

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Markus, H.R.; Kitayama, S. (2003). "Culture, Self, and the Reality of the Social".

978: 791: 772: 771:

which emerged in the 1920s. It is mostly associated with the Russian psychologists

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Prooijen, J. (2013). "Individualistic and social motives for justice judgments".

1486: 709:. This results less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences in 6274: 6177: 6147: 5832: 5290: 5189: 5096: 4886: 4676: 4661: 4626: 4482: 4409: 4109: 3981: 3328: 824: 726: 404: 111: 46: 3950: 3886: 3689: 3540: 3410: 2613: 2571: 2361: 2204: 1974: 5339: 5117: 4821: 4656: 4452: 4309: 4200: 4038: 3676:

Sue, D.W.; Sue, D. (1977). "Barriers to effective cross-cultural counseling".

3654: 3570: 3473:

Duan, C.; Wei, M.; Wang, L. (2008). "The role of individualism-collectivism".

2933: 2663: 2045: 1907:"Evading chronicity: Paradoxes in counseling psychology in contemporary China" 1784: 1384:

Shweder, Richard (1991). Thinking Through Cultures. Harvard University Press.

962: 880: 799: 304: 200: 38: 3731: 3193: 3123: 3081:

Heine, Steven (1999). "Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?".

3059: 2995: 2835: 2780: 2772: 2727: 2645:"Validity problems of cross-cultural value comparison and possible solutions" 2499:"The Study of Diversity in Human Development: Culture, Urgencies, and Perils" 2308: 1792: 1440: 803:

of a new journal and the publication of multiple major works, like Shweder's

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Heine, S. (2011). Cultural Psychology. San Francisco: W. W. Norton & Co.

2410: 966: 958: 454: 3989: 3922:"Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation" 3749: 3459: 3244: 3166: 2898: 2853: 2827: 2788: 2745: 2621: 2579: 2418: 2369: 2316: 2212: 2167: 2125: 2063: 1982: 1860:"Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China" 1703: 4240: 2719: 1946:"The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American" 1883: 1650: 4570: 4565: 4525: 3097:"High self-esteem may be culturally universal, international study shows" 479: 474: 434: 3384:

Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values

2484: 1263:

In 2020 an empirical program was launched by Ernst Graamans in his book

5038: 3236: 1875: 1277:

Institute of Cultural Psychology and Qualitative Social Research (ikus)

714: 3397:

Duan, C.; Hill, C.E. (1996). "The current state of empathy research".

2517: 5349: 4004:

Nisbett, R.E. (2003). The Geography of Thought. New York: Free Press.

3624: 3441: 2485:

Emphasis on 'culture' in psychology fuels stereotypes, scholar says.

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Fiske, A.; Kitayama, S.; Markus, H.R.; & Nisbett, R.E. (1998).

3908:

Bruner, Jerome (1990). Acts of Meaning. Harvard University Press.

3158: 1695: 926: 3963:"Culture and systems of thought: Holistic vs. analytic cognition" 2816:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences

1086:

John and Beatrice Whiting, along with their research students at

4585: 1307: 710: 494: 5011: 4011: 3266:

Hui, C.H. (1988). "Measurement of individualism-collectivism".

2681:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. pp. 253–254. 631: 4007: 3868:"The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts" 2085: 2083: 2081: 740:

Its institutional origin started with the publication of the

3023:." Faculty Publications, Department of Psychology.Paper 501. 2593:

Heine, S.J.; Lehman, D.R.; Peng, K.; Greenholtz, J. (2002).

2390:

Kitayama, S.; Duffy, S.; Kawamura, T.; Larsen, J.T. (2003).

1746:"Cultural Psychology: Studying More Than the 'Exotic Other'" 1073:

The final cycle, which houses the highest and most abstract

3552: 3550: 1579:"Origins and basic principles of Wundt's Völkerpsychologie" 5007: 3961:

Nisbett, R.E.; Peng, K.; Choi, I.; Norenzayan, A. (2001).

3766:. Psychologisch Laboratorium, Universiteit Nijmegen, 1991. 3494:

Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence

1220:

Taking the perspective of someone from a different culture

1191:(general) experience with other cultures outside one's own 3852:

The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge.

1304:

for Cultural Psychology and Historical Anthropology (KKC)

1296: 3613:

Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology

1282:

Institute of Psychology, Sigmund Freud University Vienna

1197:(specific) experiences regarding other people's cultures 1138:

Cultural orientation: collectivistic and individualistic

914:

University promises within its mission statement that:

2810:

Chiao, Joan Y.; Blizinsky, Katherine D. (2010-02-22).

1682:

Heine, S.; Ruby, M. B. (2010). "Cultural Psychology".

1194:(specific) knowledge regarding other people's cultures 977:, have argued that this research is based on cultural 3609:"Toward a conceptualization of ethnocultural empathy" 3522: 3520: 3518: 3496:. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 1829:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 71–95. 1481:, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 347–352, 1308:

Culture and Self Lab, University of British Columbia

1035:

Clash! 8 Cultural Conflicts That Make Us Who We Are.

944:

which are also represented in the graphic provided.

5973: 5893: 5650: 5390: 5253: 5110: 5059: 4899: 4606: 4516: 4428: 4248: 4073: 3850:Cultural Psychology: A Once and Future Discipline. 3147:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science 2025:Henrich, J.; Heine, S. J.; Norenzayan, A. (2010). 1684:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science 1555:Culture and Psychology: Words and Ideas in History 1297:Centre for Cultural Psychology, Aalborg University 1242:Cultural Influences in the mental health treatment 969:, and social psychological phenomena such as the 1808:Culture theory: Essays on mind, self, and emotion 809:Cultural Psychology: A Once and Future Discipline 3791:(PhD-Thesis - Research and graduation internal). 3762:Kempen, H., Paul Voestermans & V.J. Welten. 3708:"Cultural influences in mental health treatment" 3701: 3699: 3636: 3634: 1287:Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (LCHC) 1806:Shweder, R.A. & Levine, R.A., eds. 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Oxford University Press. 1558:. Oxford University Press. 755:, first published in 1860. 6398: 5668:Cross cultural sensitivity 5335:Resistance through culture 3951:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224 3887:10.1037/0033-295X.96.3.506 3855:Matsumoto, D (Ed) (2001). 3690:10.1037/0022-0167.24.5.420 3541:10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.221 3411:10.1037/0022-0167.43.3.261 3386:. 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Nisbett 4727:Donald T. Campbell 4405:Sport and exercise 3353:Zimbardo, Philip. 3237:10.1111/nyas.12143 2264:Southwest Airlines 2139:Jones, D. (2010). 1911:Asian Anthropology 1905:Hizi, Gil (2016). 1876:10.1007/BF00051427 1523:. pp. 38–69. 1088:Harvard University 985:Faulty methodology 933: 562:Schools of thought 400:Sport and exercise 246:Applied psychology 6372:Social psychology 6359: 6358: 6188:Death and culture 6081:Cultural movement 6071:Cultural literacy 5931:Eastern Orthodoxy 5843:Dominator culture 5838:Deculturalization 5738:Cultural hegemony 5728:Cultural genocide 5723:Cultural feminism 5542:Cultural property 5537:Cultural practice 5522:Cultural leveling 5517:Cultural learning 5502:Cultural industry 5497:Cultural identity 5480:Cultural heritage 5470:Cultural emphasis 5455:Cultural conflict 5428:Cultural behavior 5418:Cultural artifact 5330:Primitive culture 5306:Political culture 5005: 5004: 4982:Wikimedia Commons 4909:Counseling topics 4872:Ronald C. Kessler 4862:Shelley E. Taylor 4787:Lawrence Kohlberg 4762:Stanley Schachter 4561:Consumer behavior 4443:Archival research 4211:Psycholinguistics 4095:Affective science 3806:Library resources 2822:(1681): 529–537. 2688:978-0-393-91283-8 2518:10.1159/000077986 2506:Human Development 2260:"About Southwest" 2245:978-0-19-513133-8 1660:978-1-315-55966-7 1614:Völkerpsychologie 1538:978-0-19-934380-5 1496:978-1-4614-5582-0 1325:Indian psychology 1157:self-serving bias 1031:Hazel Rose Markus 836:social psychology 761:Völkerpsychologie 750:Heymann Steinthal 685: 684: 677: 649:encyclopedic tone 630: 629: 527:Counseling topics 470:Consumer behavior 211:Psycholinguistics 97:Affective science 16:(Redirected from 6389: 6382:Cultural studies 6340: 6339: 6328: 6327: 6316: 6315: 6205:Drinking culture 6158:Culture industry 6106:Cultural tourism 6086:Cultural mulatto 6061:Cultural jet lag 5996:Cannabis culture 5953:Cultural Muslims 5875:Pluriculturalism 5858:Multiculturalism 5848:Interculturalism 5823:Culture minister 5813:Cultural Zionism 5808:Cultural subsidy 5803:Cultural silence 5678:Cultural attaché 5637:Transculturation 5592:Material culture 5582:Interculturality 5438:Cultural capital 5423:Cultural baggage 5360:Youth subculture 5301:Official culture 5266:Dominant culture 5205:Internet culture 5170:Cultural mapping 5165:Cultural history 5092:Cultural studies 5077:Cultural ecology 5051: 5050: 5032: 5025: 5018: 5009: 4939:Research methods 4882:Richard Davidson 4877:Joseph E. LeDoux 4752:George A. Miller 4742:David McClelland 4737:Herbert A. Simon 4637:Edward Thorndike 4458:Content analysis 4243: 4216:Psychophysiology 4032: 4025: 4018: 4009: 4001: 3967: 3954: 3944: 3926: 3905: 3903: 3897:. Archived from 3872: 3793: 3792: 3782: 3776: 3773: 3767: 3760: 3754: 3753: 3743: 3703: 3694: 3693: 3673: 3667: 3666: 3638: 3629: 3628: 3625:10.1037/h0099278 3604: 3598: 3597: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3554: 3545: 3544: 3524: 3513: 3512: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3453: 3442:10.1037/a0017399 3421: 3415: 3414: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3359: 3350: 3341: 3340: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3290: 3284: 3283: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3039: 3033: 3030: 3024: 3017: 3008: 3007: 2979: 2970: 2967: 2958: 2955: 2946: 2945: 2928:(2): 1381–2890. 2917: 2911: 2910: 2884: 2875:(3): 1310–1316. 2864: 2858: 2857: 2847: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2739: 2714:(2–3): 236–241. 2699: 2693: 2692: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2649: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2599: 2590: 2584: 2583: 2557: 2548: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2528:. Archived from 2503: 2494: 2488: 2481: 2475: 2472: 2466: 2463: 2454: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2442: 2441: 2435: 2429:. Archived from 2396: 2387: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2372:. Archived from 2347: 2338: 2329: 2328: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2198: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2145: 2136: 2130: 2129: 2119: 2087: 2076: 2075: 2057: 2031: 2022: 2009: 2008: 2006: 2005: 1999: 1993:. Archived from 1968: 1950: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1855: 1849: 1848: 1818: 1812: 1811: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1764: 1758: 1757: 1741: 1735: 1734: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1636: 1627: 1626: 1608: 1599: 1598: 1574: 1568: 1567: 1549: 1543: 1542: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1470: 1453: 1452: 1408: 1393: 1382: 1371: 1367: 1361: 1354: 1348: 1341: 1005:culture of honor 942:Shinobu Kitayama 731:Giambatista Vico 680: 673: 669: 666: 660: 659:for suggestions. 640: 639: 632: 622: 615: 608: 592: 591: 590: 557:Research methods 216:Psychophysiology 78:Basic psychology 49: 30: 21: 6397: 6396: 6392: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6387: 6386: 6362: 6361: 6360: 6355: 6304: 6295:Western culture 6290:Welfare culture 6215:Eastern culture 6076:Cultural mosaic 6031:Cultural critic 6021:Cultural center 5969: 5943:Cultural Hindus 5889: 5880:Polyculturalism 5853:Monoculturalism 5828:Culture of fear 5798:Cultural safety 5793:Cultural rights 5773:Cultural racism 5768:Cultural policy 5646: 5552:Cultural system 5527:Cultural memory 5460:Cultural cringe 5386: 5318:Popular culture 5249: 5185:Cultural values 5106: 5055: 5041: 5036: 5006: 5001: 4958: 4934:Psychotherapies 4895: 4852:Martin Seligman 4817:Daniel Kahneman 4757:Richard Lazarus 4707:Raymond Cattell 4611: 4602: 4601: 4600: 4512: 4424: 4251: 4244: 4235: 4196:Neuropsychology 4076: 4069: 4041: 4036: 3965: 3960: 3942:10.1.1.320.1159 3924: 3919: 3901: 3870: 3865: 3831: 3830: 3829: 3814: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3800:Further reading 3797: 3796: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3761: 3757: 3705: 3704: 3697: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3640: 3639: 3632: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3591: 3590: 3586: 3556: 3555: 3548: 3526: 3525: 3516: 3506: 3505: 3501: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3472: 3471: 3467: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3396: 3395: 3391: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3366: 3364: 3357: 3352: 3351: 3344: 3310: 3309: 3305: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3265: 3264: 3260: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3095: 3094: 3090: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3041: 3040: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3018: 3011: 2981: 2980: 2973: 2968: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2882:10.1.1.125.9234 2866: 2865: 2861: 2809: 2808: 2804: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2689: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2647: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2597: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2555: 2550: 2549: 2540: 2532: 2501: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2394: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2345: 2340: 2339: 2332: 2294: 2293: 2289: 2282:Yale University 2276: 2275: 2271: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2246: 2233: 2232: 2228: 2189:(10): 467–473. 2180: 2179: 2175: 2143: 2138: 2137: 2133: 2117:10.1038/466029a 2089: 2088: 2079: 2040:(2–3): 61–135. 2029: 2024: 2023: 2012: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1966:10.1.1.455.5296 1948: 1943: 1942: 1938: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1857: 1856: 1852: 1845: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1766: 1765: 1761: 1743: 1742: 1738: 1716: 1715: 1711: 1681: 1680: 1676: 1661: 1638: 1637: 1630: 1610: 1609: 1602: 1576: 1575: 1571: 1551: 1550: 1546: 1539: 1514: 1513: 1509: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1472: 1471: 1456: 1410: 1409: 1396: 1383: 1374: 1368: 1364: 1355: 1351: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1316: 1273: 1253: 1251:Nijmegen school 1244: 1175: 1166: 1144:individualistic 1140: 1135: 1114: 1109: 1084: 1062: 1053: 1044: 1027: 1018: 1016:Cultural models 996: 987: 955: 950: 902: 869:Richard Shweder 865: 860: 817: 723: 703:Richard Shweder 681: 670: 664: 661: 654: 645:This section's 641: 637: 626: 588: 586: 579: 578: 577: 576: 552:Psychotherapies 520: 510: 509: 430: 422: 421: 420: 419: 248: 238: 237: 236: 235: 196:Neuropsychology 80: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6395: 6393: 6385: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6364: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6353: 6346: 6334: 6322: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6201: 6200: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6114: 6113: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6091:Cultural probe 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6016:Cross-cultural 6013: 6011:Coffee culture 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5981:Animal culture 5977: 5975: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5945: 5940: 5939: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5903: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5887: 5885:Transculturism 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5818:Culture change 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5644: 5642:Visual culture 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5622:Safety culture 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5446: 5445: 5443:Cross-cultural 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5394: 5392: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5257: 5255: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5120: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5104: 5102:Culture theory 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5063: 5061: 5057: 5056: 5046: 5043: 5042: 5037: 5035: 5034: 5027: 5020: 5012: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4905: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4894: 4892:Roy Baumeister 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4827:Michael Posner 4824: 4819: 4814: 4812:Elliot Aronson 4809: 4807:Walter Mischel 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4772:Albert Bandura 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4747:Leon Festinger 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4717:Neal E. Miller 4714: 4712:Abraham Maslow 4709: 4704: 4699: 4697:Ernest Hilgard 4694: 4692:Donald O. Hebb 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4672:J. P. Guilford 4669: 4667:Gordon Allport 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4647:John B. Watson 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4612: 4607: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4514: 4513: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4438:Animal testing 4434: 4432: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4256: 4254: 4246: 4245: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4141:Cross-cultural 4138: 4133: 4132: 4131: 4121: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4081: 4079: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4046: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4035: 4034: 4027: 4020: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4002: 3976:(2): 291–310. 3958: 3955: 3917: 3906: 3904:on 2013-05-13. 3863: 3860: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3828: 3827: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3777: 3768: 3755: 3695: 3684:(5): 420–429. 3668: 3649:(4): 374–384. 3630: 3599: 3584: 3565:(3): 245–258. 3546: 3535:(2): 221–234. 3514: 3499: 3484: 3465: 3436:(6): 874–884. 3416: 3389: 3374: 3342: 3313:Triandis, H.C. 3303: 3285: 3258: 3207: 3188:(1): 158–163. 3172: 3153:(2): 254–266. 3137: 3102: 3088: 3073: 3054:(4): 499–509. 3034: 3025: 3009: 2990:(4): 546–562. 2971: 2959: 2947: 2912: 2859: 2802: 2767:(3): 199–221. 2751: 2694: 2687: 2669: 2635: 2585: 2538: 2535:on 2011-11-10. 2512:(3): 131–137. 2489: 2476: 2467: 2455: 2446: 2382: 2379:on 2013-12-24. 2330: 2303:(4): 420–430. 2287: 2269: 2251: 2244: 2226: 2173: 2131: 2077: 2010: 1959:(7): 602–614. 1936: 1897: 1870:(2): 117–190. 1850: 1843: 1813: 1798: 1779:(2): 176–183. 1759: 1736: 1709: 1690:(2): 254–266. 1674: 1659: 1628: 1600: 1589:(4): 303–313. 1569: 1544: 1537: 1507: 1495: 1454: 1433:10.1086/708409 1427:(3): 369–371. 1394: 1372: 1362: 1349: 1335: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1322: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1305: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1272: 1269: 1252: 1249: 1243: 1240: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1207: 1206: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1174: 1171: 1165: 1162: 1148:collectivistic 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1083: 1080: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1026: 1023: 1017: 1014: 995: 992: 986: 983: 954: 951: 949: 946: 925: 924: 923: 922: 901: 898: 864: 861: 859: 856: 816: 813: 796:constructivist 746:Moritz Lazarus 722: 719: 683: 682: 644: 642: 635: 628: 627: 625: 624: 617: 610: 602: 599: 598: 597: 596: 581: 580: 575: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 523: 522: 521: 516: 515: 512: 511: 508: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 431: 428: 427: 424: 423: 418: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 251: 250: 249: 244: 243: 240: 239: 234: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 145: 143:Cross-cultural 140: 135: 134: 133: 123: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 83: 82: 81: 76: 75: 72: 71: 70: 69: 64: 59: 51: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6394: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6352: 6351: 6347: 6345: 6344: 6335: 6333: 6332: 6323: 6321: 6320: 6311: 6310: 6307: 6301: 6300:Youth culture 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6285:Urban culture 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6270:Remix culture 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6245:Media culture 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6235:Languaculture 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6199: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6163:Culture shock 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6123:Cultural turn 6121: 6119: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5991:Bennett scale 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5978: 5976: 5972: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5921:Protestantism 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5863:Biculturalism 5861: 5860: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5627:Technoculture 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5607:Print culture 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5572:Enculturation 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5492:Cultural icon 5490: 5486: 5483: 5482: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5444: 5441: 5440: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5433:Cultural bias 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5413:Cultural area 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5398:Acculturation 5396: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5372:Super culture 5370: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5342: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5319: 5316: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5286:Legal culture 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5235:Sound culture 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5115: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5044: 5040: 5033: 5028: 5026: 5021: 5019: 5014: 5013: 5010: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4961: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4929:Psychologists 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4919:Organizations 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4867:John Anderson 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4797:Ulric Neisser 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4782:Endel Tulving 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4767:Robert Zajonc 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4722:Jerome Bruner 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4687:B. F. Skinner 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4652:Clark L. Hull 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4632:Sigmund Freud 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4622:William James 4620: 4618: 4617:Wilhelm Wundt 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609:Psychologists 4605: 4597: 4596:Psychometrics 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4556:Consciousness 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4488:Psychophysics 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4430:Methodologies 4427: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4390:Psychotherapy 4388: 4386: 4385:Psychometrics 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 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