199:
the
Tunisian state proceeded to consolidate itself without seeking any significant foundation either in ideological legitimation or in representing the interests of the community of the governed. This new state formation freed itself from the need for tribal support by maintaining a central army and governing through a makhzen establishment. The Tunisian state came to rely upon Mediterranean trade to supplement its inadequate internal resources. Although this benefited the existing makhzens and allowed them to remain in power without any need for active local support, Mediterranean trade encouraged trade monopolies, permitting European powers and their merchants to become directly involved in the politics.
203:
it. One notorious example was Qacim Ben
Soultana, self-made man, who took advantage of his official position to amass a colossal fortune by devoting himself to foreign trade and arming privateers as well as by exploiting his urban and agricultural properties. Indeed, dominant positions in the export trade were often held by Turkish or Mamluk officials such as Slimane Belhadj, the second largest exporter of wheat, oil and poppy or Hammouda Lasram, Agha of Zouaoua and Head of Customs was the largest exporter of poppy. However these fortunes, no matter how large they grew, remained insecure and at the mercy of the Bey. Ben Soultana, for example, was ruined by an arbitrary decision of the Bey in July 1730.
367:
permanent makhzen forces. Later, at the request of the French
Resident's Military Authority, they could also be called on to provide a "non-permanent makhzen" or "non-permanent goum". The Ksourians of Matmata, sedentary and often still Berber-speaking, were attached to the non-Makhzen territory and were called up to serve in the Tunisian army. However, after fulfilling their military obligations, these men could also serve in the permanent Makhzen or engage in the goums. The non-permanent makhzen forces were first organised by a decree of September 23, 1914 and fell into disuse at the end of the First World War in 1919. All able-bodied men aged 20 to 40 from the Ouerghemma and Nefzaoua were included.
363:
in
October 1884. Each agreed to maintain an agreed number of armed horsemen in return for tax exemptions. Their main duties were to deter and repel cross-border raids from Tripolitania. However following an attack by these forces on Turkish soldiers across the border, the French decided to completely restructure the makhzen auxiliary forces as a single professional body completely separated from any tribal loyalty, and this was effected by 1888. The tribes' tax privileges were maintained for a while, but their special relationship with the protectorate authorities was effectively at an end.
339:, and the Soff Bachia who had supported Ali (though in fact this division may well have been much older). The Hussainid beys thereafter supported the Soff Hassina against its rivals and raised militia forces from them to maintain order in the southern regions. This provided the government in Tunis with a cheap and flexible means of controlling expanses of territory it would not otherwise have been able to garrison. Prominent among the makhzen tribes were the Drid; the Hammama who often took part in government expeditions to Central Tunisia; the Ouerghamma, the Neffat and the Jlass.
302:
the High Court, these ministers were sentenced to prison, designated nationally unworthy and has their property confiscated. Mohamed Salah Mzali was sentenced to ten years in prison, confiscation of his property and national unworthiness for life. His ministers were sentenced to three years in prison and national unworthiness. The members of the two former cabinets, gathered in the same room at the central prison, joined the son of the deposed bey, the former director of
298:
Council, ministers, security officials, members of information and press services, or those who participated in the organization of artistic and economic events, policies and other activities that favoured colonization ... or of having published articles, brochures or books or lectured in favour of colonization. This measure inaugurated a full-scale nationalist “cleansing” of all those employed by the old regime.
37:. These were known as “makhzen families”. Outside of the capital and the major towns, the term 'makhzen' designated not the leading families close to the regime, but those of the interior tribes which had a trusted relationship with the ruling family. Together the great families and the loyal tribes made up the country's 'establishment'.
323:” (“lands of anarchy”). The distinction between the two varied over time as the central government exercised its authority in different ways, and individual villages and tribes had differing relationships with it. Other terms used were “bled et-Trouk” (land of the Turks) and “bled el-Arab” (“lands of the Arabs”).
219:
The rise of the nationalist movement in
Tunisia in the 20th century posed new challenges to the makhzen families. They were widely regarded as 'compromised' by their proximity to the colonial regime and their lack, in general, of any involvement in resistance against it. An important crisis point was
366:
Under the French
Protectorate, the decree of March 23, 1889 divided the southern territories of the Regency into Makhzen lands and lands where military recruitment would take place. The population of the Makhzen lands was exempted from recruiting and instead provided the protectorate government with
362:
by using tribal auxiliaries, and they entered into negotiations with various tribes in an attempt to build a new makhzen network. Initially the focus of this strategy was the Beni Zid but after this proved unsuccessful negotiations were eventually concluded with the
Ouderna, Haouia, and the Touazine
301:
The particular targets of these laws and campaigns were the ministers who had served in the cabinets of
Salaheddine Baccouche (1952-1954) and Mohamed Salah Mzali (1954) because the new republican government believed that they had actively thwarted the national independence movement. Arraigned before
32:
of
European origin, intermarried with indigenous Tunisian families who were great merchants or landowners. This network of families dominated the high offices of state, the leadership of the army and the positions of rank and power in the regions outside the capital. They were also closely connected
288:
A law of June 21, 1956 reorganized regional administration in
Tunisia and abolished in a single move many of the lower-level positions that had traditionally been filled by the makhzen families, and removed their serving postholders. The posts abolished included those of Sheikh el-Medina (Mayor of
202:
These families constituted an elite exercising economic oligarchy close to the central power of the Bey, reinforced by political and familial distinctions of rank. Most of the high functionaries of the 18th century Tunisian state owed their wealth to their official positions, rather than inheriting
198:
These makhzen families represented a relative stabilisation of central power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries relative to the political systems of previous eras; they replaced the old tribal elites whose support had previously been essential to maintaining power. During the Ottoman period
350:
in October, French columns moved south to threaten their arable lands and pastures. From this time on, the Soff Hassina closely linked with the ruling dynasty retreated before the columns and maintained a hostile attitude towards the invaders. The Soff Bachia fairly quickly came to terms with the
211:
The state which the makhzen families served was unable to mount any effective military resistance to the French invasion in 1881, and the establishment of the French protectorate removed power and influence from court positions - indeed some high offices of state were completely abolished. French
297:
as well as former caïds and members of the Grand Council. A law of November 19, 1957 established a new procedure for dealing with individuals guilty of "l'indignité nationale" ("national unworthiness"). It applied to all those who before the date of Tunisian independence, members of the Grand
292:
In 1957 Tunisia became a republic; the Lamine Bey was imprisoned and his family was dispossessed of their properties. A new law of August 17, 1957 provided for the confiscation of “ill-gotten goods” and this was soon deployed against the makhzen families. The property of sixteen notables was
334:
The Arab tribes of Tunisia were linked to each other through pledges of mutual assistance known as 'soffs'. By the nineteenth century there were two soffs, the Soff Hassina (Cheddad) organised around a traditional claim to have supported Hussein Bey during the rebellion of his nephew
232:
was trying to force on him. Instead, he convened forty representatives of the Tunisian people and listened to their case for reform. Eventually however the Bey gave way to the wishes of the French, and this marked the end of any support for him from the nationalist movement led by the
318:
The term “bled makhzen” (“lands of the makhzen”) meant those parts of the country which were effectively under the direct control of the Bey. This included the capital, the coastal cities and the main towns of the interior. The remainder of the country was known as
45:
Originally the term 'makhzen' denoted specifically the escort attached to the ruler or to his deputy while they were outside the capital, particularly on "mahalla" tours gathering taxes. On these tours substantial sums of money were collected and stored
61:
The composition of this escort evolved over time depending on changes in administration and military organisation, even after the term “makhzen” had taken on a much wider meaning than this original use. In 1864 the makhzen corps accompanying the
212:
rule deprived the makhzen families of their positions and led to a much higher rate of marriage with daughters of wealthy merchants in Tunis. This saw the emergence of families referred to as “beldi”. Typically they lived in fine houses in the
66:
consisted of a household force responsible for lighting the lamps in the camp and guarding prisoners and horses as well as the treasure itself, while the Zouaouas and the tribal contingents were assigned to other units.
342:
The French invasion upset the relationships between the makhzen tribes and the centre. From June to October 1881 the tribes buried their differences and opposed the French, but after the fall of
556:
331:
The “makhzen tribes” were those loyal groups that originally provided troops to accompany the mahalla and supported the government in other ways, receiving privileges in return.
1192:
LA RÉACTION DES AUTOCHTONES DANS LE CENTRE ET LE SUD TUNISIEN CONTRE L'OCCUPATION FRANÇAISE ENTRE 1881 & 1888 : MOUVEMENT DE RÉSISTANCE OU RÉBELLION PRIMITIVE
716:
289:
Tunis) and 37 regional caĂŻds, 49 kahias and 77 khalifas. In each case the positions abolished were replaced with new posts, filled by Neo-Destour loyalists.
1214:
1109:
1011:
European influence and tribal society in Tunisia during the nineteenth century: the origins and impact of the trade in esparto grass 1870-1940
860:
664:
627:
256:
to Tunisia in 1955 the balance of power began to shift decisively against the Makhzen families. In September four ministers were dismissed -
1262:
1247:
244:(from a makhzen family) and it included several French representatives as well as four Destourians and members of makhzen families such as
280:. These changes were early indications of the more drastic changes that were to come after Tunisia gained complete independence in 1956.
1242:
1169:
LES MUTATIONS SOCIO-SPATIALES; CULTURELLES ' ET ASPECTS ANTHROPOLOGIQUES EN MILIEU ARIDE: CAS DE LA JEFFARA TUNISO.LYBIENNE 1837-1956
58:
the term also came to include tribes who provided contingents of men to escort the mahalla column who received privileges in return.
513:
1033:
1257:
1252:
765:
823:
425:
1167:
355:
580:"Une scénologie ambiantale pour saisir le sensible : les demeures des dignitaires de la Régence de Tunis (1704-1815)"
28:
before the proclamation of the republic in 1957. The makhzen consisted of families of Turkish origin, or Turkish-speaking
358:
was established, the French authorities found it useful to try to manage the south, and in particular, the border with
653:
Binous, Jamila; Baklouti, Naceur; Ben Tanfous, Aziza; Bouteraa, Kadri; Rammah, Mourad; Zouari, Ali (2015-06-08).
939:"Changements politiques et exclusion lors de la décolonisation : le cas du Makhzen en Tunisie (1954-1959)"
307:
796:
183:
766:"Trade and Personal Wealth Accumulation in Tunis from the Seventeenth to the Early Nineteenth Centuries"
505:
Les alliances matrimoniales chez les " familles du Makhzen " dans la régence de Tunis à l'époque moderne
455:
456:"Introduction Ă l'Ă©tude de l'establishment tunisien : l'Etat Makhzen Husseinite et ses mutations"
126:
579:
508:. Maghreb et sciences sociales. Institut de recherche sur le Maghreb contemporain. pp. 251–261.
359:
225:
294:
55:
1142:
Tribesmen and the colonial encounter: Southern Tunisia during the French protectorate 1882 to 1940
899:
530:
260:, Slaheddine Baccouche, Abdelkader Belkhodja and HĂ©di RaĂŻs. In November the Neo-Destour Interior
229:
856:
660:
623:
509:
376:
336:
130:
1060:
654:
950:
591:
470:
249:
616:
Sophie Ferchiou; Institut de recherches et d'Ă©tudes sur le monde arabe et musulman (1992).
135:
109:
542:
253:
241:
213:
47:
25:
351:
French and thereafter took part in raids on Soff Hassina tribes alongside French forces.
114:
1215:"Les Formations sahariennes et supplétives des Territoires du Sud Tunisien – 1883-1956"
303:
273:
245:
191:
86:
717:"Mahmoud Djellouli (1750-1839): Un homme de pouvoir au temps des pachas beys de Tunis"
1236:
240:
When France granted Tunisia internal autonomy in 1954, a government was formed under
154:
94:
24:
was the term used to designate the political and administrative establishment of the
320:
257:
63:
1085:
978:
850:
688:
617:
503:
277:
234:
174:
622:. Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique. pp. 110, 127.
261:
221:
1003:
557:"La composition du gouvernement tunisien est bien accueillie dans la RĂ©gence"
938:
474:
142:
that provided Tunisia with 20 governors, 4 ministers and 2 prime ministers
746:
Catégories de la société tunisoise dans la deuxième moitié du XIXe siècle
595:
347:
162:
903:
887:
855:. Université de Tunis I, Faculté des lettres de la Manouba. p. 83.
381:
29:
17:
1110:"Armées et métiers d'armes en Tunisie à l'époque moderne (1574-1815)"
955:
269:
265:
118:
98:
1190:
659:. Museum With No Frontiers, MWNF (Museum Ohne Grenzen). p. 28.
158:
101:
34:
1137:
1087:
Pouvoir et société dans la Tunisie de Hʼusayn bin ʻAli: 1705-1740
690:
Pouvoir et société dans la Tunisie de Hʼusayn bin ʻAli: 1705-1740
1062:
Tunisia Since Independence: The Dynamics of One-party Government
343:
139:
1065:. University of California Press. p. 14. GGKEY:JH3FQZCS8F8
980:
The Greening of Tunis: Ghettoization and the Prosaics of Piety
207:
Decline of the makhzen families under the French protectorate
1138:"Appendix IX: Divide and rule: relations between the tribes"
748:, éd. Institut national d'archéologie et d'art, Tunis, 1989
656:
Ifriqiya: Treize Siècles d'Art et d'Architecture en Tunisie
1112:. Republique Tunisienne, Ministere de la Defense Nationale
1004:"2.4 Social Relations and the Relationship with the State"
619:
Hasab wa nasab: parenté, alliance et patrimoine en Tunisie
1034:"En Tunisie, la périphérie prend une revanche historique"
983:. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 31–33
852:Watan al Munastir: fiscalité et société, 1676-1856
648:
646:
228:, from a makhzen family, whom the French Resident
75:Among the families of the Tunisian makhzen were:
293:confiscated, including former ministers such as
740:
738:
8:
1161:
1159:
426:"Que reste-t-il des grandes familles ?"
1131:
1129:
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932:
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881:
879:
770:Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine
173:Nouira from whom came the prime minister
759:
757:
449:
447:
445:
443:
1184:
1182:
1090:. Université de Tunis. pp. 229–231
693:. Université de Tunis. pp. 229–231
497:
495:
493:
491:
393:
710:
708:
538:
528:
888:"Political Traditions of the Maghrib"
419:
417:
188:Siala, originally merchants from Sfax
54:(makhzen) means "storehouse"). Under
7:
824:"A propos du patrimoine Djelloulien"
415:
413:
411:
409:
407:
405:
403:
401:
399:
397:
224:refused to accept as Prime Minister
284:Makhzen families after independence
51:
268:, Neffat, Aradh and the kahias of
97:, frequently occupied the post of
14:
977:Elizabeth Aristie Vasile (1995).
502:Jerad, Mehdi (18 December 2014).
1166:Abdelkebir, Abderrahman (2003).
1032:Ghilès, Francis (8 April 2021).
264:dismissed the caĂŻds of Souassi,
1217:. La Sabretache. 28 April 2014
1175:(PhD). Université de Lorraine.
424:Ghorbal, Samy (18 June 2007).
356:French protectorate of Tunisia
306:and a few professors from the
1:
795:KĂ©fi, Ridha (15 March 2005).
715:Ben Achour, Mohamed el Aziz.
1084:Mohamed-HĂ©di Cherif (1984).
1059:Clement Henry Moore (1965).
744:Mohamed El Aziz Ben Achour,
687:Mohamed-HĂ©di Cherif (1984).
1263:Military history of Tunisia
1248:Economic history of Tunisia
1013:(PhD). University of Durham
129:, from whom came President
1279:
849:Dalenda Larguèche (1993).
559:. Le Monde. 10 August 1954
463:Cahiers de la Méditerranée
64:mahalla of General Zarrouk
1243:Social history of Tunisia
1002:McQuarrie, Gavin (1995).
943:Cahiers de la Mediteranee
886:Hermassi, Elbaki (1973).
1144:(PhD). Durham University
1136:Fozzard, Adrian (1987).
937:Chater, Khalifa (2004).
764:Boubaker, Sadok (2003).
454:Chater, Khalifa (1994).
308:University of Ez-Zitouna
1258:19th century in Tunisia
1253:18th century in Tunisia
475:10.3406/camed.1994.1123
230:fr:Jean de Hauteclocque
1189:Letaief, Adel (1987).
252:. After the return of
578:Karoui, Hind (2015).
822:Maalej, Abdelkader.
596:10.5169/seals-650786
360:Ottoman Tripolitania
226:Slaheddine Baccouche
797:"BĂ©ji CaĂŻd Essebsi"
295:Mohamed Salah Mzali
250:fr:Naceur Ben SaĂŻd
157:, originally from
117:, originally from
41:Origin of the term
862:978-9973-900-54-8
666:978-3-902782-41-0
629:978-2-222-04653-0
382:Makhzen (Morocco)
377:Makhzen (Algeria)
131:Beji Caid Essebsi
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138:, a family from
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242:Tahar Ben Ammar
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898:(1): 207–224.
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