Malnutrition in South Africa

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created a food fortification mix imbedded in maize meal and other complementary foods. The mix's high Folate content seems to have eradicated Folate deficiencies. The food fortification program also made the iodization of salt mandatory since 1995. This seems to have halted incidences of iodine deficiencies. However, any micronutrients lacking in the food fortification mix can still cause malnutrition. Unfortunately, it has been difficult for the micronutrient supplementation program to provide all the lacking micronutrients to those in need. The program faces various limitations in the forms of supply, supplement quality, bio-availability, outreach, and compliance. For example, the Vitamin A supplementation program has been criticized for its struggles with reaching its most vulnerable target: children and post-partum women. By the year 2050 the world's population is expecting to hit 9.7 billion, as a consequence the poorest countries will still be living 7 years less according to the United Nations. In response to Covid:19 and in order to address these risks, the Food and Agriculture Organization urges countries to:

616:. It aims to provide nutrition to malnourished infants through the facilitation of breast-feeding and proper use of breast-feeding substitutes only when absolutely necessary. Unfortunately, there has been a delay in the legislation of the code. If passed, it will need to promote intensive training that follows along the national breastfeeding guidelines for health workers, so that they can reach out to individuals that are doubtful of the benefits of breastfeeding their children. It will also need to promote the extension of maternity leave benefits to give working South African mothers sufficient time and resources to breastfeed. 88:, and eventually even death. In fact, UNICEF found that 11.4% of deaths of South African children under five can be attributed to low weight, making low birth weight the second most prominent cause of children's death in South Africa. According to 2008 statistics, out of 10 million children's deaths, 5.6 million can somehow be attributed to malnutrition. Although all cases of malnutrition in South Africa will not necessarily lead to death, they will most likely lead to a decline in health. The most easily preventable yet most prominent detrimental health conditions associated with malnutrition are 2089: 951: 640:

it. However, various shortcomings remain. The program has struggled with community based interventions and with properly reaching out to and enrolling all malnourished children without misusing resources on children that are not truly malnourished. If the Child Support Grant was extended to apply to all families of malnourished children, all at risk children could be reached and enrolled at hospitals, clinics, and other places that participate in growth monitoring.

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main foci of the INP are breastfeeding promotion, growth monitoring and promotion, food fortification, micronutrient supplementation, hospital-based management of severe malnutrition, nutrition rehabilitation in communities, and nutrition management during illness. The INP addresses these foci through nutritional education, nutrition counseling services and support for specific ailments, and indirect provision of healthcare services.

548:." Although the majority of South Africans were (and continue to be) black, the reserves compromised a disproportionally small amount of land (13% of South Africa). The reserves were geographically isolated and had poor healthcare, infrastructure and irrigation. Although the first multiracial election in 1994 brought an immediate end to Apartheid, the detrimental effects of Apartheid in South Africa continue to be felt today. 351:

health cost of not breastfeeding a child is not widely known, most South African women chose the latter option and turn to baby formula to replace breast milk as the main nutritional source for their infants. In fact, according to the South African Demographic Health Service, out of all 3-month-old babies in South Africa, only 10% were exclusively breast-fed and 48.3% were bottle-fed.

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1.4 million had no access to any livestock besides chickens, and 770,000 households had access to neither arable land or other livestock. Unfortunately, many of the rural households that did have access to livestock had to sell the livestock in order to alleviate poverty. All this results in a severe shortage of food among the rural poor, thereby leading to a shortage of nutrients.

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and immunization. However, there are various vague generalities in IMCI's guidelines that make it difficult for South African health providers to know exactly how to train mothers to provide food for their children. This presents a problem because most ill South African children are never seen by a nutritionist so they have no other way of learning how to have a proper nutrition.

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food and beverage purchases have dropped drastically from 27.4% in the year 2000 to 16.6% in the year 2005. These statistics are reflected in poverty-stricken South African households, where the main food providers have to change their food consumption patterns to cope with economic instability. This is a detrimental change that compromises nutrition.

636:, which was supposed to provide the case fatality rates of severe malnourishment among children in hospitals, the lack of identification of malnutrition-related deaths remains high. However, there has been a notable drop of malnutrition-related deaths among hospitals due to training and capacity development geared at the hospital staff. 620:

growth. However, there are various shortcomings in Africa's approach to growth monitoring and promotion. These include inaccurate weight assessment, lack of weight plotting, nurses not trained sufficiently to detect malnutrition, inability to supply growth cards to all infants, and lack of sufficient communication with caretakers.

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The World Health Organization showed that over the span of thirteen years (1995 to 2008), the deviation from the average height of children under age five in South Africa has slightly decreased from 28.7% to 23.9%. These decreases in deviation show that the problem of malnutrition in South Africa has

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as affecting individuals whom "food and nutrient intake is consistently inadequate to meet individual requirements." By the standards of this definition, malnutrition is a prevalent problem in South Africa. In the year 2000, 39% of the country's population suffered from malnutrition. Children are the

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In order to address the problem of nutrient supplementation on a community-wide level, the INP helped establish the short-term program "Nutrition Supplementation Program" (previously known as the PEM Scheme). This program has been fairly effective because of the well-trained nutritionists that assist

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and malnutrition. According to the United Nations, there are certain steps that could be especially beneficial in combating malnutrition. It is estimated that by simply increasing Vitamin A and C intake along with improving breastfeeding methods, the lives of 2.4 million children throughout the world

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According to 2008 statistics, South Africa has the third most unequal economy in the world. The widespread poverty in Africa can be traced to many factors. UNICEF states that the main causes of malnutrition are "household food insecurity, inadequate care for the vulnerable groups such as maternal and

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15% of South African infants are born with a low birth weight. 5% of South African children are so underweight they are considered to be wasted (a child is considered wasted when they are too thin for their height). Since the 1990s South Africa's malnutrition problem has remained fairly stable. It is

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varies across different geographical areas and socio-economic groups. Many infants in Africa suffer from malnutrition because their mothers do not breastfeed them. The mothers in South Africa that do not breast feed their children do not do it mainly to try to avoid the possibility that in doing so,

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to encourage proper nutrition management. UNICEF, in conjunction with the World Health Organization, established the IMCI to increase child survival in areas with poor resources. IMCI aims to achieve this through a combination of improved management of common childhood diseases and proper nutrition

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In accordance with the goal of the United Nations, the South Africa Department of Health established the Integrated Nutrition Program in 1995. The INP aims to mainly help the people most prevalently at risk for malnutrition: children six years old and under, pregnant women, and lactating women. The

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This is because while wealthy urban residents have access to better education and food, their rural, chronically poor counterparts are less educated, have lower literacy levels, and have limited food access. In 1997, 900,000 households that were located in formal reserves had no arable land access,

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The formula readily available to the average South African woman does not provide the sufficient nutrients necessary to sustain an infant when utilized by itself. Thus, many infants are not provided with the necessary nutrients they need to thrive, and this can lead to severe cases of malnutrition.

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Thus, many conflicted South African mothers are faced with the morally difficult decision of whether to prevent malnutrition in their children by breastfeeding them at the risk of them contracting HIV, or preventing HIV in their children at the risk of them not being properly nourished. Because the

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Meet the immediate food needs of their vulnerable populations, Boost social protection programmes, Keep global food trade going, Keep the domestic supply chain gears moving, and Support smallholder farmers' ability to increase food production. Africa and Asia are at the biggest risks right now

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status that regardless of modern attempts, is yet to be effectively controlled. The nationwide economic instability causes income instability for many Africans, which is reflected in a drop of food and beverage purchases. Statistics have shown the percentage of South African incomes being spent on

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The INP has implemented growth monitoring in South Africa through the following measures: the provision of growth cards to all caretakers of children under two years old, the constant monitoring of growth and detection of malnutrition, the provision of counsel to caretakers, and the promotion of

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However, numerous incidences of kwashiorkor were found among the Wakamba, Kiyuku, and solely grain and vegetable-consuming Bahutu. This shows that South African people who have an agricultural cultivation-based lifestyle are at high risk for malnutrition. In addition to those living in desolate,

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may not have the cognitive abilities to recognize that she needs to feed her children, and thus may neglect to do so, causing her children not to obtain the sufficient nutrients they need to thrive. However, even mothers with full cognitive abilities may still cause their children to suffer from

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levels in the blood. 21.4% of pre-school children have anemia in South Africa. Anemia is also a major cause of maternal mortality. Approximately 50% of pregnant women in South Africa have anemia. Anemia causes tiredness and weakness. If left untreated for long periods of time, it can damage the

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Also, although only 13.6% of South African households have no toilet facilities, 30% of Eastern Cape residents lack toilet facilities. Similar statistics are true for the rural areas of the Limpopo Province in northern South Africa. The prevalence of malnutrition in Limpopo is so vast that 48%

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The INP has not failed to recognize the challenges that arise in the hospital-based management of severe malnutrition. South African hospitals admit numerous children for severe malnutrition, yet many of these children end up suffering easily avoidable deaths. Even after the 2006 South African

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In order to directly address nutrient deficiencies, the INP established a mandatory food fortification program in 2003, which is interrelated to the micronutrient supplementation program. However, the programs have not reached their anticipated success rates. The food fortification program has

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The specific consequences of malnutrition vary depending on the individual and the specific nutrients the individual's diet is lacking. South Africa's Department of Health has established various special programs and initiatives, like the Integrated Nutrition Program, to combat the detrimental

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Thus, the fact that 25% of pre-school children and 20% of primary school children in South Africa suffered from malnutrition in the year 2000 means that the future population of South Africa is being endangered by the problems of malnutrition The problem of malnutrition in South Africa can be

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However, the problem of malnutrition isn't simply solved by a mother choosing to breastfeed her child. Many infants who are breastfed have mothers who are severely undernourished themselves. If a mother doesn't have sufficient nutrients for herself, she is much less likely to have sufficient

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The poorest South African provinces today are those that encompass former African reserves (Eastern Cape, Limpopo Province, and Kwazulu-Natal). These places are especially known for their higher rates of malnutrition as compared to the already high rates of South Africa.

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milk. The Pieraert people are lake-side dwellers who consume fresh fish and dried fish. The research found no incidences of kwashiorkor among the Masai, Batussi, the Pieraert, and a small part of the Bahutu who in addition to vegetables and grains, also cultivate beans.

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cultivation-based lifestyles that only allow them to live on the very limited amount of resources given to them by their land. The food resources they have access to lack several vital nutrients, making malnutrition among these people more prevalent than among

321:. Many infants in Africa suffer from malnutrition because their mothers do not breastfeed them. The mothers in South Africa that do not breast feed their children do not do it mainly to try to avoid the possibility that in doing so, their children may contract 665:

most affected by this problem, especially young children. South Africa's problem of malnutrition is unique to other countries' malnutrition problems because South Africa is a primarily young country, with one third of the population being under the age of 15.

427:, the Batussi, the Bahutu, the Pieraerts, and the Wakamba. The Masai are pastoral people who consume milk and on occasion, meat. The Wakamba, Kikuyu, and Bahutu are non-pastoral agricultural people who cultivate the foods that they eat. The Batussi people are 124:. In a study of a randomly chosen rural South African community, 13.2% of children were found to have abnormally low levels of calcium in their blood. Additional studies done on South African children show that this deficiency can lead to 506:, Apartheid has helped create many of these issues, especially housing, healthcare, and education. Issues like education (i.e. poor performance in school, poor cognitive development) are directly connected to malnutrition in children. 1682: 1680: 1678: 701:

percent of children in the Limpopo Province evaluated in a 2005 study were shown to have stunted growth. Thus, the high levels of poverty and the rural state of these two areas reflect back through high levels of malnutrition.

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more than ever when comes to food insecurity and malnutrition. The 2015/2016 drought that hit Africa has pushed them back since then with the continent making slow recoveries however the drought is still very much present.

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An individual in South Africa may develop malnutrition because of several factors, not all of them necessarily having to do with diet. According to UNICEF, factors that can cause malnutrition include but are not limited to

1368: 1283: 1870:

Oldewage-Theron, Wilna H.; Emsie G. Dicks; Carin E. Napier (September 2006). "Poverty, household food insecurity and nutrition: Coping strategies in an informal settlement in the Vaal Triangle, South Africa".

673:, the deviation from the average weight of children under age five in South Africa has dropped from 31.5% to 8.7% from 1994 to 2008. Malnutrition can also be individually assessed through the deviation of 476:

is $ 11000 but 21% of people live on a dollar or less a day. In 2008, 27.9% of youth between ages fifteen and twenty-four were unemployed, and the amount of overall unemployment was even higher (33.2%).

1689:"Fat Intake, Serum Cholesterol Concentration, and Atherosclerosis in the South African Bantu. Part I. Low Fat Intake and the Age Trend of Serum Cholesterol Concentration in the South African Bantu" 1549:

Coller BS, Schneiderman PI. Clinical evaluation of hemorrhagic disorders: The bleeding history and differential diagnosis of purpura, cited by Hoffman R, Benz EJ, Shattil SS, et al, eds. (2008).

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live in rural areas. Whereas people in wealthy urban areas tend to have a better nutritional status, rural and agriculturally based people in South Africa tend to have the most inadequate diet.

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like diamonds and gold. When diamonds and gold were discovered in 1867 and 1886, instead of causing widespread richness for the African people, it caused widespread subjugation to the

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that showed that one out of three children under the age of six have a Vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is necessary for good vision, and a shortage of this substance can lead to

1643:"The Effects of Ascorbic Acid, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, and Folic Acid Supplementation on the Breast Milk and Maternal Nutritional Status of Low Socioeconomic Lactating Women" 1379: 355:

The first two years of a person's life constitutes the most vulnerable period for malnutrition, making this lack of nutrients especially detrimental to an infant's health.

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deficiencies arising from malnutrition, although it would only cost an estimated US$ 55 million to alleviate this problem through micronutrient nutrition interventions.

2218: 2216: 2555:"Prevalence and determinants of stunting and overweight in 3-year-old black South African children residing in the Central Region of Limpopo Province, South Africa" 1865: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 2351:"Associations between enteric pathogen carriage and height-for-age, weight-for-age and weight-for-height in children under 5 years old in urban Dhaka, Bangladesh" 174:

deficiency. Pellagra's symptomatology is described by the "4 D's: "dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death". Pellagra causes gastrointestinal discomforts like

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Van der Merwe, A. E.; M. Steyn; G. J. R. Maat (May–June 2010). "Adult Scurvy in Skeletal Remains of Late 19th Century Mineworkers in Kimberley, South Africa".

448:-stricken conditions also only have access to a high-starch, low protein diet. The typical undernourishing South African diet is based on the main staples of 1924:

UNICEF. (1998). The State of the World's Children 1998: A UNICEF report. Malnutrition: causes, consequences, and solutions. Nutr Rev, 56(4 part I), 115-123.

2489: 1647: 1206:

Pettifor, JM; Ross P; Wang J; Moodley G; Couper-Smith J (1978). "Rickets in Children of Rural Origin in South Africa: is Low Dietart Calcium a Factor?".

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Kowal, Paul R.; Lopez A.D.; Norton M.; Berman P.; Belizan J.M.; Cafferata M.L.; Belizan M.; Cunha A.L.A. (2003). "Child Survival (multiple letters)".

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found that the mortality for infected infants was 19% for exclusively breast-fed infants, 13% for mixed-fed infants, and 0% for formula-fed infants.

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Malnutrition is an underlying cause of severe poverty. According to statistics from the year 2000, 50% of the South African population is under the

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people and other people with more animal-based diets. In comparison to the average American diet, rural South African groups like the South African

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could be saved annually. Various programs in South Africa have been established since then to help achieve this, all with different success rates.

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effects of malnutrition. All programs and initiatives have faced copious challenges and their individual success rates vastly vary as a result.

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Nutrition management during disease is another method used by the INP to prevent malnutrition. South Africa's Department of Health adapted the

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showed that half of Vitamin A-deficient blind children die within the year, due to the detrimental effects of Vitamin A on the immune system.

1011: 309: 1979: 710: 1107: 1105: 1103: 1583:

Heinig, Jane (February 2001). "Host Defense Benefits of Breastfeeding for the Infant: Effect of Breastfeeding Duration and Exclusivity".

2224:"The targeting of nutritionally at risk children attending a Primary Health Care facility in the Western Cape Province of South Africa." 553: 326: 226: 65: 633: 68:

Study found that 30.2% of pregnant women in South Africa have AIDS. Malnutrition can cause several different health problems, such as

194:. Unfortunately, this downward spiral often causes further malnutrition, which in turn further amplifies the magnitude of pellagra. 2295: 359:

nutrients in her breast milk. Thus, breast milk from undernourished women is often lacking sufficient quantities of several vital

2145: 864: 556:– 13.6% of black Africans in South Africa are HIV-positive, whereas only 0.3% of whites living in South Africa have the disease. 697:, although 84.5% of South Africans have access to piped water, only 62.4% of Eastern Cape residents have access to piped water. 336:

may contract the virus as well. Infants with the HIV virus are more likely to pass away if they are breast fed than if they are

2615: 1122: 251:, a disease that develops from an extended shortage of Vitamin C, has previously been found prevalent in certain South African 202: 1827:

Armstrong, P., Lekezwa, B., & Siebrits, K. (2008)."Poverty in South Africa: A profile based on recent household surveys".

739: 1906:

Chopra, M.; Drimie, S.; Witten, C. (2009). "Combating Malnutrition in South Africa. Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition".

128:. Rickets causes weakness and pain in bones and dental structures, impaired growth, muscle cramps, and skeletal deformities. 669:

individually assessed through the deviation of weight of each child from the average weight for their age. According to the

170:, South Africa. Pellagra seems to be especially common in patients with corn-based diets. The disease itself is caused by a 756: 538: 2161:

World Health Organization. (1981). International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes. World Health Organization.

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Mamabolo, Ramoteme L; Marianne Alberts; Nelia P Steyn; Henriette A Delemarrevan de Waal; Naomi S Levitt (August 2005).

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In the 1960s, the Apartheid-centered government created African reserves where blacks could live and have a chance at "

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Gomez, Federico; Rafael Ramos Galvan; Silvestre Frenk; Joaquin Cravioto Munoz; Raquel Chavez; Judith Vasquez (1956).

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Berendes, David; Capone, Drew; Knee, Jackie; Holcomb, David; Sultana, Sonia; Pickering, Amy J.; Brown, Joe (2020).

1844: 537:. This long period of subjugation eventually lead to the establishment of Apartheid in South Africa in 1948 by the 2279: 670: 605: 238: 559:

While 72% of the South African population considered poor live in rural areas, 86.9% of the chronically poor in

372: 1167:"Calcium Deficiency in Rural Black Children in South Africa--a Comparison Between Rural and Urban Communities" 781:"Breastfeeding by HIV-1-infected women and outcome in their infants: a cohort study from Durban, South Africa" 2026:

Nkandla revisited: A longitudinal study of the strategies adopted to alleviate poverty in a rural community.

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of South Africa. The South African Vitamin A Consultancy Group (SAVACG) conducted a national survey for the

85: 332:

Thus, these women pose a huge risk to their infants because infants drinking breast milk infected with the

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World Health Organization. (2005). Handbook: IMCI Integrated Management of Childhood Illness. Geneva: WHO.

41: 1257: 890: 888: 886: 2610: 613: 388: 89: 2537: 2467: 1115:

Factors Contributing To Malnutrition in Children 0-60 Months Admitted To Hospitals in the Northern Cape

693:. These two areas are especially poor and rural as compared to the rest of South Africa. According to 494:

childcare, insufficient essential human services including health, education, water and environmental

2081: 1076: 1074: 1072: 545: 285: 37: 509:

South Africa is unique from other African countries in its particular experience with Apartheid and

218: 415:. A lack of protein in a South African's diet can lead to a form of severe malnutrition known as " 2063: 1976: 1938: 1801:

Aliber, Michael (March 2003). "Chronic Poverty in South Africa: Incidence, Causes and Policies".

810: 166:. Dr. D Blumhson, a physician, notes a high rate of pellagra among the patients of a hospital in 49: 29: 685:

decreased over recent years. However, it remains a prevalent problem, notably in the regions of

1147: 2586: 2508: 2423: 2388: 2370: 2202: 2055: 1888: 1766: 1718: 1664: 1619: 1600: 1536:

Cotran, R. S., Kumar, V., & Robbins, S. L. (1994). Environmental and nutritional diseases.

1470: 1405: 1298: 1223: 1188: 1058: 1007: 926: 802: 314: 264: 230: 171: 144: 1082: 2576: 2566: 2498: 2415: 2378: 2362: 2192: 2184: 2047: 1963: 1880: 1810: 1756: 1708: 1700: 1656: 1592: 1519: 1460: 1427: 1417: 1215: 1180: 1048: 1040: 916: 908: 831: 792: 690: 514: 428: 419:." Research was done to compare the frequency of kwashiorkor among five African groups: the 318: 281: 2173:"The Rationale for Adopting Current International Breastfeeding Guidelines in South Africa" 779:

Bobat, Raziya; Moodley, ohayendree; Coutsoudis, Anna; Coovadia, Hoosen (11 November 1997).

267:, a deficiency in it may also cause complications with the immune system, iron absorption, 2149: 1983: 1848: 1044: 503: 296: 2321: 2299: 1999: 1243:"Rickets Osteomalacia in children; Vitamin D Deficiency; Renal Rickets; Hepatic Rickets" 1242: 2383: 2350: 2197: 2172: 1761: 1744: 1713: 1688: 1449:"Extent of Vitamin A Deficiency Among Preschool children and Women of Reproductive Age" 1053: 1028: 921: 896: 678: 580: 481: 473: 337: 210: 187: 148: 2140: 2051: 1814: 1596: 1219: 868: 2604: 2188: 1166: 797: 780: 560: 526: 424: 420: 401: 191: 152: 2240: 2222:

Schoeman SE, Hendricks MK, Hatting SP, Benade AJ, Laubscher JA, Dhansay MA. (2006).

1642: 814: 2484: 2067: 686: 674: 661: 584: 530: 522: 469: 222: 156: 117: 25: 2462:

World Health Organization."Global Database on Childhood Growth and Malnutrition".

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of each child from the average height for their age. This is because malnutrition

2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 1488: 510: 416: 392: 268: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2107: 1884: 2366: 1184: 912: 495: 368: 364: 260: 256: 214: 136: 109: 2419: 2374: 1660: 1465: 1448: 1422: 2503: 1567: 1316:

Bradley, Walter G.; Robert B. Daroff; Gerald Fenichel; Joseph Jankovic, MD.

333: 244: 234: 198: 2590: 2427: 2392: 2206: 2059: 1892: 1770: 1722: 1604: 1474: 1062: 995: 993: 533:. Subjugation from non-native groups continued until South Africa became a 2512: 1668: 991: 989: 987: 985: 983: 981: 979: 977: 975: 973: 930: 806: 1302: 1227: 1192: 897:"Impressions ofhealth in the new South Africa: a period of convalescence" 600:

Since the establishment of the INP in 1995, South Africa has adopted the

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deficiency also has detrimental effects on the South African population.

183: 175: 163: 140: 132: 69: 1841: 1152:

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health

946: 944: 942: 940: 826: 824: 2581: 2571: 2554: 1962:"South Africa HIV & AIDS Statistics." AVERT. Web. 3 Mar. 2012. < 445: 412: 384: 360: 289: 206: 125: 121: 45: 1704: 1346:

Rook, Ed A; Wilkinson, DS; Ebling, FJB; Champion, RH; and Burton, JL.

2280:"Why Have Mortality Rates for Severe Malnutrition Remained So High?" 1432: 734: 732: 730: 728: 726: 694: 609: 554:

These Black areas also have the highest rates of AIDS in South Africa

252: 248: 179: 167: 105: 2406:

Annalynn, Skipper (May 2012). "Agreement on Defining Malnutrition".

1523: 1083:"What Are the Leading Causes of Death Among South African Children?" 329:

Study found that 30.2% of pregnant women in South Africa have AIDs.

155:. Heart failure associated with beriberi is especially prominent in 139:) deficiency. A serious deficiency in this vital nutrient can cause 1908:

Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), Working Paper Series

1796: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1780: 457: 1165:

Pettifor, J. M.; P Ross; G Moodley; E Shuenyane (December 1979).

1000:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1998).

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The unemployment rate partly stems from South Africa's unstable

449: 441: 432: 322: 317:

contains many vital nutrients and minerals that protect against

101: 61: 1081:

Bradshaw, Debbie; David Bourne; Nadine Nannan (December 2003).

1587:. Breastfeeding 2001, Part 1: The Evidence for Breastfeeding. 859: 857: 855: 853: 851: 849: 405: 2441: 1284:"The Changing Pattern of Heart Disease South African Blacks" 263:). Because Vitamin C plays a vital role in the formation of 147:. If left untreated, Beriberi can cause inflammation of the 1687:

Walker, Alexander R. P.; Ulla B. Arvidsson (October 1954).

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Another common nutritional problem among South Africans is

84:

Malnutrition can lead to an onslaught of additional health

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International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes

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forced black farmers to either abandon their land, become

1964:

http://www.avert.org/south-africa-hiv-aids-statistics.htm

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Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, chap 9.

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Nutrition Information Centre University of Stellenbosch.

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to promote breastfeeding. The code was cofounded by the

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populations. This disease causes weakness, anemia, skin

28:, although it is not as common as in other countries of 1932: 1930: 197:

An additional malnutrition problem is a deficiency in

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Swart, R., Sanders, D., & McLachlan, M. (2008).

2532:"Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition." 1829:

Matieland: Stellenbosch Economic Working Paper text

1121:(MSc). University of the Free State. Archived from 1029:"Mortality in Second And Third Degree Malnutrition" 2464:UNICEF/WHO Joint Global Malnutrition Analysis Set, 1551:Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice. 5th ed. 2296:"IMCI Integrated Management of Childhood Illness" 2322:"Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses." 300:malnutrition by not partaking in breastfeeding. 757:"FACTSHEET: Child malnutrition in South Africa" 108:, which is a condition classified by decreased 1564:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 1562:Hirschmann JV, Raugi GJ. (1999). Adult scurvy. 2142:Nutrition: A Primary Health Care Perspective. 1006:. Rome: Food & Agriculture Organization. 834:. Avert: International HIV & AIDS Charity 24:continues to be a problem in the Republic of 8: 1641:Sneed, S M; C Zane; M R Thomas (July 1981). 1350:Blackwell Scientific Publications, cited by 383:Another main determinant of malnutrition is 304:Breastfeeding and HIV transmission avoidance 143:, which has the immediate symptom of severe 2408:Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 440:rural areas, those living in South African 2490:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2278:Schofield, C., & Ashworth, A. (1996). 1648:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1172:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 645:Integrated Management of Childhood Illness 541:(the ruling political party of the time). 521:(Dutch Settlers). Upon their arrival, the 411:A lack of fat often accompanies a lack of 404:consume a diet with less than half of the 391:. Various rural South African groups lead 162:Another disease common to South Africa is 2580: 2570: 2502: 2382: 2298:. Centre for Rural Health. Archived from 2282:Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2196: 1977:"Poverty and inequality in South Africa." 1760: 1712: 1512:International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 1464: 1431: 1421: 1052: 920: 796: 498:and housing. According to the effects of 344:Journal of the International AIDS Society 2320:Lambrechts T, Bryce J, Orinda V. (1999) 2082:"Combating Malnutrition in South Africa" 1620:"Nutrition in Contemporary South Africa" 1406:"Nutrition in Contemporary South Africa" 1003:The Right to Food in Theory and Practice 952:"Combating Malnutrition in South Africa" 832:"South Africa HIV & AIDS Statistics" 36:estimated that South Africa loses about 16:Overview of malnutrition in South Africa 722: 371:. This lack of nutrients can lead to a 2538:"South Africa-Malnutrition Prevalence. 2485:"Malnutrition, Learning, and Behavior" 2468:"South Africa-Malnutrition Prevalence. 2245:United Nations Sustainable Development 1958: 1956: 1404:Faber, Mieke; Wenhold, Friede (2007). 375:in the child being breastfed as well. 113:heart, brain, and other vital organs. 2152:South African health review, 129-148. 1693:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 1618:Faber, Mieke; Wenhold, Freid (2007). 1348:Textbook of Dermatology: 4th Edition. 1045:10.1093/oxfordjournals.tropej.a057419 740:"Nutrition at a Glance: South Africa" 310:Breastfeeding by HIV infected mothers 7: 1975:May, J., & Govender, J. (1998). 1538:Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease, 1256:Vorvick, Linda J. (10 August 2012). 1112:De Lange, Johanna Christina (2010). 711:Child health and nutrition in Africa 201:. It is especially prominent in the 1585:Pediatric Clinics of North America 658:Agreement on Defining Malnutrition 634:District Health Information System 227:South African Department of Health 14: 2266:"Southern African Drought 2015 -" 1447:West Jr., K. (1 September 2002). 1318:"Disorders of the Nervous System" 513:. South Africa has numerous rich 327:South Africa Department of Health 66:South Africa Department of Health 2189:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00117.x 2088:. September 2008. Archived from 1743:Brock, J. F.; M. Autret (1952). 1282:Isaacson, C. (5 November 1977). 895:Kale, Rajendra (29 April 1995). 798:10.1097/00002030-199713000-00012 131:Many South Africans also have a 96:Vitamin and mineral deficiencies 2325:A Summary of First Experiences. 2000:"October Household Survey 1999" 159:, the capital of South Africa. 2442:"Census 2001: Census in Brief" 2177:Maternal & Child Nutrition 2086:Input Paper for Health Roadmap 1322:Neurology in Clinical Practice 1033:Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 956:Input Paper for Health Roadmap 865:"Malnutrition in South Africa" 1: 2052:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14308-5 2042:. The Child Survival Series. 1941:. Central Intelligence Agency 1815:10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00219-X 1597:10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70288-1 1291:South African Medical Journal 1220:10.1016/s0022-3476(78)80035-3 431:who consume large amounts of 2483:Scrimshaw, Nevin S. (1967). 2028:Durban: University of Natal. 2004:World Bank Microdata Library 1489:"Micronutrient Deficiencies" 592:Integrated nutrition program 60:their children may contract 57:malnutrition in South Africa 1491:. World Health Organization 577:Millennium Development Goal 575:Since the 1990s, the first 340:-fed. A study published in 288:, poor psychological care, 2632: 2534:World Health Organization, 2355:Epidemiology and Infection 2171:Meyer, A. (October 2007). 1885:10.1016/j.puhe.2006.02.009 307: 295:For example, a woman with 40:1.1 billion every year in 2444:. Statistics South Africa 2367:10.1017/S0950268820000369 2024:Ardington, E. M. (1988). 913:10.1136/bmj.310.6987.1119 671:World Health Organization 606:World Health Organization 239:World Health Organization 2420:10.1177/0148607112441949 2328:Bull World Health Organ. 1982:27 February 2012 at the 1842:Statistics South Africa. 1453:The Journal of Nutrition 1423:10.4314/wsa.v33i3.180609 612:during the thirty-third 2559:Public Health Nutrition 1749:Bull World Health Organ 1745:"Kwashiorkor in Africa" 1566:. 41:895-906, cited by 1185:10.1093/ajcn/32.12.2477 500:South African Apartheid 2616:Health in South Africa 1987:Indicator South Africa 1939:"Africa: South Africa" 1661:10.1093/ajcn/34.7.1338 1466:10.1093/jn/132.9.2857S 583:has been to eradicate 373:nutritional deficiency 297:psychological problems 42:gross domestic product 2504:10.1093/ajcn/20.5.493 2241:"Goal 2: Zero Hunger" 1847:17 April 2013 at the 1208:Journal of Pediatrics 901:South Africa's Health 614:World Health Assembly 233:and potentially even 90:nutrient deficiencies 1937:The World Factbook. 1571:DermNet New Zealand. 1355:DermNet New Zealand. 871:on 24 September 2020 546:separate development 2227:Public Health Nutr. 2148:18 May 2015 at the 1241:Kaneshiro, Neil K. 259:, and gum disease ( 219:North West Province 104:levels can lead to 2572:10.1079/phn2005786 2092:on 9 December 2012 1624:Water South Africa 1459:(9): 2857S–2866S. 1262:The New York Times 379:Additional factors 363:and minerals like 265:connective tissues 231:visual impairments 120:, a deficiency in 55:The prevalence of 30:Sub-Saharan Africa 2046:(9387): 915–917. 1803:World Development 1705:10.1172/JCI103012 1179:(12): 2477–2483. 1148:"What Is Anemia?" 1013:978-92-5-104177-2 791:(13): 1627–1633. 745:. The World Bank. 632:amendment of the 515:natural resources 489:Income inequality 472:. South Africa's 429:livestock raisers 203:Northern Province 2623: 2595: 2594: 2584: 2574: 2550: 2544: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2506: 2480: 2474: 2460: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2403: 2397: 2396: 2386: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2331: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2292: 2286: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2262: 2256: 2255: 2253: 2251: 2236: 2230: 2220: 2211: 2210: 2200: 2168: 2162: 2159: 2153: 2137: 2102: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2035: 2029: 2022: 2016: 2015: 2013: 2011: 1996: 1990: 1973: 1967: 1960: 1951: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1934: 1925: 1922: 1916: 1915: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1867: 1852: 1838: 1832: 1825: 1819: 1818: 1798: 1775: 1774: 1764: 1740: 1727: 1726: 1716: 1684: 1673: 1672: 1655:(7): 1338–1346. 1638: 1632: 1631: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1580: 1574: 1560: 1554: 1547: 1541: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1507: 1501: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1485: 1479: 1478: 1468: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1435: 1425: 1401: 1395: 1394: 1392: 1390: 1384: 1378:. Archived from 1373: 1364: 1358: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1324:. Archived from 1313: 1307: 1306: 1288: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1162: 1156: 1155: 1144: 1138: 1137: 1135: 1133: 1127: 1120: 1109: 1098: 1097: 1090:MRC Policy Brief 1087: 1078: 1067: 1066: 1056: 1024: 1018: 1017: 997: 968: 967: 965: 963: 958:. September 2008 948: 935: 934: 924: 892: 881: 880: 878: 876: 867:. Archived from 861: 844: 843: 841: 839: 828: 819: 818: 800: 776: 761: 760: 753: 747: 746: 744: 736: 691:Limpopo Province 319:infant mortality 100:A deficiency in 2631: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2621: 2620: 2601: 2600: 2599: 2598: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2531: 2527: 2517: 2515: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2461: 2457: 2447: 2445: 2440: 2439: 2435: 2405: 2404: 2400: 2348: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2319: 2315: 2305: 2303: 2302:on 2 April 2015 2294: 2293: 2289: 2277: 2273: 2264: 2263: 2259: 2249: 2247: 2238: 2237: 2233: 2229:9(8) 1007-1012. 2221: 2214: 2170: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2150:Wayback Machine 2138: 2105: 2095: 2093: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2023: 2019: 2009: 2007: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1984:Wayback Machine 1974: 1970: 1961: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1869: 1868: 1855: 1849:Wayback Machine 1839: 1835: 1826: 1822: 1800: 1799: 1778: 1742: 1741: 1730: 1699:(10): 1358–65. 1686: 1685: 1676: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1617: 1616: 1612: 1582: 1581: 1577: 1561: 1557: 1548: 1544: 1535: 1531: 1524:10.1002/oa.1037 1509: 1508: 1504: 1494: 1492: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1446: 1445: 1441: 1403: 1402: 1398: 1388: 1386: 1385:on 11 July 2009 1382: 1371: 1366: 1365: 1361: 1345: 1341: 1331: 1329: 1328:on 14 July 2014 1315: 1314: 1310: 1286: 1281: 1280: 1276: 1266: 1264: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1146: 1145: 1141: 1131: 1129: 1128:on 26 July 2014 1125: 1118: 1111: 1110: 1101: 1085: 1080: 1079: 1070: 1026: 1025: 1021: 1014: 999: 998: 971: 961: 959: 950: 949: 938: 894: 893: 884: 874: 872: 863: 862: 847: 837: 835: 830: 829: 822: 778: 777: 764: 759:. 22 June 2020. 755: 754: 750: 742: 738: 737: 724: 719: 707: 654: 594: 573: 504:World Fact Book 491: 466: 381: 312: 306: 277: 98: 82: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2629: 2627: 2619: 2618: 2613: 2603: 2602: 2597: 2596: 2565:(5): 501–508. 2545: 2525: 2497:(5): 493–502. 2475: 2455: 2433: 2398: 2341: 2332: 2330:77(7) 582-594. 2313: 2287: 2271: 2257: 2231: 2212: 2183:(4): 271–280. 2163: 2154: 2103: 2073: 2030: 2017: 1991: 1968: 1952: 1926: 1917: 1898: 1879:(9): 795–804. 1853: 1833: 1820: 1809:(3): 473–490. 1776: 1728: 1674: 1633: 1610: 1591:(1): 105–123. 1575: 1555: 1542: 1529: 1518:(3): 307–316. 1502: 1480: 1439: 1416:(3): 393–400. 1396: 1359: 1357:26 August 2012 1339: 1308: 1274: 1248: 1233: 1214:(2): 320–324. 1198: 1157: 1139: 1099: 1068: 1019: 1012: 969: 936: 907:(1): 1119–22. 882: 845: 820: 762: 748: 721: 720: 718: 715: 714: 713: 706: 703: 653: 650: 593: 590: 581:United Nations 572: 569: 539:National Party 502:listed in the 490: 487: 474:per capita GDP 465: 462: 380: 377: 308:Main article: 305: 302: 276: 273: 188:abdominal pain 149:nervous system 97: 94: 81: 80:Health effects 78: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2628: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2606: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2542:Index Mundi." 2539: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491: 2486: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2472:Index Mundi." 2469: 2465: 2459: 2456: 2443: 2437: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2414:(3): 261–26. 2413: 2409: 2402: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2345: 2342: 2336: 2333: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2317: 2314: 2301: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2285: 2284:, 74(2), 223. 2283: 2275: 2272: 2267: 2261: 2258: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2208: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2167: 2164: 2158: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2077: 2074: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2021: 2018: 2005: 2001: 1995: 1992: 1988: 1985: 1981: 1978: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1940: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1873:Public Health 1866: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1837: 1834: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1783: 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The 2010 2605:Categories 2518:9 December 2448:9 December 2306:9 December 2040:The Lancet 2010:17 January 1258:"Beriberi" 1132:4 December 838:9 December 717:References 496:sanitation 444:and other 369:folic acid 365:vitamin B6 261:gingivitis 221:, and the 215:Mpumalanga 137:Vitamin B1 110:hemoglobin 2536:cited in 2466:cited in 2375:0950-2688 1851:a: 25-28. 1568:"Scurvy." 1433:2263/4874 571:Treatment 408:content. 389:lifestyle 334:HIV virus 245:Vitamin C 235:blindness 199:vitamin A 151:and even 2591:16153331 2428:22457420 2393:32102708 2239:Martin. 2207:17824855 2146:Archived 2060:13678982 1980:Archived 1893:16824562 1845:Archived 1840:(2008). 1771:14925815 1723:13201641 1605:11236719 1475:12221262 1410:Water SA 1063:11100622 815:46052703 705:See also 689:and the 660:defines 535:Republic 454:porridge 398:pastoral 361:vitamins 184:vomiting 176:diarrhea 164:pellagra 145:lethargy 141:beriberi 133:Thiamine 70:pellagra 2513:5337244 2384:7058651 2361:: e39. 2250:8 March 2198:6860485 2068:8240086 1831:, 4(08) 1762:2554082 1714:1072555 1669:7258124 1054:2560616 931:7742681 922:2549504 807:9365768 579:of the 464:Poverty 446:poverty 433:curdled 413:protein 385:culture 338:formula 290:neglect 207:KwaZulu 126:Rickets 122:calcium 50:mineral 46:vitamin 2589: 2511: 2426: 2391: 2381: 2373: 2205: 2195: 2066: 2058: 1891: 1769: 1759: 1721: 1711: 1667: 1603: 1473: 1303:607491 1301: 1228:202688 1226: 1193:506971 1191: 1061: 1051: 1010: 929: 919: 813: 805: 695:UNICEF 675:height 610:UNICEF 456:, and 425:Kikuyu 423:, the 421:Maasai 286:trauma 282:stress 275:Causes 253:mining 249:Scurvy 237:. 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