222:. Developed in the late 1960s, the purpose of the survey method is to use active sonar systems on the sea floor to detect and develop images of objects. The physical sensors of the sonar device are known as a transducer array and they are mounted onto the hull of a vessel which sends acoustic pulses that reflect off the seafloor and received by the sensors. The imaging can help determine the seafloors composition as harder objects generate a stronger reflectance and appear dark on the returned image. Softer materials such as sand and mud cannot reflect the arrays pulses as well so they appear lighter on the image. This information can be analyzed by specialist to determine
736:
471:. Divergent plate boundaries are when two tectonic plates move away from each other, convergent plate boundaries are when two plates move towards each other, and transform plate boundaries are when two plates slide sideways past each other. Each boundary type is associated with different geological marine features. Divergent plates are the cause for mid-ocean ridge systems while convergent plates are responsible for subduction zones and the creation of deep ocean trenches. Transform boundaries cause earthquakes, displacement of rock, and crustal deformation.
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121:. The scientists' goal was to prove that there was life in the deepest parts of the ocean. Using a sounding rope, dropped over the edge of the ship, the team was able to capture ample amounts of data. Part of their discovery was that the deepest part of the ocean was not in the middle. These were some of the first records of the mid-ocean ridge system.
238:
Similarly to side-scan sonar, multibeam bathymetry uses a transducer array to send and receive sound waves in order to detect objects located on the sea floor. Unlike side-scan sonar, scientists are able to determine multiple types of measurements from the recordings and make hypothesis' on the data
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The benefit to a magnetometer compared to sonar devices is its ability to detect artifacts and geological features on top and underneath the seafloor. Because the magnetometer is a passive sensor, and does not emit waves, its exploration depth is unlimited. Although, in most studies, the resolution
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This method is less expensive than releasing a vehicle to take photographs of the sea floor, and requires less time. The side-scan sonar is useful for scientists as it is a quick and efficient way of collecting imagery of the sea floor, but it cannot measure other factors, such as depth. Therefore,
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Divergent plates are directly responsible for the largest mountain range on Earth, known as the mid-ocean ridge system. At nearly 60,000 km long, the mid-ocean ridge is an extensive chain of underwater volcanic mountains that spans the globe. Centralized in the oceans, this unique geological
270:
There are limitations to this technique. The distance between the sea floor and the sensor is related to the resolution of the map being created. The closer the sensor is the sea floor, the higher the resolution will be and the farther away the sensor is to the sea floor, the lower the resolution
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of the sea floor to not only map depth, but also to map beneath the sea floor. Mounted to the hull of a ship, the system releases low-frequency pulses which penetrate the surface of the sea floor and are reflected by sediments in the sub-surface. Some sensors can reach over 1000 meters below the
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and move relative to each other due to convection between the asthenosphere and lithosphere. The speed at which the plates move ranges between 2 and 15 centimeters per year. Why this theory is so significant is the interaction between the tectonic plates explains many geological formations. In
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formed over millions of years from precipitating metals from seawater and sediment pore water. They are typically found unattached, spread across the abyssal seafloor and contain metals crucial for building batteries and touch screens, including cobalt, nickel, copper, and manganese.
977:. This can lead to destruction animal habitats, fishing industries, and infrastructure. In the United States, damages to properties and infrastructure has caused approximately $ 500 million per year, and an additional $ 150 million a year is dedicated to mitigation from the
239:
collected. By understanding the speed at which sound will travel in the water, scientists can calculate the two way travel time from the ship's sensor to the seafloor and back to the ship. These calculations will determine to depth of the sea floor in that area.
246:
EM300 bathymetry of the three submarine volcanoes in the vicinity of
Farallon de Pajaros Island. The data were collected using the EM300 multibeam system mounted on the hull of the R/V Thompson. The grid-cell size is 35 meters. The image is 2 times vertically
259:. Objects in the water column can include structures from shipwrecks, dense biology, and bubble plumes. The importance of objects in the water column to marine geology is identifying specific features as bubble plumes can indicate the presence of
322:, the sub-bottom profiles delivers insights on the location and morphology of submarine landslide, identifies how oceanic gasses travel through the subsurface, discover artifacts from cultural heritages, understand sediment deposition, and more.
350:. When the Earth turns on its axis, the metals release electrical currents which generate magnetic fields. These fields can then be measured to reveal geological subseafloor structures. This method is especially useful in marine exploration and
953:
levels in the sea water. Marine geology can determine areas which have been damaged to employ habitat restoration techniques. It can also help determine areas that have not been affecting by bottom trawling and employ conservation protection.
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of 9.1 which then triggered a tsunami that caused waves to reach a height of at least 30 ft and killed approximately 230,000 people in 13 different countries. Marine geology and understanding plate boundaries supports the development of
659:
Marine geology has several methods of detecting geological features below the sea. One of the economic benefits of geological surveying of the seafloor is determining valuable resources that can be extracted. The two major resources
574:, resulting in volcanic activity and the development of deep ocean trenches. Marine geology focuses on mapping and understanding how these processes function. Renowned geological features created through subduction zones include the
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The importance of mapping the seafloor has been recognized by governments and scientists alike. Because of this, an international collaboration effort to create a high-definition map of the entire seafloor was developed, called the
254:
is another measurement used to determine the intensity of the sound that is returned to the sensor. This information can provide insight on the geological makeup and objects of the sea floor as well as objects located within the
763:, there is an estimated 21 billion tons (Bt) of nodules; 5.95 Bt of manganese, 0.27 Bt of nickel, 0.23 Bt of copper, and 0.05 Bt of cobalt. It is a highly sought-after area for mining because of the yield of minerals it posses.
154:
A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor
4522:
Merino, Nancy; Aronson, Heidi S.; Bojanova, Diana P.; Feyhl-Buska, Jayme; Wong, Michael L.; Zhang, Shu; Giovannelli, Donato (2019). "Living at the
Extremes: Extremophiles and the Limits of Life in a Planetary Context".
3017:
Van Dover, C.L.; Arnaud-Haond, S.; Gianni, M.; Helmreich, S.; Huber, J.A.; Jaeckel, A.L.; Metaxas, A.; Pendleton, L.H.; Petersen, S.; Ramirez-Llodra, E.; Steinberg, P.E.; Tunnicliffe, V.; Yamamoto, H. (April 2018).
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132:(WHOI) were created to support efforts in the field. With Scripps being located on the west coast of North America and WHOI on the east coast, the study of marine geology became much more accessible.
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Embley, Robert; Baker, Edward; Butterfield, David; Chadwick, William; Lupton, John; Resing, Joseph; de Ronde, Cornel; Nakamura, Ko-ichi; Tunnicliffe, Verena; Dower, John; Merle, Susan (2007-12-01).
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have been discovered. Furthermore, 90% of the species have yet to be identified. Proper marine survey techniques have protected thousands of habitats and species by dedicating it to conservation.
279:(AUVs) to be equipped with the multibeam sensor or for the sensor to be towed by the ship its self. This ensures that the resolution of the collected data will be high enough for proper analysis.
1727:
Hood, P J (1966). Geophysical reconnaissance of Hudson Bay Part I Sea-magnetometer Survey Part Ii
Subbottom Depth Recorder Survey (Report). Natural Resources Canada/CMSS/Information Management.
187:
protruding from the mid-ocean ridge. They discovered that on either side of the ridge, symmetrical "strips" were found as the polarity of the planet would change over time. This proved that
3982:
Thomas Devlin, Adam; Pan, Jiayi (2020-03-25), "Tidal
Evolution Related to Changing Sea Level; Worldwide and Regional Surveys, and the Impact to Estuaries and Other Coastal Zones",
163:
hypothesized that the seafloor was spreading from the mid-ocean ridge system. With support from the maps of the sea floor, and the recently developed theory of plate tectonics and
139:
system. After ships were equipped with sonar sensors, they travelled back and forth across the
Atlantic Ocean collecting observations of the sea floor. In 1953, the cartographer
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patterns. Analyzing the effects that the seafloor has on water movement can help support planning and location selection of generators offshore and optimize energy farming.
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existed. In later years, newer technology was able to date the rocks and identified that rocks closest to the ridge were younger than the rocks near the coasts of the
613:
Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the
Pacific Basin form the so-called Pacific Ring of fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
143:
generated the first three-dimensional relief map of the ocean floor which proved there was an underwater mountain range in the middle of the
Atlantic, along with the
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1051:(NOAA), only 23% of the seafloor has been mapped in detail and one of the leading projects in exploration is developing high-resolution maps of the seafloor. The
314:
The benefit of the sub-bottom profiler is its capability to record information on the surface and below the seafloor. When accompanied with geophysical data from
917:
Bottom trawling also poses a detrimental effects to the sea and using marine geology techniques can be helpful at mitigating them. Bottom trawling, generally a
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and certainty of the data collected is dependent on the distance from the device. The closer the device is to a ferrous object, the better the data collected.
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Manganese nodules on the seafloor in the
Clarion-Clipperton zone. The image was taken with ROV KIEL 6000 during expedition SO239 with FS SONNE in April 2015.
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border of the tectonic plates, the oceanic plates subduct underneath the continental plates, creating some of the deepest marine trenches in the world
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Many section of the oceans are permanently dark, low temperatures, and are under extreme pressure, making them difficult to observe. According to the
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in the years following World War II. The deep ocean floor is the last essentially unexplored frontier and detailed mapping in support of economic (
978:
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Schlesinger, Angela; Kukovica, Jacob; Rosenberger, Andreas; Heesemann, Martin; Pirenne, Benoît; Robinson, Jessica; Morley, Michael (2021-08-04).
202:
At present, marine geology focuses on geological hazards, environmental conditions, habitats, natural resources, and energy and mining projects.
210:
There are multiple methods for collecting data from the sea floor without physically dispatching humans or machines to the bottom of the ocean.
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or crabs. During this process, the net damages the seafloor by scraping and removing animals and vegetation living on the seabed, including
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Oberle, Ferdinand K.J.; Swarzenski, Peter W.; Reddy, Christopher M.; Nelson, Robert K.; Baasch, Benjamin; Hanebuth, Till J.J. (July 2016).
272:
129:
4221:"Crustal Deformation and Seismic History Associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake: A Perspective from the Andaman-Nicobar Islands"
2858:""Who stands to benefit?" To engage in deep-sea mining or not. Not, say international scientists | Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries"
171:
continuously released molten rock from the mid-ocean ridge and that the molten rock then solidified, causing the boundary between the two
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377:, but can be calibrated to measure at different speeds depending on the study. The readings will be consistent until the device detects
125:
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5604:
5492:
4503:
Atwood, Trisha B.; Witt, Andrew; Mayorga, Juan; Hammill, Edd; Sala, Enric (2020). "Global
Patterns in Marine Sediment Carbon Stocks".
4267:
3794:
Althaus, F; Williams, A; Schlacher, TA; Kloser, RJ; Green, MA; Barker, BA; Bax, NJ; Brodie, P; Hoenlinger-Schlacher, MA (2009-12-17).
735:
3259:"Seabed mining: International Seabed Authority environmental management plan for the Clarion–Clipperton Zone. A partnership approach"
6024:
5295:
4599:
4491:
3433:"INFOMAR data supports offshore energy development and marine spatial planning in the Irish offshore via the EMODnet Geology portal"
5442:
511:. It began forming over 200 million years ago when the American, African and European continents were still connected, forming the
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hosted nearly 250 people, including sailors, engineers, carpenters, marines, officers, and a 6-person team of scientists, led by
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as it can not only characterize geological features on the seafloor but can survey aircraft and ship wrecks deep under the sea.
299:
and objects on and below the sea floor. The returned data is collected by computers and with aid from hydrographers, can create
124:
Prior to World War II, marine geology grew as a scientific discipline. During the early 20th century, organizations such as the
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5198:
3020:"Scientific rationale and international obligations for protection of active hydrothermal vent ecosystems from deep-sea mining"
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Marine geology also has many applications on the subject of offshore energy development. Offshore energy is the generation of
303:
of the terrain below the sea floor. The resolution of the data also allows scientists to identify geological features such as
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875:
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1069:. This committee has a set goal to have the project finished by 2030. To reach their goal, they are equipping old, new, and
703:. These vents emit large volumes of super-heated, metal infused fluids that rise and rapidly cool when mixed with the cold
230:
other depth measuring sonar devices are typically accompanied with the side-scan sonar to generate a more detailed survey.
6345:
1604:"Simultaneous detection of deep-sea earthquake and magnetic field using three-axis fiber optic accelerometer-magnetometer"
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1082:
672:. Although this sector seems profitable, it is a high risk, high reward industry with many harmful environmental impacts.
362:
276:
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2757:"An evaluation of volcanic cloud detection techniques during recent significant eruptions in the western 'Ring of Fire'"
590:
The
Mariana Trench is the deepest known submarine trench, and the deepest location in the Earth's crust itself. It is a
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along the ridge, the two plates diverge from each other pulling up the new ocean floor from below the crust. Along the
5400:
4670:
2337:
Fujiwara, Toshiya; Lin, Jian; Matsumoto, Takeshi; Kelemen, Peter B.; Tucholke, Brian E.; Casey, John F. (March 2003).
602:. At the deepest point, the trench is nearly 11,000 m deep (almost 36,000 feet). This is further below sea level than
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and forces applied to them. Another example why marine geology is needed for future energy projects is to understand
4071:, First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/ Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.: CRC Press, pp. 115–123,
2755:
Tupper, Andrew; Carn, Simon; Davey, Jason; Kamada, Yasuhiro; Potts, Rodney; Prata, Fred; Tokuno, Masami (May 2004).
5537:
2883:"Deep-Sea Mining: Economic, Technical, Technological, and Environmental Considerations for Sustainable Development"
5437:
3747:
Olsgard, Frode; Schaanning, Morten T.; Widdicombe, Stephen; Kendall, Mike A.; Austen, Melanie C. (November 2008).
3309:"DeepCCZ: Deep-sea Mining Interests in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research"
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mapping and conservation. With global events causing potentially irreversible damage to the sea habitats, such as
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5477:
4637:
3257:
Lodge, Michael; Johnson, David; Le Gurun, Gwenaëlle; Wengler, Markus; Weaver, Phil; Gunn, Vikki (November 2014).
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at sea include oil and minerals. Over the last 30 years, deep-sea mining has generated between $ 9 -$ 11 billion
443:
is divided into extensive plates of rock. These plates sit on top of partially molten layer of rock known as the
339:
4219:
Rajendran, C. P.; Rajendran, K.; Anu, R.; Earnest, A.; Machado, T.; Mohan, P. M.; Freymueller, J. (2007-01-01).
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Guinan, J.; McKeon, C.; O'Keeffe, E.; Monteys, X.; Sacchetti, F.; Coughlan, M.; Nic Aonghusa, C. (2020-09-09).
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on each other and one plate is pushed beneath the other. In a marine setting, this typically occurs when the
179:. A geomagnetic survey was conducted that supported this theory. The survey was composed of scientists using
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Plate tectonics is a scientific theory developed in the 1960s that explains major land form events, such as
300:
118:
4496:"What is the Ring of Fire? : Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research".
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has set aside approximately 160,000 square kilometers of seabed within the CCZ as the area is rich with
818:, if the water depth is greater than 15 meters. There must be inserted in areas that are not at risk to
315:
107:
73:
4391:"Developing a risk-informed decision-support system for earthquake early warning at a critical seaport"
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movement to convert to energy. Understanding the seafloor and geological features can help develop the
759:. It has been divided into 16 mining claims and 9 sections dedicated to conservation. According to the
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The CCZ has been surveyed and mapped to designate specific areas for mining and for conservation. The
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4293:"The development and implementation of a real-time meteotsunami warning network for the Adriatic Sea"
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3890:"What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment"
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surface of the sea floor, giving hydrographers a detailed view of the marine geological environment.
2339:"Crustal Evolution of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone in the last 5 Ma"
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is a complex subject that is necessary to understand to protect infrastructure and the environment.
519:, the ridge system became more defined and in the last 75 years, it has been intensely studied. The
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3937:"Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf"
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is the main piece of equipment deployed, which is typically towed behind a vessel or mounted to a
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Many sub-bottom profilers can emit multiple frequencies of sound to record data on a multitude of
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1149:"Exploring the deep with the HMS Challenger | College of Liberal Arts & Sciences at Illinois"
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and other mitigation techniques to protect the people and environments who may be susceptible to
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is the process of sediment and materials breaking down and transported due to the effects of the
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and mitigation techniques for these disastrous events will require marine geology of coastal and
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3077:"The Development History and Latest Progress of Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodule Mining Technology"
2222:, Geophysical Monograph Series, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 63–93,
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at the seafloor. The sudden change in magnetism can be analyzed on the magnetometer's display.
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THE ROLE OF FEDERALISM IN INITIATING OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE
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807:, which are crucial for location placement of the necessary infrastructure to produce energy.
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147:. The survey data was large step towards many more discoveries about the geology of the sea.
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Gardner, James V.; Armstrong, Andrew A.; Calder, Brian R.; Beaudoin, Jonathan (2014-01-02).
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Marine geological studies were of extreme importance in providing the critical evidence for
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technique, involves dragging a large net that herds and captures a target species, such as
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2804:"Technology developments in the exploration and evaluation of deep-sea mineral resources"
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Nobre, Ana; Pacheco, Miguel; Jorge, Raquel; Lopes, M.F.P.; Gato, L.M.C. (January 2009).
3526:
3511:"Geological and geotechnical constraints in the Irish Sea for offshore renewable energy"
3380:"The Current State and Future of Offshore Energy Exploration and Development Technology"
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Model of the earthquake epicenter and tsunami extent of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
755:. The CCZ is approximately 4,500,000 square kilometers constructed of various submarine
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Cremen, Gemma; Bozzoni, Francesca; Pistorio, Silvia; Galasso, Carmine (February 2022).
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1993:
1576:"Exploration Tools: Sub-Bottom Profiler: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research"
1094:
792:
575:
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431:, and mid-ocean ridge systems. The idea is that Earth's most outer layer, known as the
401:
330:
304:
3378:
Shouwei, Zhou; Qingping, Li; Haishan, Zhu; Houhe, Zhang; Qiang, Fu; Li, Zhang (2016).
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945:, which can directly affect the sediment distribution. This can lead to the change in
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4429:"Boldly Explore Where No One Has Explored Before | Bureau of Ocean Energy Management"
3866:
2015:
Li, Xiaochen; Luo, Xianhu; Deng, Ming; Qiu, Ning; Sun, Zhen; Chen, Kai (March 2023).
1773:
1608:
2019 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC)
1099:
1057:, a vessel owned by NOAA, has already mapped over 2 million km of the seafloor using
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5158:
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5015:
4882:
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4739:
4734:
4701:
4647:
3936:
3889:
3796:"Impacts of bottom trawling on deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting"
3510:
2456:
1640:
1543:"Exploration Tools: Multibeam Sonar: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research"
1506:"Exploration Tools: Side-Scan Sonar: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research"
1114:
887:
879:
835:
811:
579:
370:
358:
256:
184:
180:
65:
49:
3960:
3913:
3842:
3681:
3594:"Geo-spatial multi-criteria analysis for wave energy conversion system deployment"
3593:
3534:
3379:
3258:
3234:
3209:
3019:
2640:
2115:
1749:
3748:
3693:
3617:
3395:
3282:
3043:
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2668:
2548:
2127:
1686:
834:
the geological area before development is needed to insure proper support of the
6259:
5991:
5920:
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5692:
5682:
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5457:
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5218:
5183:
4963:
4829:
4785:
4770:
4567:
4390:
3772:
3473:
2988:
2572:
1833:"Exploration Tools: Magnetometer: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research"
1698:
1603:
1200:
938:
804:
788:
772:
432:
319:
251:
140:
61:
45:
17:
4406:
3639:
3485:
3159:
2756:
2261:"What is the mid-ocean ridge?: Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Ocean Exploration"
2016:
1857:
1795:
Kostenko, Vladimir V.; Tolstonogov, Anton Yu.; Mokeeva, Irina G. (April 2019).
1615:
871:, marine geology can help us study and mitigate the effects of these activity.
342:. The outer layer of the Earth's core is liquid and mostly made up of magnetic
106:
The study of marine geology dates back to the late 1800s during the 4-year HMS
6077:
5925:
5900:
5795:
5775:
5702:
5687:
5672:
5662:
5627:
5547:
5367:
5362:
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5315:
5213:
4943:
4918:
4897:
4874:
4801:
4706:
4366:
4341:
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3651:
3183:
2780:
2040:
1881:
934:
926:
776:
643:
559:
547:
453:
428:
242:
135:
In the 1950s, marine geology had one of the most significant discoveries, the
69:
4414:
4375:
4326:
4317:
4292:
4252:
4205:
4076:
4049:
3992:
3968:
3921:
3888:
Oberle, Ferdinand K.J.; Storlazzi, Curt D.; Hanebuth, Till J.J. (July 2016).
3874:
3827:
3780:
3625:
3542:
3458:
3403:
3290:
3243:
3191:
3124:
3110:
3061:
2953:
2906:
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2580:
2533:
2430:
2380:
2320:
2189:
2048:
2001:
1946:
1889:
1796:
1781:
1672:
6149:
6011:
5996:
5910:
5755:
5594:
5589:
5372:
5300:
5228:
5148:
5138:
5095:
4989:
4844:
4711:
3984:
Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes
3307:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
3136:
2708:
2691:
2259:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
1808:
1484:
1010:
950:
946:
831:
827:
696:
684:
627:
366:
264:
88:
4143:
3052:
2961:
1954:
538:
4153:
3560:
3449:
3432:
2803:
2547:
Zhang, Jiangyang; Zhang, Fan; Lin, Jian; Yang, Hongfeng (September 2021).
2338:
1904:
44:
is the study of the history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves
6244:
5966:
5825:
5717:
5707:
5652:
5128:
4177:
3572:
2882:
2815:
2362:
2216:"The Rheology and Morphology of Oceanic Lithosphere and Mid-Ocean Ridges"
1938:
911:
704:
296:
5056:
4220:
4197:
3101:
3076:
2898:
2524:
2492:"Structure of oceanic crust and serpentinization at subduction trenches"
2491:
2398:
810:
The stability of the seafloor is important for the creation of offshore
6113:
6103:
5273:
5243:
4821:
4608:
4244:
3795:
2515:
2422:
2197:
883:
860:
823:
799:. Underwater geological features can dictate ocean properties, such as
780:
719:
and from chimneys, towers, and mineral-rich deposits on the sea floor.
635:
631:
543:
512:
424:
378:
351:
223:
4562:
4342:"An Earthquake Early Warning System for Southwestern British Columbia"
3819:
3160:"Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials"
2288:
5820:
5233:
3210:"Geology of parts of the central and eastern Clarion Clipperton Zone"
2692:"Exploring the Submarine Ring of Fire: Mariana Arc - Western Pacific"
2397:
Bird, D.E.; Hall, S.A.; Burke, K.; Casey, J.F.; Sawyer, D.S. (2007).
2371:
2312:
2215:
2157:
1078:
986:
942:
907:
899:
712:
680:
676:
386:
347:
95:
4017:
3640:"Wave Energy Utilization in Europe: Current Status and Perspectives"
3208:
Parianos, John; O’Sullivan, Anthony; Madureira, Pedro (2022-03-02).
2227:
2181:
2122:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 149–158,
1061:
since 2008, but this technique has proved to be too time-consuming.
1009:. Furthermore, they can cause other disasters, such as tsunamis and
4041:
1921:
1905:"Active underwater detection with an array of atomic magnetometers"
1733:
1258:
6182:
6001:
5780:
5735:
3682:"Development of Environmental Management Plan for Deep-Sea Mining"
2490:
Grevemeyer, Ingo; Ranero, Cesar R.; Ivandic, Monika (2018-01-12).
1205:
50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
1074:
996:
989:
to predict erosional trends which can protect these environments.
930:
891:
734:
675:
Some of the major minerals extracted from the sea include nickel,
608:
481:
374:
329:
241:
149:
92:
3843:"The impact of bottom trawling on benthic fauna of the North Sea"
3559:
Alsharedah, Yazeed; Naggar, M.Hesham El; Newson, Timothy (2023).
2983:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 2–60,
2802:
Petersen, Sven; Hannington, Mark; Krätschell, Anne (2017-01-03).
2114:
Frisch, Wolfgang; Meschede, Martin; Blakey, Ronald (2010-11-02),
1285:
1232:"HMS Challenger Expedition | History of a Scientific Trailblazer"
30:"Marine Geology" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see
5614:
2156:
Silver, Eli A.; Cox, Allan; Hart, Robert Brian (December 1986).
1903:
Deans, Cameron; Marmugi, Luca; Renzoni, Ferruccio (2018-03-22).
1602:
Zhang, Wentao; Huang, Wenzhu; Luo, Yingbo; Li, Fang (May 2019).
922:
895:
839:
784:
692:
688:
626:, created from several converging plate boundaries. Its intense
343:
5060:
4581:
4549:
3723:"These deep-sea animals are new to science—and already at risk"
3158:
Hein, James R.; Koschinsky, Andrea; Kuhn, Thomas (2020-02-24).
2017:"Low-noise, low-power-consumption seafloor vector magnetometer"
448:
regards to marine geology, the movement of the plates explains
373:
evaluates the magnetic presence generally every second, or one
3478:
2010 World Non-Grid-Connected Wind Power and Energy Conference
1344:"Seeing Is Believing: How Marie Tharp Changed Geology Forever"
974:
728:
695:, and other metals. These minerals are commonly formed around
3688:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 483–506,
3561:"A Compliance Model for Monopiles for Offshore Wind Turbines"
2977:"Deep-Sea Mining versus Land-Based Mining: A Cost Comparison"
2549:"Yield failure of the subducting plate at the Mariana Trench"
3131:, Princeton University Press, pp. 397–412, 2021-11-09,
1199:
Board, National Research Council (US) Ocean Studies (2000),
4572:
4069:
Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Soil and Water Management
4577:
4268:"2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami: Facts and FAQs"
1641:"A model of the dynamical structure of Earth's outer core"
1319:"Seafloor spreading | Evidence & Process | Britannica"
634:
activity poses a major threat for disastrous earthquakes,
459:
There are three major types of tectonic plate boundaries;
456:
and trenches, volcanism and hydrothermal vents, and more.
218:
A common method of collecting imagery of the sea floor is
3437:
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology
2399:"Early Central Atlantic Ocean seafloor spreading history"
1797:"The Combined AUV Motion Control with Towed Magnetometer"
98:), natural disaster mitigation, and academic objectives.
4553:
Coastal Science & Research News from Across the USGS
3509:
Coughlan, Mark; Long, Mike; Doherty, Paul (2020-06-03).
338:
Magnetometry is the process of measuring changes in the
3333:"Polymetallic Nodules - International Seabed Authority"
981:. Marine geology supports the study of sediment types,
523:
was also served as the birthplace for the discovery of
334:
A magnetometer used by the United States Navy in 2004.
287:
A sub-bottom profiler is another sonar system used in
3749:"Effects of bottom trawling on ecosystem functioning"
2596:"Lithosphere–Mantle Interactions in Subduction Zones"
27:
Study of the history and structure of the ocean floor
2287:
Smith, Deborah K.; Cann, Johnson R. (October 1993).
6122:
6096:
6058:
6010:
5949:
5844:
5716:
5613:
5408:
5094:
4982:
4911:
4873:
4820:
4794:
4758:
4725:
4684:
4656:
4615:
4120:"Coastal Erosion | U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit"
2808:
Annales des Mines - Responsabilité et environnement
1693:, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 1–66, 2006,
1259:"Who We Are - Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution"
3753:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
3474:"Development and prospects of offshore wind power"
2920:Peacock, Thomas; Alford, Matthew H. (2018-04-17).
1458:"The geological interpretation of side-scan sonar"
1147:Heckel, Jodi; Bureau, Illinois News (2023-02-10).
1034:(EEWS) are in place and more are being developed.
814:. Most turbines are secured to the seafloor using
369:and corresponding geolocation to create maps. The
6030:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
4484:Marine Geology: Undersea Landforms and Life Forms
2600:Dynamics of Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection
775:using ocean-based resources. This includes using
365:. It is able to measure the changes in fields of
4225:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
4178:"Large earthquakes may trigger more earthquakes"
4018:"Coastal Erosion and Transgressive Stratigraphy"
1426:"marine geology research: Topics by Science.gov"
886:. The zone houses over 5,000 species, including
6020:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
1968:Clausen, Carl J.; Arnold, J. Barto (May 1976).
1201:"Achievements in Marine Geology and Geophysics"
1049:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2289:"Building the crust at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge"
5072:
4593:
3125:"Hydrothermal Systems and the Origin of Life"
2475:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (
1974:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
1970:"The magnetometer and underwater archaeology"
8:
3416:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 (
1645:Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
4395:Reliability Engineering & System Safety
4063:Haj-Amor, Zied; Bouri, Salem (2020-01-22),
3646:, Routledge, pp. 487–500, 2018-12-14,
1067:Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project
958:Sediment transportation and coastal erosion
910:and, has been an area where new species of
699:, more specifically hydrothermal vents and
5079:
5065:
5057:
4600:
4586:
4578:
3129:The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents
2214:Searle, R. C.; EscartĂn, J. (2013-03-19),
606:is above sea level, by over 2 kilometers.
311:, ancient river beds, and other features.
226:of rock beneath the surface of the water.
4365:
4316:
4297:Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
4145:Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion
3991:
3448:
3233:
3100:
3075:Kang, Yajuan; Liu, Shaojun (2021-10-14).
3051:
2707:
2523:
2370:
1920:
1858:"Highly sensitive magnetometers—a review"
1732:
1015:underwater earthquake in the Indian Ocean
622:The Ring of Fire is situated around the
537:
400:
4563:Pacific Seafloor Mapping Project – USGS
2116:"Plate tectonics and mountain building"
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1136:
1005:Earthquakes are one of the most common
5351:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
4450:
4448:
4097:
3554:
3552:
3409:
3384:Chinese Journal of Engineering Science
3359:(Thesis). University of Rhode Island.
3302:
3300:
3203:
3201:
3164:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
3153:
3151:
2839:
2829:
2634:
2632:
2468:
2451:, Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag,
2392:
2390:
2332:
2330:
2282:
2280:
2254:
2252:
2209:
2207:
2109:
2107:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
1597:
1595:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1174:
1164:
1085:based technology to reach their goal.
4291:Šepić, J.; Vilibić, I. (2011-01-05).
2075:Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution
1396:
1394:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1280:
1278:
1253:
1251:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1142:
1140:
271:will be. Therefore, it is common for
7:
6298:
4568:Marine Geology and Geophysics at MIT
4558:Marine Geology and Geophysics – NOAA
4065:"Climate Change and Coastal Erosion"
2343:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1801:2019 IEEE Underwater Technology (UT)
850:Environmental impacts and mitigation
761:International Seabed Authority (ISA)
562:are caused when two tectonic plates
527:. As volcanic activity produces new
130:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
68:. Marine geology has strong ties to
5039:
3472:Yang, Xu; Bai, Ke (November 2010).
2021:Journal of Oceanology and Limnology
159:In 1960, the American geophysicist
126:Scripps Institution of Oceanography
6178:National Oceanographic Data Center
5605:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
5493:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
3365:10.23860/thesis-starr-clayton-2022
2608:10.1016/b978-0-323-85733-8.00014-7
1994:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1976.tb00953.x
1342:Blakemore, Erin (30 August 2016).
495:is a consequence of the diverging
381:material. This could range from a
167:, Hess was able to prove that the
25:
6025:Global Sea Level Observing System
4016:Swift, Donald J. P. (July 1968).
3841:de Groot, S.J. (September 1984).
2946:10.1038/scientificamerican0518-72
2887:Marine Technology Society Journal
1862:Sensors and Actuators A: Physical
859:Marine geology has a key role in
488:, and other geological features.
480:formation houses a collection of
6308:
6297:
6288:
6287:
5483:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
5399:
5388:
5038:
5027:
5026:
5014:
4646:
4535::10.3389/fmicb.2019.00780/full.
4515::10.3389/fmars.2020.00165/full.
2981:The Economics of Deep-Sea Mining
2736:education.nationalgeographic.org
2083:10.1016/b978-075063386-4/50001-x
1750:"Geomagnetism in marine geology"
1639:Loper, David E. (January 2000).
1456:Johnson, Paul; Helferty (1990).
1406:education.nationalgeographic.org
1379:education.nationalgeographic.org
1032:earthquake early warning systems
855:Habitat mapping and conservation
646:environments to predict events.
318:and physical data from rock and
183:to measure the magnetism of the
6213:Ocean thermal energy conversion
5936:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
2158:"Plate Tectonics: How It Works"
1207:, National Academies Press (US)
1110:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain
1043:Seafloor mapping and bathymetry
3800:Marine Ecology Progress Series
2922:"Is Deep-Sea Mining Worth It?"
2602:, Elsevier, pp. 385–405,
2457:10.1007/springerreference_4233
876:International Seabed Authority
638:, and volcanic eruptions. Any
277:autonomous underwater vehicles
1:
3961:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008
3914:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007
3535:10.1080/17445647.2020.1758811
3235:10.1080/17445647.2022.2035267
2761:Remote Sensing of Environment
1665:10.1016/s0031-9201(99)00096-5
753:Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ)
598:is being subducted under the
452:and mid-ocean ridge systems,
5473:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
5443:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
5199:Luke's variational principle
4266:Reid, Kathryn (2023-09-25).
3867:10.1016/0302-184x(84)90002-7
3694:10.1007/978-3-319-52557-0_17
3618:10.1016/j.renene.2008.03.002
3396:10.15302/j-sscae-2016.02.003
3283:10.1016/j.marpol.2014.04.006
3044:10.1016/j.marpol.2018.01.020
2881:Sharma, Rahul (2011-09-01).
2669:10.1080/01490419.2013.837849
2128:10.1007/978-3-540-76504-2_11
1774:10.1016/0025-3227(73)90069-8
1748:Talwani, M. (October 1973).
1687:"The Earth's Magnetic Field"
1286:"About Scripps Oceanography"
4671:Geological history of Earth
4505:Frontiers in Marine Science
3773:10.1016/j.jembe.2008.07.036
2989:10.1007/978-3-642-70252-5_1
2573:10.1016/j.tecto.2021.228944
2077:, Elsevier, pp. 1–35,
1699:10.1007/978-3-540-27980-8_1
767:Offshore energy development
6362:
5538:Ocean dynamical thermostat
5386:
4644:
4407:10.1016/j.ress.2021.108035
4346:Frontiers in Earth Science
3486:10.1109/wnwec.2010.5673138
2594:Billen, Magali I. (2023),
1616:10.1109/i2mtc.2019.8826972
412:
273:remotely operated vehicles
29:
6283:
6073:Ocean acoustic tomography
5886:Mohorovičić discontinuity
5478:General circulation model
5114:Benjamin–Feir instability
5008:
4685:Composition and structure
4638:Index of geology articles
4525:Frontiers in Microbiology
4367:10.3389/feart.2021.684084
3941:Journal of Marine Systems
3894:Journal of Marine Systems
3652:10.4324/9781315793245-115
3184:10.1038/s43017-020-0027-0
2781:10.1016/j.rse.2004.02.004
2041:10.1007/s00343-022-2105-2
1882:10.1016/j.sna.2005.11.023
993:Natural hazard assessment
435:, that is made up of the
405:Map of Earth's principal
6203:Ocean surface topography
5578:Thermohaline circulation
5568:Subsurface ocean current
5508:Hydrothermal circulation
5341:Wave–current interaction
5119:Boussinesq approximation
4318:10.5194/nhess-11-83-2011
4104:: CS1 maint: location (
4077:10.1201/9780429356667-10
3993:10.5772/intechopen.91061
2069:Condie, Kent C. (1997),
797:renewable energy sources
670:United States of America
32:Marine Geology (journal)
6240:Sea surface temperature
6223:Outline of oceanography
5418:Atmospheric circulation
5356:shallow water equations
5346:Waves and shallow water
5239:Significant wave height
4500:. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
3398:(inactive 2024-07-28).
3353:Starr, Clayton (2022).
3137:10.2307/j.ctv1zm2v35.17
2709:10.5670/oceanog.2007.07
1856:Robbes, D. (May 2006).
1809:10.1109/ut.2019.8734468
1485:10.1029/RG028i004p00357
979:U.S. federal government
963:Sediment transportation
119:Charles Wyville Thomson
42:geological oceanography
6235:Sea surface microlayer
5600:Wind generated current
4573:Ocean Drilling Program
4498:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
4460:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
4022:The Journal of Geology
3680:Sharma, Rahul (2017),
3480:. IEEE. pp. 1–4.
3313:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
2265:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1837:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1803:. IEEE. pp. 1–7.
1610:. IEEE. pp. 1–5.
1580:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1547:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1510:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1002:
740:
614:
551:
475:Mid-ocean ridge system
410:
340:Earth's magnetic field
335:
248:
156:
60:investigations of the
6068:Deep scattering layer
6050:World Geodetic System
5558:Princeton Ocean Model
5438:Coriolis–Stokes force
5088:Physical oceanography
4934:Environmental geology
4482:Erickson, Jon, 1996,
4154:10.1201/9781351072908
3450:10.1144/qjegh2020-033
2459:(inactive 2024-04-11)
1691:The Earth’s Magnetism
1465:Reviews of Geophysics
1024:early warning systems
1000:
906:, and members of the
738:
640:early warning systems
612:
541:
509:South American Plates
404:
333:
309:underwater landslides
245:
153:
74:physical oceanography
6346:Subfields of geology
6088:Underwater acoustics
5648:Perigean spring tide
5513:Langmuir circulation
5224:Rossby-gravity waves
4893:Planetary geophysics
3573:10.2139/ssrn.4445231
2816:10.3917/re1.085.0014
2810:. N° 85 (1): 14–18.
2645:the Mariana Trench?"
2363:10.1029/2002gc000364
1939:10.1364/ao.57.002346
1402:"Seafloor Spreading"
1348:Smithsonian Magazine
721:Polymetallic nodules
701:polymetallic nodules
655:Resource exploration
469:transform boundaries
234:Multibeam bathymetry
6250:Science On a Sphere
5856:Convergent boundary
5528:Modular Ocean Model
5488:Geostrophic current
5204:Mild-slope equation
4995:Petroleum geologist
4959:Forensic geophysics
4929:Engineering geology
4676:Timeline of geology
4628:Glossary of geology
4358:2021FrEaS...9..657S
4309:2011NHESS..11...83S
4237:2007BuSSA..97S.174R
4198:10.1063/pt.5.026947
4190:2013PhT..2013d3634.
4124:toolkit.climate.gov
4034:1968JG.....76..444S
3953:2016JMS...159..120O
3906:2016JMS...159..109O
3859:1984OcMan...9..177D
3812:2009MEPS..397..279A
3765:2008JEMBE.366..123O
3610:2009REne...34...97N
3527:2020JMaps..16..420C
3275:2014MarPo..49...66L
3226:2022JMaps..18..232P
3176:2020NRvEE...1..158H
3102:10.3390/min11101132
3093:2021Mine...11.1132K
3036:2018MarPo..90...20V
2975:Dick, Rolf (1985),
2938:2018SciAm.318e..72P
2926:Scientific American
2899:10.4031/mtsj.45.5.2
2773:2004RSEnv..91...27T
2661:2014MarGe..37....1G
2565:2021Tectp.81428944Z
2508:2018Geosp..14..395G
2415:2007Geosp...3..282B
2355:2003GGG.....4.1024F
2305:1993Natur.365..707S
2174:1986Palai...1..615S
2033:2023JOL....41..804L
1986:1976IJNAr...5..159C
1931:2018ApOpt..57.2346D
1874:2006SeAcA.129...86R
1766:1973MGeol..15..212T
1657:2000PEPI..117..179L
1477:1990RvGeo..28..357J
1071:autonomous vehicles
820:sediment deposition
743:A popular area for
570:subducts below the
326:Marine magnetometry
289:geophysical surveys
283:Sub-bottom profiler
197:Eastern Hemispheres
81:sea floor spreading
5906:Seafloor spreading
5896:Outer trench swell
5861:Divergent boundary
5761:Continental margin
5746:Carbonate platform
5643:Lunitidal interval
5021:Geology portal
4949:Geologic modelling
4888:Geophysical survey
4840:Geodetic astronomy
4766:Structural geology
4727:Historical geology
4658:History of geology
4633:History of geology
4623:Outline of geology
4456:"Seafloor Mapping"
4245:10.1785/0120050630
2516:10.1130/ges01537.1
2445:"Subduction zones"
2423:10.1130/ges00047.1
1323:www.britannica.com
1177:has generic name (
1003:
919:commercial fishing
741:
615:
552:
525:seafloor spreading
521:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
493:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
450:seafloor spreading
411:
336:
261:hydrothermal vents
249:
189:seafloor spreading
157:
145:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
6323:
6322:
6315:Oceans portal
6275:World Ocean Atlas
6265:Underwater glider
6208:Ocean temperature
5871:Hydrothermal vent
5836:Submarine volcano
5771:Continental shelf
5751:Coastal geography
5741:Bathymetric chart
5623:Amphidromic point
5311:Wave nonlinearity
5169:Infragravity wave
5054:
5053:
4939:Planetary geology
4855:Planetary geodesy
4231:(1A): S174–S191.
4184:(4): 3634. 2013.
4163:978-1-351-07290-8
4086:978-0-429-35666-7
4003:978-1-78985-579-1
3820:10.3354/meps08248
3703:978-3-319-52556-3
3661:978-1-315-79324-5
3495:978-1-4244-8920-6
2998:978-3-642-70254-9
2617:978-0-323-85733-8
2449:SpringerReference
2299:(6448): 707–715.
2237:978-1-118-66587-9
2137:978-3-540-76503-5
2092:978-0-7506-3386-4
2071:"Plate tectonics"
1915:(10): 2346–2351.
1818:978-1-5386-4188-0
1708:978-3-540-27979-2
1625:978-1-5386-3460-8
1375:"Plate Tectonics"
1120:Pelagic sediments
1105:Bathymetric chart
1028:natural disasters
1007:natural disasters
937:. It can tear up
795:to support these
747:, located in the
725:manganese nodules
709:chemical reaction
697:volcanic activity
650:Economic benefits
572:continental crust
517:continental drift
421:mountain building
165:continental drift
16:(Redirected from
6353:
6313:
6312:
6301:
6300:
6291:
6290:
6230:Pelagic sediment
6168:Marine pollution
5962:Deep ocean water
5831:Submarine canyon
5766:Continental rise
5658:Rule of twelfths
5573:Sverdrup balance
5503:Humboldt Current
5428:Boundary current
5403:
5392:
5209:Radiation stress
5179:Iribarren number
5154:Equatorial waves
5109:Ballantine scale
5104:Airy wave theory
5081:
5074:
5067:
5058:
5042:
5041:
5030:
5029:
5019:
5018:
4954:Forensic geology
4924:Economic geology
4850:Gravity of Earth
4745:Paleoclimatology
4650:
4602:
4595:
4588:
4579:
4539: 1664-302X.
4519: 2296-7745.
4486:, Facts on File
4470:
4469:
4467:
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4386:
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3973:
3972:
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3885:
3879:
3878:
3853:(3–4): 177–190.
3847:Ocean Management
3838:
3832:
3831:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3759:(1–2): 123–133.
3744:
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3735:
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3677:
3671:
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3644:Renewable Energy
3636:
3630:
3629:
3598:Renewable Energy
3589:
3583:
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3579:
3556:
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2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
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2854:
2848:
2847:
2842:has extra text (
2841:
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2313:10.1038/365707a0
2284:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2256:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2220:Mid-Ocean Ridges
2211:
2202:
2201:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2111:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2066:
2053:
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2012:
2006:
2005:
1965:
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1958:
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1651:(1–4): 179–196.
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1153:las.illinois.edu
1144:
1125:Seafloor mapping
1054:Okeanos Explorer
987:ocean topography
983:current patterns
723:, also known as
715:and minerals to
560:Subduction zones
555:Subduction zones
454:subduction zones
54:sedimentological
21:
18:Marine geologist
6361:
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6035:Sea-level curve
6006:
5945:
5931:Transform fault
5881:Mid-ocean ridge
5847:
5840:
5806:Oceanic plateau
5712:
5698:Tidal resonance
5668:Theory of tides
5609:
5518:Longshore drift
5468:Ekman transport
5404:
5398:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5393:
5384:
5336:Wave turbulence
5269:Trochoidal wave
5194:Longshore drift
5090:
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5055:
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5013:
5004:
4978:
4974:Mineral physics
4907:
4869:
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4776:Plate tectonics
4754:
4750:Palaeogeography
4721:
4697:Crystallography
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3686:Deep-Sea Mining
3679:
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3638:
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3515:Journal of Maps
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3214:Journal of Maps
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2257:
2250:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2228:10.1029/148gm03
2213:
2212:
2205:
2182:10.2307/3514713
2155:
2154:
2150:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2120:Plate Tectonics
2113:
2112:
2105:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2068:
2067:
2056:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1841:
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1551:
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1523:
1514:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1492:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1443:
1434:
1432:
1430:www.science.gov
1424:
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1163:
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1155:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1133:
1091:
1059:multibeam sonar
1045:
1040:
1038:Future research
995:
971:Coastal erosion
967:coastal erosion
960:
869:bottom trawling
865:deep-sea mining
857:
852:
769:
745:deep-sea mining
657:
652:
620:
592:subduction zone
588:
557:
542:Diagram of the
533:ocean-continent
477:
417:
415:Plate tectonics
407:tectonic plates
399:
397:Plate tectonics
328:
316:multibeam sonar
305:volcanic ridges
285:
236:
220:side-scan sonar
216:
214:Side-scan sonar
208:
173:tectonic plates
137:mid-ocean ridge
104:
85:plate tectonics
58:paleontological
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6359:
6357:
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6348:
6343:
6338:
6336:Marine geology
6328:
6327:
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6320:
6318:
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6305:
6295:
6284:
6281:
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6277:
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6255:Stratification
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6155:
6147:
6145:Color of water
6142:
6140:Benthic lander
6137:
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6126:
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6120:
6119:
6117:
6116:
6111:
6106:
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6098:
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6064:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6052:
6047:
6045:Sea level rise
6042:
6040:Sea level drop
6037:
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6027:
6022:
6016:
6014:
6008:
6007:
6005:
6004:
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5989:
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5908:
5903:
5898:
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5888:
5883:
5878:
5876:Marine geology
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5852:
5850:
5842:
5841:
5839:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5816:Passive margin
5813:
5811:Oceanic trench
5808:
5803:
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5587:
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5565:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5545:
5543:Ocean dynamics
5540:
5535:
5530:
5525:
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5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5433:Coriolis force
5430:
5425:
5420:
5414:
5412:
5406:
5405:
5387:
5385:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5370:
5365:
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5359:
5358:
5353:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5282:
5281:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5254:Stokes problem
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5189:Kinematic wave
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
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5111:
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5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4986:
4984:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4976:
4971:
4969:Mining geology
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4915:
4913:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4903:Tectonophysics
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4879:
4877:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4867:
4865:Geopositioning
4862:
4860:Remote sensing
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4826:
4824:
4818:
4817:
4815:
4814:
4812:Marine geology
4809:
4804:
4798:
4796:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4731:
4729:
4723:
4722:
4720:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4692:Cosmochemistry
4688:
4686:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4662:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4645:
4643:
4641:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4612:
4607:
4605:
4604:
4597:
4590:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4545:
4544:External links
4542:
4541:
4540:
4520:
4501:
4494:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4444:
4420:
4381:
4332:
4283:
4258:
4211:
4169:
4162:
4148:. 2018-02-06.
4135:
4111:
4085:
4055:
4042:10.1086/627342
4028:(4): 444–456.
4008:
4002:
3986:, IntechOpen,
3974:
3927:
3880:
3833:
3786:
3739:
3714:
3702:
3672:
3660:
3631:
3584:
3548:
3521:(2): 420–431.
3501:
3494:
3464:
3423:
3370:
3345:
3324:
3296:
3249:
3220:(2): 232–245.
3197:
3170:(3): 158–169.
3147:
3116:
3067:
3009:
2997:
2967:
2912:
2873:
2849:
2794:
2747:
2732:"Ring of Fire"
2723:
2682:
2649:Marine Geodesy
2641:"So, How Deep
2628:
2616:
2586:
2553:Tectonophysics
2539:
2502:(2): 395–418.
2482:
2436:
2386:
2326:
2276:
2248:
2236:
2203:
2148:
2136:
2103:
2091:
2054:
2027:(2): 804–815.
2007:
1980:(2): 159–169.
1960:
1909:Applied Optics
1895:
1868:(1–2): 86–93.
1848:
1824:
1817:
1787:
1760:(3): 212–213.
1754:Marine Geology
1740:
1734:10.4095/100974
1719:
1707:
1678:
1631:
1624:
1591:
1558:
1521:
1490:
1471:(4): 357–380.
1441:
1417:
1390:
1359:
1334:
1301:
1274:
1247:
1216:
1184:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1095:Geology portal
1090:
1087:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1017:occurred at a
1013:, such as the
994:
991:
959:
956:
856:
853:
851:
848:
793:infrastructure
768:
765:
757:fracture zones
727:, are rounded
656:
653:
651:
648:
619:
616:
587:
586:Mariana Trench
584:
576:Mariana Trench
556:
553:
497:North American
476:
473:
413:Main article:
398:
395:
327:
324:
301:cross-sections
284:
281:
235:
232:
215:
212:
207:
204:
169:Earth's mantle
103:
100:
38:Marine geology
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6358:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6333:
6331:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6304:
6296:
6294:
6286:
6285:
6282:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6224:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6216:
6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6163:Marine energy
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6153:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6130:Acidification
6128:
6127:
6125:
6121:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6101:
6099:
6095:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6083:SOFAR channel
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6057:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6009:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5948:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5891:Oceanic crust
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5866:Fracture zone
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5853:
5851:
5849:
5843:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5801:Oceanic basin
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5731:Abyssal plain
5729:
5727:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5719:
5715:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5638:Internal tide
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5612:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5584:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5533:Ocean current
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5407:
5402:
5391:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5331:Wave shoaling
5329:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5291:Ursell number
5289:
5287:
5284:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5174:Internal wave
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5124:Breaking wave
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5101:
5099:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5082:
5077:
5075:
5070:
5068:
5063:
5062:
5059:
5047:
5046:
5037:
5035:
5034:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5017:
5011:
5010:
5007:
5001:
5000:Volcanologist
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4872:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4835:Earth's orbit
4833:
4831:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4823:
4819:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4793:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4781:Geomorphology
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4759:Dynamic Earth
4757:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4732:
4730:
4728:
4724:
4718:
4717:Sedimentology
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4683:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4666:Geochronology
4664:
4663:
4661:
4659:
4655:
4649:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4603:
4598:
4596:
4591:
4589:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4552:
4548:
4547:
4543:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4521:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4499:
4495:
4493:
4492:0-8160-3354-4
4489:
4485:
4481:
4480:
4476:
4461:
4457:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4421:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4385:
4382:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4336:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4284:
4273:
4269:
4262:
4259:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4215:
4212:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4182:Physics Today
4179:
4173:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4146:
4139:
4136:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4112:
4107:
4101:
4088:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4059:
4056:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4012:
4009:
4005:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3985:
3978:
3975:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3931:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3884:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3837:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3790:
3787:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3740:
3728:
3724:
3718:
3715:
3705:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3676:
3673:
3663:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3604:(1): 97–111.
3603:
3599:
3595:
3588:
3585:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3502:
3497:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3468:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3427:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3357:
3349:
3346:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3263:Marine Policy
3260:
3253:
3250:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3024:Marine Policy
3021:
3013:
3010:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2877:
2874:
2863:
2862:oceans.ubc.ca
2859:
2853:
2850:
2845:
2840:|volume=
2833:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2798:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2748:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2724:
2719:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2644:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2619:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2486:
2483:
2478:
2472:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2149:
2139:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2094:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1849:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1820:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1730:
1723:
1720:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1632:
1627:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1548:
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1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1335:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1291:
1287:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1264:
1263:www.whoi.edu/
1260:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1237:
1236:www.rmg.co.uk
1233:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1168:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1100:Oceans portal
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1050:
1042:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
999:
992:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
957:
955:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
915:
913:
909:
908:spider family
905:
904:glass sponges
901:
897:
893:
889:
888:sea cucumbers
885:
881:
877:
872:
870:
866:
862:
854:
849:
847:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
812:wind turbines
808:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
766:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
749:Pacific Ocean
746:
737:
733:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
673:
671:
667:
663:
654:
649:
647:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
624:Pacific Ocean
617:
611:
607:
605:
604:Mount Everest
601:
600:Mariana Plate
597:
596:Pacific Plate
593:
585:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
568:oceanic crust
565:
561:
554:
549:
545:
540:
536:
534:
530:
529:oceanic crust
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
487:
483:
474:
472:
470:
466:
462:
457:
455:
451:
446:
445:asthenosphere
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
416:
408:
403:
396:
394:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
332:
325:
323:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
293:
290:
282:
280:
278:
274:
268:
266:
262:
258:
253:
244:
240:
233:
231:
227:
225:
221:
213:
211:
205:
203:
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
181:magnetometers
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:Harry H. Hess
152:
148:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
112:
110:
101:
99:
97:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
33:
19:
6341:Oceanography
6270:Water column
6218:Oceanography
6193:Observations
6188:Explorations
6158:Marginal sea
6151:
6109:OSTM/Jason-2
5941:Volcanic arc
5916:Slab suction
5875:
5633:Head of tide
5523:Loop Current
5463:Ekman spiral
5249:Stokes drift
5159:Gravity wave
5134:Cnoidal wave
5043:
5031:
5012:
4912:Applications
4883:Geomagnetism
4811:
4807:Hydrogeology
4740:Paleontology
4735:Stratigraphy
4702:Geochemistry
4550:
4528:
4524:
4508:
4504:
4497:
4483:
4463:. Retrieved
4459:
4436:. Retrieved
4433:www.boem.gov
4432:
4423:
4398:
4394:
4384:
4349:
4345:
4335:
4303:(1): 83–91.
4300:
4296:
4286:
4275:. Retrieved
4272:World Vision
4271:
4261:
4228:
4224:
4214:
4181:
4172:
4144:
4138:
4127:. Retrieved
4123:
4114:
4090:, retrieved
4068:
4058:
4025:
4021:
4011:
3983:
3977:
3944:
3940:
3930:
3897:
3893:
3883:
3850:
3846:
3836:
3803:
3799:
3789:
3756:
3752:
3742:
3731:. Retrieved
3729:. 2024-04-11
3726:
3717:
3707:, retrieved
3685:
3675:
3665:, retrieved
3643:
3634:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3576:. Retrieved
3564:
3518:
3514:
3504:
3477:
3467:
3440:
3436:
3426:
3412:cite journal
3387:
3383:
3373:
3355:
3348:
3337:. Retrieved
3335:. 2022-03-17
3327:
3316:. Retrieved
3312:
3266:
3262:
3252:
3217:
3213:
3167:
3163:
3140:, retrieved
3128:
3119:
3087:(10): 1132.
3084:
3080:
3070:
3027:
3023:
3012:
3002:, retrieved
2980:
2970:
2932:(5): 72–77.
2929:
2925:
2915:
2893:(5): 28–41.
2890:
2886:
2876:
2865:. Retrieved
2861:
2852:
2832:cite journal
2807:
2797:
2767:(1): 27–46.
2764:
2760:
2750:
2739:. Retrieved
2735:
2726:
2702:(4): 68–79.
2699:
2696:Oceanography
2695:
2685:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2621:, retrieved
2599:
2589:
2556:
2552:
2542:
2525:10261/164536
2499:
2495:
2485:
2461:, retrieved
2448:
2439:
2406:
2402:
2346:
2342:
2296:
2292:
2268:. Retrieved
2264:
2241:, retrieved
2219:
2165:
2161:
2151:
2141:, retrieved
2119:
2096:, retrieved
2074:
2024:
2020:
2010:
1977:
1973:
1963:
1912:
1908:
1898:
1865:
1861:
1851:
1840:. Retrieved
1836:
1827:
1800:
1790:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1722:
1712:, retrieved
1690:
1681:
1648:
1644:
1634:
1607:
1583:. Retrieved
1579:
1550:. Retrieved
1546:
1513:. Retrieved
1509:
1468:
1464:
1433:. Retrieved
1429:
1420:
1409:. Retrieved
1405:
1382:. Retrieved
1378:
1351:. Retrieved
1347:
1337:
1326:. Retrieved
1322:
1293:. Retrieved
1289:
1266:. Retrieved
1262:
1239:. Retrieved
1235:
1209:, retrieved
1204:
1175:|last2=
1156:. Retrieved
1152:
1115:Hydrogeology
1081:, and other
1063:
1052:
1046:
1004:
961:
939:root systems
916:
880:biodiversity
873:
858:
809:
805:temperatures
770:
742:
674:
658:
621:
618:Ring of Fire
589:
580:Ring of Fire
558:
490:
478:
458:
418:
391:
371:magnetometer
359:magnetometer
356:
337:
320:core samples
313:
294:
286:
269:
257:water column
250:
247:exaggerated.
237:
228:
217:
209:
201:
158:
134:
123:
114:
108:
105:
78:
66:coastal zone
41:
37:
36:
6260:Thermocline
5977:Mesopelagic
5950:Ocean zones
5921:Slab window
5786:Hydrography
5726:Abyssal fan
5693:Tidal range
5683:Tidal power
5678:Tidal force
5563:Rip current
5498:Gulf Stream
5458:Ekman layer
5448:Downwelling
5423:Baroclinity
5410:Circulation
5306:Wave height
5296:Wave action
5279:megatsunami
5259:Stokes wave
5219:Rossby wave
5184:Kelvin wave
5164:Green's law
4983:Occupations
4964:Meteoritics
4830:Cartography
4786:Volcanology
4771:Geodynamics
3947:: 120–131.
3900:: 109–119.
3806:: 279–294.
2655:(1): 1–13.
2349:(3): 1024.
941:and animal
935:sea turtles
927:coral reefs
773:electricity
717:precipitate
546:process of
486:fault zones
433:lithosphere
429:earthquakes
385:to ferrous
383:ship's hull
275:(ROVs) and
252:Backscatter
185:basalt rock
141:Marie Tharp
62:ocean floor
50:geochemical
46:geophysical
6330:Categories
6198:Reanalysis
6097:Satellites
6078:Sofar bomb
5926:Subduction
5901:Ridge push
5796:Ocean bank
5776:Contourite
5703:Tide gauge
5688:Tidal race
5673:Tidal bore
5663:Slack tide
5628:Earth tide
5548:Ocean gyre
5368:Wind setup
5363:Wind fetch
5326:Wave setup
5321:Wave radar
5316:Wave power
5214:Rogue wave
5144:Dispersion
4944:Geobiology
4919:Biogeology
4898:Seismology
4875:Geophysics
4802:Glaciology
4707:Mineralogy
4551:Soundwaves
4465:2024-04-11
4438:2024-04-11
4401:: 108035.
4277:2024-04-11
4129:2024-04-11
4092:2024-04-11
3733:2024-04-11
3709:2024-04-11
3667:2024-04-11
3578:2024-04-11
3565:dx.doi.org
3339:2024-04-11
3318:2024-04-11
3142:2024-04-11
3004:2024-04-11
2867:2024-04-11
2741:2024-04-11
2623:2024-04-11
2559:: 228944.
2463:2024-04-11
2409:(5): 282.
2270:2024-04-11
2243:2024-04-11
2168:(6): 615.
2143:2024-04-11
2098:2024-04-11
1922:1803.07846
1842:2024-04-11
1714:2024-04-11
1585:2024-02-19
1552:2024-02-19
1515:2024-02-19
1435:2024-02-19
1411:2024-02-19
1384:2024-02-19
1353:2024-04-17
1328:2024-02-19
1295:2024-02-19
1268:2024-02-19
1241:2024-02-19
1211:2024-02-19
1158:2024-02-19
1131:References
1011:landslides
830:activity.
644:island arc
594:where the
548:subduction
544:geological
503:, and the
465:convergent
265:cold seeps
155:spreading.
115:Challenger
111:expedition
109:Challenger
70:geophysics
6060:Acoustics
6012:Sea level
5911:Slab pull
5848:tectonics
5756:Cold seep
5718:Landforms
5595:Whirlpool
5590:Upwelling
5373:Wind wave
5301:Wave base
5229:Sea state
5149:Edge wave
5139:Cross sea
4990:Geologist
4845:Geomatics
4712:Petrology
4616:Overviews
4415:0951-8320
4376:2296-6463
4327:1684-9981
4253:0037-1106
4206:1945-0699
4050:0022-1376
3969:0924-7963
3922:0924-7963
3875:0302-184X
3828:0171-8630
3781:0022-0981
3626:0960-1481
3543:1744-5647
3459:1470-9236
3404:1009-1742
3390:(2): 19.
3291:0308-597X
3269:: 66–72.
3244:1744-5647
3192:2662-138X
3111:2075-163X
3062:0308-597X
3030:: 20–28.
2954:0036-8733
2907:0025-3324
2824:1268-4783
2789:0034-4257
2718:1042-8275
2677:0149-0419
2581:0040-1951
2534:1553-040X
2496:Geosphere
2431:1553-040X
2403:Geosphere
2381:1525-2027
2372:1912/5774
2321:0028-0836
2190:0883-1351
2049:2096-5508
2002:1057-2414
1947:1559-128X
1890:0924-4247
1782:0025-3227
1673:0031-9201
1019:magnitude
951:nutriment
947:chemistry
912:sea worms
832:Surveying
816:monopiles
751:, in the
685:manganese
628:volcanism
484:, rifts,
461:divergent
425:volcanoes
367:magnetism
297:sediments
89:petroleum
6293:Category
6245:Seawater
5972:Littoral
5967:Deep sea
5826:Seamount
5708:Tideline
5653:Rip tide
5583:shutdown
5553:Overflow
5286:Undertow
5129:Clapotis
4100:citation
3081:Minerals
2962:29672491
2471:citation
1955:29714214
1167:cite web
1089:See also
884:habitats
836:turbines
828:tectonic
801:currents
705:seawater
636:tsunamis
578:and the
564:converge
515:. After
501:Eurasian
224:outcrops
128:and the
6303:Commons
6173:Mooring
6123:Related
6114:Jason-3
6104:Jason-1
5987:Pelagic
5982:Oceanic
5957:Benthic
5274:Tsunami
5244:Soliton
5045:Geology
5033:Geology
4822:Geodesy
4609:Geology
4477:Sources
4354:Bibcode
4352:: 657.
4305:Bibcode
4233:Bibcode
4186:Bibcode
4030:Bibcode
3949:Bibcode
3902:Bibcode
3855:Bibcode
3808:Bibcode
3761:Bibcode
3727:Animals
3606:Bibcode
3523:Bibcode
3271:Bibcode
3222:Bibcode
3172:Bibcode
3089:Bibcode
3032:Bibcode
2934:Bibcode
2769:Bibcode
2657:Bibcode
2561:Bibcode
2504:Bibcode
2411:Bibcode
2351:Bibcode
2301:Bibcode
2198:3514713
2170:Bibcode
2162:PALAIOS
2029:Bibcode
1982:Bibcode
1927:Bibcode
1870:Bibcode
1762:Bibcode
1653:Bibcode
1473:Bibcode
1079:sensors
1030:. Many
943:burrows
900:shrimps
861:habitat
844:current
824:erosion
781:thermal
711:causes
668:in the
632:seismic
505:African
379:ferrous
352:geology
206:Methods
193:Western
177:diverge
102:History
72:and to
5992:Photic
5821:Seabed
5234:Seiche
4490:
4413:
4374:
4325:
4251:
4204:
4160:
4083:
4048:
4000:
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3492:
3457:
3402:
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3242:
3190:
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3060:
2995:
2960:
2952:
2905:
2822:
2787:
2716:
2675:
2614:
2579:
2532:
2429:
2379:
2319:
2293:Nature
2234:
2196:
2188:
2134:
2089:
2047:
2000:
1953:
1945:
1888:
1815:
1780:
1705:
1671:
1622:
985:, and
933:, and
931:sharks
892:corals
787:, and
713:sulfur
707:. The
681:cobalt
677:copper
513:Pangea
482:ridges
467:, and
441:mantle
387:basalt
348:nickel
199:land.
113:. HMS
96:mining
6183:Ocean
6152:Alvin
6002:Swash
5846:Plate
5791:Knoll
5781:Guyot
5736:Atoll
5615:Tides
5378:model
5264:Swell
5096:Waves
4795:Water
3443:(1).
2194:JSTOR
1917:arXiv
1461:(PDF)
1075:sonar
1073:with
896:crabs
826:, or
789:tidal
662:mined
437:crust
375:hertz
93:metal
6150:DSV
6135:Argo
5997:Surf
5453:Eddy
4537:ISSN
4517:ISSN
4488:ISBN
4411:ISSN
4372:ISSN
4323:ISSN
4249:ISSN
4202:ISSN
4158:ISBN
4106:link
4081:ISBN
4046:ISSN
3998:ISBN
3965:ISSN
3918:ISSN
3871:ISSN
3824:ISSN
3777:ISSN
3698:ISBN
3656:ISBN
3622:ISSN
3539:ISSN
3490:ISBN
3455:ISSN
3418:link
3400:ISSN
3287:ISSN
3240:ISSN
3188:ISSN
3107:ISSN
3058:ISSN
2993:ISBN
2958:PMID
2950:ISSN
2903:ISSN
2844:help
2820:ISSN
2785:ISSN
2714:ISSN
2673:ISSN
2612:ISBN
2577:ISSN
2530:ISSN
2477:link
2427:ISSN
2377:ISSN
2317:ISSN
2232:ISBN
2186:ISSN
2132:ISBN
2087:ISBN
2045:ISSN
1998:ISSN
1951:PMID
1943:ISSN
1886:ISSN
1813:ISBN
1778:ISSN
1703:ISBN
1669:ISSN
1620:ISBN
1179:help
965:and
949:and
923:fish
882:and
867:and
842:and
840:wave
803:and
785:wave
777:wind
729:ores
693:gold
689:zinc
630:and
507:and
499:and
491:The
439:and
346:and
344:iron
263:and
195:and
91:and
83:and
64:and
56:and
4533:doi
4513:doi
4403:doi
4399:218
4362:doi
4313:doi
4241:doi
4194:doi
4150:doi
4073:doi
4038:doi
3988:doi
3957:doi
3945:159
3910:doi
3898:159
3863:doi
3816:doi
3804:397
3769:doi
3757:366
3690:doi
3648:doi
3614:doi
3569:doi
3531:doi
3482:doi
3445:doi
3392:doi
3361:doi
3279:doi
3230:doi
3180:doi
3133:doi
3097:doi
3048:hdl
3040:doi
2985:doi
2942:doi
2930:318
2895:doi
2812:doi
2777:doi
2704:doi
2665:doi
2604:doi
2569:doi
2557:814
2520:hdl
2512:doi
2453:doi
2419:doi
2367:hdl
2359:doi
2309:doi
2297:365
2224:doi
2178:doi
2124:doi
2079:doi
2037:doi
1990:doi
1935:doi
1878:doi
1866:129
1805:doi
1770:doi
1729:doi
1695:doi
1661:doi
1649:117
1612:doi
1481:doi
1083:GIS
975:sea
666:USD
363:AUV
175:to
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