306:
magnetic exploder problems were solved. This experience was exactly the sort of live-fire trial BuOrd had been prevented from doing in peacetime, causing one submarine skipper to complain, " round trips of 8,500 miles (13,700 km) into enemy waters to gain attack positions undetected within 800 yards (730 m) of enemy ships only to find that torpedoes run deep and over half the time fail to function, seems to me an undesirable method of gaining information which might be determined any morning within a few miles of a torpedo station in the presence of comparatively few hazards." It was now clear to all at Pearl Harbor that the contact pistol was also defective.
398:) was machined to take the place of the Mark 6's heavy pin block so inertial forces would be lower. Electrical switches, developed by Johnson, were tried as well. Both fixes worked and were relatively easy to implement. In September 1943, the first torpedoes with new contact pistols were sent to war. "After twenty-one months of war, the three major defects of the Mark 14 torpedo had at last been isolated. ... Each defect had been discovered and fixed in the field—always over the stubborn opposition of the Bureau of Ordnance."
250:
55:
394:, supervised by Taylor, dropped dummy warheads filled with sand from a crane raised to a height of 90 feet (27 m). In 7 out of 10 of these trials, firing mechanisms bent, jammed, and failed with the high inertia of a straight-on hit (the prewar ideal). A quick fix was to encourage "glancing" shots (which cut the number of duds in half), until a permanent solution could be found. Lightweight aluminum alloy (from propellers of Japanese planes shot down during the
63:
17:
74:. A typical exploder had a firing pin that stuck out from the warhead and was restrained by a transverse shear pin. The torpedo would hit the target with enough energy to break the shear pin and allow the firing pin to strike a percussion cap that ultimately detonated the warhead. An arming impeller was an additional safety device: the firing pin could not move until the torpedo had traveled a preset distance.
289:
305:
Early reports of torpedo action included some dud hits, heard as a dull clang. In a few instances, Mark 14s would strike a
Japanese ship and lodge in its hull without exploding. The contact pistol appeared to be malfunctioning, though the conclusion was anything but clear until running depth and
296:
Many submarine commanders in the first two years of the war reported explosions of the warhead with little to no damage of the enemy. The magnetic exploders were triggering prematurely, before getting close enough to the vessel to destroy it. Earth's magnetic field near NTS, where the trials (limited
209:
Due to budgetary constraints, very few live-fire trials of the torpedo or exploder were ever conducted. The goal of most exercise firings was to get the torpedo to run under the target, after which it was assumed the magnetic influence feature would do the work. This misplaced trust in the magnetic
202:, which fired one hundred trial shots between 10°N and 10°S and collected 7,000 readings. The tests were done using torpedoes with instrumented exercise heads: an electric eye would take an upward-looking picture from the torpedo; the magnetic influence feature would set off some
172:
In the first test, the torpedo ran underneath the target submarine but did not explode; a second test was successful. Those two shots were the only live-fire tests until World War II. After several redesigns, General
Electric in
1195:
describing problem of deceleration of torpedo, recognizing the deceleration would destroy the torpedo, and suggesting an empty space in front of torpedo "to gain a few thousands of a second" in which to detonate the
314:
Against orders, some submariners disabled the magnetic influence feature of the Mark 6 exploder, suspecting it was faulty. An increase in hits was reported. Shortly after replacing Wilkes in
Fremantle,
339:, BuOrd on 1 August 1942 finally conceded the Mark 14 ran deep, and six weeks later, "that its depth-control mechanism had been 'improperly designed and tested'". This satisfied Lockwood and
292:
Later model of the Mark 6 magnetic exploder assembly that uses a ball switch assembly as the contact exploder. The ball switch did not have the high acceleration problems of the earlier models.
268:
The contact pistol frequently failed to fire the warhead. It often jammed with a textbook right angle hit to a ship's side as the firing pin could not take the shock of the impact.
526:
1422:
112:, with its contact exploder, could not disable a major warship. Torpedoes would need to explode underneath a capital ship, where there were no blisters or other armor. The
387:, beginning 31 August. Their third test shot was a dud. This revealed the firing pin had not been able to contact the detonator hard enough to fire the warhead.
1150:
147:
of World War I. The Mark 6 was intended to fire the warhead beneath the ship, creating a huge gas bubble which would cause the keel to fail catastrophically.
210:
exploder helped mask the depth problems encountered by early torpedoes, for if the exploder were to work properly a depth error of a few feet would not matter.
237:, but prohibited the use of a live warhead, and insisted BuOrd pay the cost of refloating her if she was hit in error. These were strange restrictions, as
698:
How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a
Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda
96:. The torpedo would explode against the blister but do little damage to the hull. Torpedo blisters were tested on two battleships, the decommissioned
241:
was due to be scrapped. BuOrd declined. A service manual for the exploder "was written—but, for security reasons, not printed—and locked in a safe."
150:
The Mark 6 exploder, designated
Project G53, was developed "behind the tightest veil of secrecy the Navy had ever created." In less than two years,
1412:
1299:
Gundersen, Charles R.; Armstrong, Jerry E. (April 26, 2012). The Mark 6 magnetic influence exploder: a little premature (Report). Keyport, WA:
1288:
1266:
1211:
1110:
1066:
905:
733:
1417:
496:
66:
Defective, inadequately tested Mark 6 Mod 1 exploder used early in the war. In
September 1943, it was replaced with the Mark 6 Mod 5.
1092:
1022:
534:
718:
How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a
Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States
280:. The problems could lead to misses or failures, and tended to mask one another, making isolating any one of them more difficult.
1295:
Talks about depth setting problem (as early as 1938), but also
Einstein and exploder; timing is generous in Einstein's favor.
986:
725:
705:
1154:
261:, it was discovered the torpedo had several major flaws. Two of these were directly related to the Mark 6 exploder:
391:
97:
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151:
1278:
395:
364:
222:
103:
1300:
1226:
334:
174:
121:
117:
356:) ordered his boats to deactivate the Mark 6's influence feature and use only its contact pistol.
249:
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140:
82:
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71:
504:
1376:"The USN Pacific Submarine Campaign - Hey, the torpedoes are working now! (Jul'43 - Dec'43)"
712:
692:
214:
159:
155:
297:
as they were) were conducted, differed from the areas where the fighting was taking place.
1186:
909:
482:
432:
378:
273:
181:
1,000 apiece. The exploder was tested at the
Newport lab and in a small field test aboard
113:
109:
43:
39:
128:. Its fairly small 643 lb (292 kg) warhead required it to explode beneath the
1329:
374:
456:
1406:
1316:
994:
144:
81:(commonly called BuOrd) started developing an inertial exploder. The result was the
1258:
South
Pacific Destroyer: The Battle for the Solomons from Savo Island to Vella Gulf
1218:
330:
316:
93:
1356:
195:, who headed the Mark 14's design team, equatorial tests were later conducted by
1120:
Instructions for upkeep & Operation of the Mark VI Mod. 1 exploder mechanism
1051:
258:
218:
125:
326:
on 20 June 1942. Eight hundred Mark 14s had already been fired in combat.
288:
1375:
407:
203:
1361:. Vol. 1. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1955. pp. 196–205
1308:
1103:
Iron Men and Tin Fish: The Race to Build a Better Torpedo During World War II
1170:
1127:
1040:
390:
To avoid "shaking hands with St. Peter" (as Lockwood put it), E.A. Johnson,
384:
344:
277:
228:
1085:
Hellions of the Deep: The Development of American Torpedoes in World War II
158:. The prototype exploder was fitted to a Mark 10 torpedo and test-fired in
20:
Mark 6 exploder. This version apparently does not have a voltage regulator.
1344:
1190:
1142:
35:
1273:
Mark 6 was not just a sub problem. Claims Mark 15 had speed of 45 knots.
458:
Torpedo Mark 13, OP 629(A), Description, Adjustment, Care, and Operation
1380:
163:
32:
1349:
Confidential and Secret General Administrative Files, ca 1/1943–5/1945
1193:. Letter to Commander Stephen Brunauer, U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance.
1033:
Pig Boats: The True Story of the Fighting Submariners of World War II
987:"U. S. Navy Torpedoes. Part Two: The great torpedo scandal, 1941–43."
349:), who both refused to believe the exploder could also be defective.
808:
History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, volume IV
38:
developed in the 1920s. It was the standard exploder of the Navy's
287:
248:
61:
53:
15:
627:
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare
129:
88:
Warships employed defenses against torpedoes. A new technology,
1206:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 163.
629:(London: Phoebus Publishing, 1978), Volume 8, p.807, "Duplex"
1330:"The Mark 6 magnetic influence exploder: a little premature"
124:, to replace the Mark 10, which had been in service since
1203:
The Practical Einstein: Experiments, Patents, Inventions
831:
Between 1934 and 1936. Fitzsimons, Volume 5, p.542, "
1351:. Department of the Navy, U.S. Pacific Fleet. 1943.
764:
762:
527:"The Hard Lessons of World War II Torpedo Failures"
1173:. San Francisco Maritime National Park Association
1052:United States of America Torpedoes of World War II
1046:United States submarine operations in World War II
1261:. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. p. 154.
352:Finally, in July 1943, Admiral Lockwood (by then
753:
666:
579:
567:
257:After the Mark 14 entered combat service in the
1338:Winter 2013. Excerpts from the original report.
1122:, Ordnance Pamphlet, Bureau of Ordnance, 1938,
968:
966:
953:
951:
949:
947:
934:
932:
930:
871:
869:
856:
854:
253:Mechanical drawing of the Mark6 Mod 1 exploder.
1059:Ship Killer: A History of the American Torpedo
844:Milford, Frederick J. "U. S. Navy Torpedoes."
785:
783:
781:
779:
777:
650:
648:
609:
607:
605:
1171:"Mark 6 Magnetic Exploder Mechanism (images)"
802:
800:
798:
592:
590:
588:
8:
1247:"Einstein destroyed 37 Hitler's submarines"
1057:Wildenberg, Thomas; Polmar, Norman (2010),
1423:Military equipment introduced in the 1920s
1280:Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941–1945
1151:"Mark 14-3A Torpedo and its MK 6 Exploder"
143:and German models, all inspired by German
1325:Fall 2013. Naval Undersea Museum figures.
902:U.S. Torpedo Troubles During World War II
1105:, Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press,
1061:, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press,
553:
1087:, Pennsylvania State University Press,
985:Milford, Frederick J. (October 1996b),
734:"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"
563:
561:
448:
424:
177:made 30 production units, at a cost of
1390:Blazich Jr., Frank A. (October 2021).
478:
468:
1386:(Has images of Lockwood's drop tests)
1255:Crenshaw, Russell Sydnor Jr. (1998).
972:
957:
938:
921:
887:
875:
860:
789:
768:
732:Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.
678:
654:
625:Fitzsimons, Bernard, general editor.
613:
596:
7:
1225:Schwarz, Frederic D. (Spring 1998).
154:produced a prototype with help from
920:Under command of Willard Saunders.
822:Fitzsimons, Volume 5, p.541, table.
1251:Einstein and the acoustic torpedo.
1044:. Originally published in 1949 as
272:Similar problems also plagued the
14:
1048:; Bantam version may be abridged.
377:, and others fired warshots from
265:It often caused premature firing.
135:This led to the development of a
497:"Torpedo History: Torpedo Mk 13"
435:used Mark 4 or Mark 8 exploders.
363:'s gunnery and torpedo officer,
139:feature, similar to the British
1317:"History of the Howell Torpedo"
322:ordered a historic net test at
1413:Torpedoes of the United States
1145:. World War II in the Pacific.
1:
1283:. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
1249:. the reference frame (blog).
1245:Motl, Luboš (November 2012).
525:Patrick, John (Winter 2012),
329:After a historic net test by
162:on 8 May 1926; the submarine
77:Just before World War I, the
1017:, Philadelphia: Lippincott,
754:Wildenberg & Polmar 2010
726:American Antiquarian Society
706:American Antiquarian Society
667:Wildenberg & Polmar 2010
580:Wildenberg & Polmar 2010
568:Wildenberg & Polmar 2010
1358:Torpedoman's Mate 3 & 2
1345:"S75(1) Mark 6-1 Exploders"
1439:
1418:World War II naval weapons
1374:Drachinifel (2023-11-15).
1231:Invention & Technology
1191:"Torpedo before explosion"
1101:Newpower, Anthony (2010),
359:Tests were carried out by
132:where there was no armor.
1031:Roscoe, Theodore (1967),
212:Chief of Naval Operations
108:; the conclusion was the
1013:Blair, Clay Jr. (1975),
58:A failed 1926 test shot.
1398:. U.S. Naval Institute.
1083:Gannon, Robert (1996),
152:Newport Torpedo Station
118:Newport Torpedo Station
1396:Naval History Magazine
1277:Pike, Francis (2015).
503:. Navy. Archived from
396:attack on Pearl Harbor
293:
254:
67:
59:
21:
1301:Naval Undersea Museum
1227:"Einstein's Ordnance"
1200:Illy, József (2012).
900:Shireman, Douglas A.
291:
252:
191:At the urging of Lt.
70:Early torpedoes used
65:
57:
19:
1392:"Pieces of the Past"
1035:, New York: Bantam,
991:The Submarine Review
846:The Submarine Review
533:(47), archived from
284:Premature explosions
116:was designed at the
806:Morison, Samuel E.
383:into the cliffs of
102:and the unfinished
1334:Undersea Quarterly
1321:Undersea Quarterly
1189:(4 January 1944).
1157:on 13 October 2004
908:2008-02-28 at the
890:, pp. 226–227
463:United States Navy
294:
276:used by U.S. Navy
255:
137:magnetic influence
79:Bureau of Ordnance
68:
60:
30:United States Navy
22:
1323:. pp. 1, 12.
1290:978-1-4725-9673-4
1268:978-1-61251-550-2
1213:978-1-4214-0457-8
1112:978-1-59114-623-0
1068:978-1-59114-688-9
362:
355:
347:
341:Robert H. English
193:Ralph W. Christie
72:contact exploders
1430:
1399:
1385:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1352:
1337:
1336:. pp. 7–13.
1324:
1312:
1294:
1272:
1250:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1217:
1194:
1187:Einstein, Albert
1182:
1180:
1178:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1153:. Archived from
1146:
1131:
1115:
1097:
1071:
1043:
1027:
999:
998:
993:, archived from
982:
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771:, pp. 61–62
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320:Charles Lockwood
215:William V. Pratt
169:was the target.
160:Narragansett Bay
156:General Electric
90:torpedo blisters
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1143:"Dud Torpedoes"
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1077:Further reading
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110:Mark 10 torpedo
83:Mark 3 exploder
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997:on 2009-10-23
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554:Milford 1996b
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537:on 2014-10-13
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479:|work=
380:Muskallunge
373:). Taylor,
259:Pacific War
175:Schenectady
126:World War I
50:Development
1407:Categories
973:Blair 1975
958:Blair 1975
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888:Blair 1975
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414:References
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278:destroyers
204:gun cotton
105:Washington
1309:816122607
481:ignored (
471:cite book
419:Footnotes
385:Kahoolawe
361:COMSUBPAC
354:COMSUBPAC
346:COMSUBPAC
310:Solutions
232:USS
229:destroyer
197:USS
183:USS
164:USS
1196:warhead.
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1128:51958048
1041:22066288
906:Archived
715:(1992).
695:(1997).
638:Dönitz,
402:See also
336:Skipjack
245:Problems
239:Ericsson
234:Ericsson
36:exploder
1381:YouTube
1177:21 July
1161:3 March
370:Haddock
331:Jim Coe
185:Raleigh
122:Newport
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343:(then
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224:Cassin
141:Duplex
28:was a
722:(PDF)
702:(PDF)
443:Notes
1367:2022
1305:OCLC
1285:ISBN
1263:ISBN
1238:2022
1208:ISBN
1179:2015
1163:2012
1124:OCLC
1107:ISBN
1089:ISBN
1063:ISBN
1037:OCLC
1019:ISBN
741:2024
483:help
392:USNR
367:(ex-
301:Duds
219:hulk
179:US$
130:keel
42:and
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