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5,000 hand harvesters causing displacement of innumerable farm labourers as well as wage cuts and shorter work periods. Migrant workers were hit the hardest. To withstand the rigour of the machines, new crop varieties were bred to match the automated pickers. UC Davis
Professor G.C. Hanna propagated a thick-skinned tomato called VF-145. But even still, millions were damaged with impact cracks and university breeders produced a tougher and juiceless "square round" tomato. Small farms were of insufficient size to obtain financing to purchase the equipment and within 10 years, 85% of the state's 4,000 cannery tomato farmers were out of the business. This led to a concentrated tomato industry in California that "now packed 85% of the nation’s tomato products". The monoculture fields fostered rapid pest growth, requiring the use of "more than four million pounds of pesticides each year" which greatly affected the health of the soil, the farm workers, and possibly the customers.
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harvester developed by
Shibuya Seiki and unveiled in Japan in 2013 is able to pick a strawberry every eight seconds. The robot identifies which strawberries are ready to pick by using three separate cameras and then once identified as ready, a mechanized arm snips the fruit free and gently places it in a basket. The robot moves on rails between the rows of strawberries which are generally contained within elevated greenhouses. The machine costs 5 million yen. A new strawberry harvester made by Agrobot that will harvest strawberries on raised, hydroponic beds using 60 robotic arms is expected to be released in 2016.
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one man to get more work done per day than he ever had before. The horse population in the US began to decline in the 1920s after the conversion of agriculture and transportation to internal combustion. Peak tractor sales in the US were around 1950. In addition to saving labour, this freed up much land previously used for supporting draft animals. The greatest period of growth in agricultural productivity in the US was from the 1940s to the 1970s, during which time agriculture was benefiting from internal combustion powered tractors and
316:
countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Spain and former
Yugoslavia) did not take place until about 1955. Thereafter, the adoption of motorized mechanization took place very quickly, completely superseding animal traction. Using tractors as farm power enabled, and even triggered, innovations in other agricultural machinery and equipment that greatly eased the toil associated with agriculture and allowed farmers to carry out tasks more quickly. At a later stage, motorized machinery also increased in many Asian and Latin American countries.
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order to maintain the blemish-free appearance demanded by customers. The continuous supply of undocumented workers from Latin
America that harvest the crops for low wages further suppressed the need for mechanisation. As the number of undocumented workers has continued to decline since reaching its peak in 2007 due to increased border patrols and an improving Mexican economy, the industry is increasing the use of mechanisation. Proponents argue that mechanisation will boost productivity and help to maintain low
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the structural transformation of societies through which increased agricultural labour productivity gradually releases agricultural workers, giving them the opportunity to take new jobs in other sectors, including industry and services. On the other hand, automation that is forcibly promoted, such as through government subsidies, could cause rising unemployment and falling or stagnant wages.
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causes massive unemployment are not supported by historical realities. Instead, innovation and incorporation of labour-saving technologies tends to take long, and automation of one task often spurs increases in the need for workers to perform other jobs. The direct impact of automation on employment will be determined by the factors leading to its adoption.
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600:. The New Mexico green chile crop is currently hand-picked entirely by field workers as chili pods tend to bruise easily. The first commercial application commenced in 2015. The equipment is expected to increase yield per acre and help to offset a sharp decline in acreage planted due to the lack of available labour and drought conditions.
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Instead, the recommendation is to concentrate on creating an enabling environment to adopt automation – particularly by small-scale agricultural producers, women and youth – while making social protection available to least skilled workers, who are more likely to lose their jobs during the transition.
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started in 1965 and as of 2010, nearly all processing tomatoes are mechanically harvested. As of 2010, 95% of the US processed tomato crop is produced in
California. Although fresh market tomatoes have substantial hand harvesting costs (in 2007, the costs of hand picking and hauling were $ 86 per ton
298:
Although U.S. farmers of corn, wheat, soy, and other commodity crops had replaced most of their workers with harvesting machines and combines by the 1950s enabling them to efficiently cut and gather grains, growers of produce continued to rely on human pickers to avoid the bruising of the product in
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If rising wages and labour scarcities drive the adoption of automation then it is not likely to create unemployment. Automation can also stimulate agricultural employment. For example, it can enable farms to increase their production following growing food demand. Agricultural automation is part of
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Agricultural mechanization is part of this technological evolution of agricultural automation. It can be summarized as a progressive move from manual tools to animal traction, to motorized mechanization, to digital equipment and finally, to robotics with artificial intelligence (AI). These advances
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According to a 1977 report by the
California Agrarian Action Project, during the summer of 1976 in California, many harvest machines had been equipped with a photo-electric scanner that sorted out green tomatoes among the ripe red ones using infrared lights and colour sensors. It worked in lieu of
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Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where adoption of motorized mechanization has not progressed over the past decades. A study in 11 countries proves this low level of mechanization in the region, finding that only 18 percent of the sampled households have access to tractor-powered appliances.
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Advertising for motorised equipment in farm journals during this era did its best to compete against horse-drawn methods with economic arguments, extolling common themes such as that a tractor "eats only when it works", that one tractor could replace many horses, and that mechanisation could allow
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advises against governments implementing distortive subsidies for automation because doing so risks increasing unemployment. FAO also advises against restricting automation on the assumption that this will save jobs and incomes, because it risks making agriculture less competitive and productive.
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Extensive adoption started in the United States of
America, where tractors replaced about 24 million draught animals between 1910 and 1960 and become the main source of farm power. United Kingdom first started using tractors in the 1930s, but agricultural transformation in Japan and some European
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Since at least the early nineteenth century there have been concerns over the possible negative socioeconomic impacts of labour-saving technological change, particularly job displacement resulting in unemployment. However, fears that automation increases labour productivity to the extent that it
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are a high cost-high value crop with the economics supporting mechanization. In 2005, picking and hauling costs were estimated at $ 594 per ton or 51% of the total grower cost. However, the delicate nature of fruit make it an unlikely candidate for mechanization in the near future. A strawberry
311:
Motorized mechanization has substantially expanded at global level, although it has been unevenly and inadequately adopted particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Mechanization is limited to a range of operations including harvesting and weeding and is rarely used for fruit and vegetable production
276:. These machines required large teams of horses or mules to pull. Steam power was applied to threshing machines in the late 19th century. There were steam engines that moved around on wheels under their own power for supplying temporary power to stationary threshing machines. These were called
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acreage in
Florida is harvested mechanically, mainly with citrus canopy shaker machines. Mechanization has progressed slowly due to the uncertainty of future economic benefits due to competition from Brazil and the transitory damage to orange trees when they are harvested.
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are presently harvested by hand with labor costs at 71% of production costs and 44% of selling costs. Asparagus is a difficult crop to harvest since each spear matures at a different speed making it difficult to achieve a uniform harvest. A prototype asparagus harvesting
51:
is the use of machinery and equipment, ranging from simple and basic hand tools to more sophisticated, motorized equipment and machinery, to perform agricultural operations. In modern times, powered machinery has replaced many farm task formerly carried out by
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Mechanization of Maine's blueberry industry has reduced the number of migrant workers required from 5,000 in 2005 to 1,500 in 2015 even though production has increased from 50 to 60 million pounds per year in 2005 to 90 million pounds in 2015.
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can raise productivity and allow for more careful crop, livestock, aquaculture and forestry management; provide better working conditions; improve incomes; reduce the workload of farming; and generate new rural entrepreneurial opportunities.
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There has been an ongoing transition to mechanical harvesting of cling peaches (mostly used in canning) where the cost of labor is 70 percent of a grower's direct costs. In 2016, 12 percent of the cling peach tonnage from
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and industrial economies. Besides improving production efficiency, mechanisation encourages large scale production and sometimes can improve the quality of farm produce. On the other hand, it can cause
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which is 19% of total grower cost), packing and selling costs were more of a concern (at 44% of total grower cost) making it likely that cost saving efforts would be applied there.
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142:(GPS guidance) to increase yields. New digital equipment is increasingly complementing, or even superseding, motorized machines to make diagnosis and decision-making automatic.
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is at 45%; however the rate has slowed due to high raisin demand and prices making the conversion away from hand labour less urgent. A new strain of grape developed by the
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257:, which was invented in 1794 but not widely used for several more decades, simplified the operation and allowed the use of animal power. Before the invention of the
261:(ca. 1790) an able bodied labourer could reap about one quarter acre of wheat in a day using a sickle. It was estimated that each of Cyrus McCormick's horse-pulled
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while farm worker advocates assert that it will eliminate jobs and will give an advantage to large growers who are able to afford the required equipment.
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1090:"Robots Step Into New Planting, Harvesting Roles - Labor shortage spurs farmers to use robots for handling delicate tasks in the fresh-produce industry"
287:(ca. 1917). At first reapers and combine harvesters were pulled by teams of horses or tractors, but in the 1930s self powered combines were developed.
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machine – using a light-beam sensor to identify the taller spears – is expected to be available for commercial use.
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A Regional strategy for
Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization. Sustainable Mechanization across Agri-Food Chains in Asia and the Pacific region
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1701) was a mechanical seed spacing and depth placing device that increased crop yields and saved seed. It was an important factor in the
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University of
California Davis Migration Files: "The Status of Labor-saving Mechanization in Fruits and Vegetables" By Wallace E. Huffman
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Threshing machine in 1881. Steam engines were also used to power threshing machines. Today both reaping and threshing are done with a
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In Brief to The State of Food and Agriculture 2022 – Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems
223:"This farm-hand never tires or asks for pay": A step on the road of agricultural mechanisation with a wire-guided gasoline-powered
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Kirui, Oliver (2019-04-08). "The Agricultural Mechanization in Africa: Micro-Level Analysis of State Drivers and Effects".
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In Brief to The State of Food and Agriculture 2022 − Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems
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A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 7, Agricultural Mechanization
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in California will be mechanically harvested. Fresh peaches destined for direct customer sales must still be hand-picked.
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From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States
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The remaining ones make use of either simple hand-held tools (48 percent) or animal-powered equipment (33 percent).
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at work. The first successful models were introduced in the mid-1940s and each could do the work of 50 hand pickers.
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265:(ca. 1830s) freed up five men for military service in the US Civil War. Later innovations included raking and
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The State of Food and Agriculture 2022 − Leveraging agricultural automation for transforming agrifood systems
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With internal combustion came the first modern tractors in the early 1900s, becoming more popular after the
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Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society
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that drys on the vine and is easily harvested mechanically is expected to reduce the demand for labour.
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Fresno Bee: "New raisin grape holds promise for central San Joaquin Valley growers" By Robert Rodriguez
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Washington State University Extension - School of Economic Sciences: "Asparagus Production Economics"
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1145:"An Unsung Hero: The Farm Tractor's Contribution to Twentieth-Century United States Economic Growth"
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An evolving paradigm of agricultural mechanization development: How much can Africa learn from Asia?
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RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.
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215:"Better and cheaper than horses" was the theme of many advertisements of the 1910s through 1930s.
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Fox Business News: "Machinery takes the place of migrants as Maine's blueberry harvest booms"
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machines. By 1890 two men and two horses could cut, rake and bind 20 acres of wheat per day.
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U. S. Produce Industry and Labor: Facing the Future in a Global Industry By Linda Calvin
1241:"Agricultural mechanization in Africa: Myths, realities and an emerging research agenda"
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It is done by the seed drill. The plantation of seeds depends upon the season.
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Farm 2 ranch magazine: "Labor concerns lead peach growers to look to machines"
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The Greatest Century That Ever Was: 25 Miraculous Trends of the last 100 Years
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824:. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2022.
783:. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2022.
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750:. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2016.
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1451:"Experts: Machines could reverse declining New Mexico green chile acreage"
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Vegetable Growers News: "Mechanical Asparagus Harvester Almost a Reality"
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and Henry Ford seeing one as a boy was inspired to build an automobile.
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1321:. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
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In the 1880s the reaper and threshing machine were combined into the
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Since the beginning of agriculture threshing was done by hand with a
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1432:"New Mexico Researchers To Test Mechanized Green Chile Harvesting"
1184:"Agricultural mechanization: a comparative historical perspective"
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1228:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
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Japan Times: "Latest robot can pick strawberry fields forever"
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Xinshen Diao; Hiroyuki Takeshima; Xiaobo Zhang, eds. (2020).
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
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Mechanisation was one of the large factors responsible for
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166:), especially if it is applied shortsightedly rather than
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contains many examples of the use of tools, such as the
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1545:"No Hands Touch the Land: Automating California Farms"
1027:
Exergy, Power and Work in the U. S. Economy 1900-1998
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1409:"Editorial: Trial could be a boon to chile farmers"
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1008:"Economic History of Tractors in the United States"
106:Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of
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1318:Automation and social impacts: winners and losers
295:, chemical fertilisers and the green revolution.
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965:My Life and Work: An autobiography of Henry Ford
603:As of 2010, approximately 10% of the processing
184:Productivity improving technologies (historical)
1315:Charlton, D.; Hill, A.E.; Taylor, J.E. (2022).
1286:
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1057:Moore, Stephen; Simon, Julian (Dec 15, 1999).
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1025:Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L. W.; Warr, B. (2002).
515:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
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857:An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology
711: This article incorporates text from a
1239:Daum, Thomas; Birner, Regina (2020-09-01).
979:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003).
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1391:"Chile harvester gets a field test in NM"
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553:Learn how and when to remove this message
1389:Diana Alba Soular (September 22, 2014).
253:, requiring a great deal of labour. The
95:has allowed farming to become much less
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307:Motorized mechanization adoption trends
985:. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
744:Sustainable Agricultural Mechanization
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623:As of 2007, mechanized harvesting of
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715:work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (
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1449:Diana Alba Soular (July 25, 2015).
27:Agriculture using powered machinery
2138:Environmental impact of irrigation
1552:California Agrarian Action Project
122:, aeroplanes and helicopters (for
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1219:Mrema, G.; Soni, P.; Rolle, R.S.
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1188:The World Bank Research Observer
935:. New York: D. Appleton and Co.
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2206:Agriculture and the environment
1943:British Agricultural Revolution
1415:. July 31, 2015. Archived from
1149:The Journal of Economic History
668:Agriculture and Agronomy portal
596:harvesters are being tested by
244:British Agricultural Revolution
2150:Climate change and agriculture
1923:Agriculture in the Middle Ages
891:Johns Hopkins University Press
686:List of agricultural machinery
1:
1430:Carrie Jung (July 29, 2015).
1132:– via ebrary.ifpri.org.
239:
87:. The ongoing integration of
1928:Arab Agricultural Revolution
1507:retrieved September 28, 2013
1087:Ilan Brat (April 23, 2015).
717:license statement/permission
18:Mechanisation of agriculture
1068:. Policy Analysis, No. 364.
598:New Mexico State University
529:, discuss the issue on the
350:Preparing land for planting
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1888:Agriculture in Mesoamerica
1143:White, William J. (2001).
495:
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194:Woolbrook, New South Wales
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49:agricultural mechanization
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2238:Universities and colleges
1856:Universities and colleges
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1258:10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100393
1182:Binswanger, Hans (1986).
1161:10.1017/S0022050701238108
641:Mechanical harvesting of
152:environmental degradation
2223:Agriculturist profession
1702:Agricultural engineering
1687:Agricultural cooperative
929:Wells, David A. (1891).
691:Agricultural Engineering
120:types of farm implements
2128:Agricultural wastewater
1851:Sustainable food system
1846:Sustainable agriculture
1739:Animal-free agriculture
1707:Agricultural technology
889:, Baltimore, Maryland:
399:Seed drilling, planting
126:), and other vehicles.
2314:Agricultural machinery
2228:Agricultural machinery
2186:History of agriculture
2171:Agriculture by country
2166:Agricultural machinery
2123:Agricultural pollution
2118:Agricultural expansion
1893:Austronesian expansion
1805:Mechanised agriculture
681:Industrial agriculture
592:As of 2014, prototype
578:
577:in a field in Germany.
469:This section is empty.
447:Weeding, crop spraying
421:This section is empty.
376:This section is empty.
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180:History of agriculture
77:history of agriculture
45:Mechanised agriculture
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2233:Government ministries
2176:Agriculture companies
2012:Convertible husbandry
1692:Agricultural supplies
1642:Agricultural Engineer
1124:10.2499/9780896293809
861:. London: Routledge.
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496:Further information:
451:Further information:
403:Further information:
354:Further information:
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178:Further information:
128:Precision agriculture
93:Industrial Revolution
35:
1883:Neolithic Revolution
1744:Cellular agriculture
1697:Agricultural science
1245:Global Food Security
853:McNeil, Ian (1990).
535:create a new article
527:improve this article
517:may not represent a
140:satellite navigation
134:in conjunction with
1395:Albuquerque Journal
1200:10.1093/wbro/1.1.27
1095:Wall Street Journal
883:Hounshell, David A.
719:). Text taken from
696:Agricultural drones
569:A tractor towing a
2017:Rotational grazing
1933:Columbian exchange
1554:: 20–28. July 1977
1531:September 26, 2013
1519:September 19, 2015
1379:September 06, 2015
1006:White, William J.
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312:across the globe.
293:combine harvesters
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116:combine harvesters
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2319:Intensive farming
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1861:Urban agriculture
1834:Rice-duck farming
1784:Intensive farming
1754:Extensive farming
1367:December 21, 2009
1336:978-92-5-137074-2
962:; Samuel (1922).
900:978-0-8018-2975-8
839:978-92-5-137005-6
798:978-92-5-136043-9
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205:combine harvester
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1948:Green Revolution
1899:Ancient history
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97:labour-intensive
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2241:
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2201:Poultry farming
2154:
2109:
2102:
2073:Poultry farming
1963:
1939:Modern history
1919:Post-classical
1867:
1866:
1865:
1809:Organic farming
1666:
1665:
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1625:
1602:
1597:
1567:
1566:
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1495:August 18, 2016
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747:
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736:
731:
725:, FAO, FAO.
704:
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559:
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511:
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392:
386:
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352:
347:
326:
309:
285:Fordson tractor
186:
176:
58:working animals
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2332:
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2048:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2031:
2029:Insect farming
2026:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1973:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1908:Ancient Greece
1905:
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1877:
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1497:
1485:
1464:
1461:on 2015-08-10.
1455:Las Cruces Sun
1441:
1422:
1419:on 2015-08-11.
1400:
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1335:
1302:
1280:
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1211:
1174:
1155:(2): 493–496.
1135:
1100:
1072:
1066:Cato Institute
1064:(Report). The
1049:
1017:
1014:on 2013-10-24.
998:
991:
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676:Farm equipment
672:
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561:
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543:September 2018
521:of the subject
519:worldwide view
514:
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480:September 2018
467:
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2196:Meat industry
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2181:Biotechnology
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2108:Environmental
2105:
2099:
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2088:Sheep farming
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2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
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2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1992:Dairy farming
1990:
1988:
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1969:Farming Types
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1926:
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1903:Ancient Egypt
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1814:Paludiculture
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1717:Biotechnology
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1637:Agriculturist
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1413:Current Argus
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1039:on 2010-07-05
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992:0-309-08908-5
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618:Sutter County
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185:
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160:deforestation
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100:
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78:
73:
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67:
63:
59:
55:
54:manual labour
50:
46:
39:
38:cotton picker
34:
30:
19:
2291:
2279:
2267:
2255:
2143:Overdrafting
2002:Goat farming
1913:Ancient Rome
1819:Permaculture
1779:Horticulture
1724:Agroforestry
1682:Agribusiness
1556:. Retrieved
1551:
1524:
1512:
1500:
1488:
1483:May 25, 2010
1459:the original
1454:
1444:
1435:
1425:
1417:the original
1412:
1403:
1394:
1384:
1372:
1345:
1317:
1248:
1244:
1234:
1221:
1214:
1203:. Retrieved
1194:(1): 27–56.
1191:
1187:
1177:
1152:
1148:
1138:
1127:. Retrieved
1094:
1052:
1041:. Retrieved
1034:the original
1020:
1012:the original
1001:
981:
974:
964:
954:
946:
931:
924:
886:
877:
856:
848:
820:
779:
743:
737:
721:
713:free content
705:
648:
640:
635:Strawberries
633:
622:
610:
602:
594:chili pepper
591:
587:
580:
549:
540:
516:
477:
473:adding to it
468:
453:Weed control
442:
429:
425:adding to it
420:
384:
380:adding to it
375:
345:Applications
335:
331:
327:
318:
314:
310:
297:
289:
282:
277:
271:
259:grain cradle
248:
230:
192:A reaper at
168:holistically
164:soil erosion
147:urbanisation
144:
118:, countless
105:
101:
74:
48:
44:
43:
29:
2293:Wikiproject
2133:Overgrazing
2068:Pig farming
2051:Paddy field
2024:Hydroponics
1997:Fur farming
1982:Aquaculture
1977:Agrivoltaic
1958:Monoculture
1879:Prehistory
1829:Polyculture
1652:Farm worker
1630:Occupations
1600:Agriculture
960:Ford, Henry
614:Yuba County
360:Disc harrow
301:food prices
232:Jethro Tull
75:The entire
2308:Categories
2159:Categories
1824:Plantation
1774:Free range
1769:Feed ratio
1558:2015-04-25
1251:: 100393.
1205:2022-12-23
1129:2022-12-23
1118:(Report).
1043:2010-10-06
917:1104810110
729:References
492:Harvesting
405:Seed drill
236:seed drill
225:cultivator
130:even uses
91:since the
2191:Livestock
2034:Livestock
1764:Farmhouse
1275:225280050
1267:2211-9124
1169:153995624
582:Asparagus
575:hay bales
531:talk page
156:pollution
154:(such as
132:computers
2257:Category
2083:Orchards
2056:Pastoral
1729:Agronomy
909:83016269
885:(1984),
654:See also
643:tomatoes
525:You may
227:in 1919.
108:tractors
89:machines
83:and the
60:such as
2281:Commons
2093:Terrace
2039:Pasture
2007:Grazing
1953:Organic
1873:History
1789:animals
1712:Digital
1672:General
1616:History
1611:Outline
1297:3368103
1070:Fig 13.
702:Sources
625:raisins
267:binding
263:reapers
174:History
2269:Portal
2110:impact
2061:Bocage
1987:Cattle
1657:Herder
1647:Farmer
1333:
1295:
1273:
1265:
1167:
989:
939:
915:
907:
897:
865:
836:
795:
605:orange
573:makes
356:Plough
162:, and
112:trucks
85:plough
66:horses
56:or by
2215:Lists
2078:Ranch
2046:Mixed
1799:crops
1621:Index
1548:(PDF)
1271:S2CID
1226:(PDF)
1165:S2CID
1116:(PDF)
1062:(PDF)
1037:(PDF)
1030:(PDF)
748:(PDF)
571:baler
533:, or
251:flail
70:mules
1794:pigs
1759:Farm
1436:KJZZ
1331:ISBN
1293:SSRN
1263:ISSN
987:ISBN
937:ISBN
913:OCLC
905:LCCN
895:ISBN
863:ISBN
834:ISBN
793:ISBN
629:USDA
616:and
358:and
336:The
182:and
138:and
68:and
62:oxen
1323:doi
1253:doi
1196:doi
1157:doi
1120:doi
826:doi
785:doi
475:.
427:.
382:.
234:'s
81:hoe
47:or
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1153:61
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1103:^
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787::
556:)
550:(
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541:(
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482:)
478:(
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430:(
389:)
385:(
238:(
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
