2178:. Under the same condition in a torque converter, the returning fluid will be redirected by the stator so that it aids the rotation of the impeller, instead of impeding it. The result is that much of the energy in the returning fluid is recovered and added to the energy being applied to the impeller by the prime mover. This action causes a substantial increase in the mass of fluid being directed to the turbine, producing an increase in output torque. Since the returning fluid is initially traveling in a direction opposite to impeller rotation, the stator will likewise attempt to counter-rotate as it forces the fluid to change direction, an effect that is prevented by the
2211:
power-absorbing turbulence. Most of the loss, however, is caused by the curved and angled turbine blades, which do not absorb kinetic energy from the fluid mass as well as radially straight blades. Since the turbine blade geometry is a crucial factor in the converter's ability to multiply torque, trade-offs between torque multiplication and coupling efficiency are inevitable. In automotive applications, where steady improvements in fuel economy have been mandated by market forces and government edict, the nearly universal use of a lock-up clutch has helped to eliminate the converter from the efficiency equation during cruising operation.
1787:
2476:: A very abrupt application of power, as in putting the transmission in neutral and increasing engine RPMs before engaging a gear (commonly called a "neutral start"), can cause shock loading of the stator clutch, resulting in breakage. If this occurs, the stator will freely counter-rotate in the direction opposite to that of the pump and almost no power transmission will take place. In an automobile, the effect is similar to a severe case of transmission slippage and the vehicle is all but incapable of moving under its own power.
2429:). In practice, the maximum torque capacity is limited by the mechanical characteristics of the materials used in the converter's components, as well as the ability of the converter to dissipate heat (often through water cooling). As an aid to strength, reliability and economy of production, most automotive converter housings are of welded construction. Industrial units are usually assembled with bolted housings, a design feature that eases the process of inspection and repair, but adds to the cost of producing the converter.
1130:
133:
147:
2482:: If subjected to abrupt loading or excessive heating of the converter, pump and/or turbine blades may be deformed, separated from their hubs and/or annular rings, or may break up into fragments. At the least, such a failure will result in a significant loss of efficiency, producing symptoms similar (although less pronounced) to those accompanying stator clutch failure. In extreme cases, catastrophic destruction of the converter will occur.
1782:{\displaystyle \rho (S_{p}{\dot {w_{p}}}+S_{t}{\dot {w_{t}}}+S_{s}{\dot {w_{s}}})+\rho {\frac {L_{f}}{A}}{\dot {Q}}=\rho (R_{p}^{2}w_{p}^{2}+R_{t}^{2}w_{t}^{2}+R_{s}^{2}w_{s}^{2}-R_{s}^{2}w_{p}w_{s}-R_{p}^{2}w_{t}w_{p}-R_{t}^{2}w_{s}w_{t})+w_{p}{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{p}\tan {a_{p}}-R_{s}\tan {a_{s}})+w_{t}{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{t}\tan {a_{t}}-R_{p}\tan {a_{p}})+w_{s}{\frac {Q}{A}}\rho (R_{s}\tan {a_{s}}-R_{t}\tan {a_{t}})-P_{L}}
3304:
3294:
36:
2151:. The load is accelerating but there still is a relatively large difference between impeller and turbine speed. Under this condition, the converter will produce torque multiplication that is less than what could be achieved under stall conditions. The amount of multiplication will depend upon the actual difference between pump and turbine speed, as well as various other design factors.
2190:
decrease, causing pressure on the stator to likewise decrease. Once in the coupling phase, the returning fluid will reverse direction and now rotate in the direction of the impeller and turbine, an effect which will attempt to forward-rotate the stator. At this point, the stator clutch will release and the impeller, turbine and stator will all (more or less) turn as a unit.
198:. This is a feature beyond what a simple fluid coupling provides, which can match rotational speed but does not multiply torque. Fluid-coupling–based torque converters also typically include a lock-up function to rigidly couple input and output and avoid the efficiency losses associated with transmitting torque by fluid flow when operating conditions permit.
2436:, in which molten brass is drawn into seams and joints to produce a stronger bond between the blades, hubs and annular ring(s). Because the furnace brazing process creates a small radius at the point where a blade meets with a hub or annular ring, a theoretical decrease in turbulence will occur, resulting in a corresponding increase in efficiency.
1124:
883:
642:
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could produce more). Specialized converters designed for industrial, rail, or heavy marine power transmission systems are capable of as much as 5.0:1 multiplication. Generally speaking, there is a trade-off between maximum torque multiplication and efficiency—high stall ratio converters tend
2101:
Modifications to the basic three element design have been periodically incorporated, especially in applications where higher than normal torque multiplication is required. Most commonly, these have taken the form of multiple turbines and stators, each set being designed to produce differing amounts
193:
when the output rotational speed is low. In the fluid coupling embodiment, it uses a fluid, driven by the vanes of an input impeller, and directed through the vanes of a fixed stator, to drive an output turbine in such a manner that torque on the output is increased when the output shaft is rotating
2279:
also existed. The Buick
Dynaflow utilized the torque-multiplying characteristics of its planetary gear set in conjunction with the torque converter for low gear and bypassed the first turbine, using only the second turbine as vehicle speed increased. The unavoidable trade-off with this arrangement
2246:
automatic transmissions often use converters modified to produce high stall speeds to improve off-the-line torque, and to get into the power band of the engine more quickly. Highway vehicles generally use lower stall torque converters to limit heat production, and provide a more firm feeling to the
2185:
Unlike the radially straight blades used in a plain fluid coupling, a torque converter's turbine and stator use angled and curved blades. The blade shape of the stator is what alters the path of the fluid, forcing it to coincide with the impeller rotation. The matching curve of the turbine blades
2469:
of the mating parts occurs, which triggers seizure. A converter with a seized stator clutch will exhibit very poor efficiency during the coupling phase, and in a motor vehicle, fuel consumption will drastically increase. Converter overheating under such conditions will usually occur if continued
2453:
that retain fluid inside the converter. A prime example in passenger cars would be getting stuck in snow or mud and having to rock the vehicle forward and backward to gain momentum by going back and forth from drive to reverse using significant power. The transmission fluid will quickly overheat,
2492:
may cause the shape of the converter's housing to be physically distorted due to internal pressure and/or the stress imposed by inertia. Under extreme conditions, ballooning will cause the converter housing to rupture, resulting in the violent dispersal of hot oil and metal fragments over a wide
2258:
could be varied in response to changes in engine speed and load. The effect of this was to vary the amount of torque multiplication produced by the converter. At the normal angle of attack, the stator caused the converter to produce a moderate amount of multiplication but with a higher level of
2206:
A torque converter cannot achieve 100 percent coupling efficiency. The classic three element torque converter has an efficiency curve that resembles ∩: zero efficiency at stall, generally increasing efficiency during the acceleration phase and low efficiency in the coupling phase. The loss of
2197:
will be lost due to friction and turbulence, causing the converter to generate waste heat (dissipated in many applications by water cooling). This effect, often referred to as pumping loss, will be most pronounced at or near stall conditions. In modern designs, the blade geometry minimizes oil
2210:
Even with the benefit of the one-way stator clutch, a converter cannot achieve the same level of efficiency in the coupling phase as an equivalently sized fluid coupling. Some loss is due to the presence of the stator (even though rotating as part of the assembly), as it always generates some
2189:
During the stall and acceleration phases, in which torque multiplication occurs, the stator remains stationary due to the action of its one-way clutch. However, as the torque converter approaches the coupling phase, the energy and volume of the fluid returning from the turbine will gradually
2454:
not to mention the repeated impacts on the stator clutch (next topic). Also, overheating transmission fluid causes it to lose viscosity and damage the transmission. Such abuse can in rare cases cause the torque converter to leak and eventually stop functioning due to lack of fluid.
2311:
transmissions produced during the 1950s. It fell out of favor in subsequent years due to its extra complexity and cost. In the late 1970s lock-up clutches started to reappear in response to demands for improved fuel economy, and are now nearly universal in automotive applications.
2090:; and the stator, which is interposed between the impeller and turbine so that it can alter oil flow returning from the turbine to the impeller. The classic torque converter design dictates that the stator be prevented from rotating under any condition, hence the term
889:
648:
407:
2262:
Some torque converters use multiple stators and/or multiple turbines to provide a wider range of torque multiplication. Such multiple-element converters are more common in industrial environments than in automotive transmissions, but automotive applications such as
2109:
automatic transmission was a non-shifting design and, under normal conditions, relied solely upon the converter to multiply torque. The
Dynaflow used a five-element converter to produce the wide range of torque multiplication needed to propel a heavy vehicle.
2280:
was low efficiency and eventually these transmissions were discontinued in favor of the more efficient three speed units with a conventional three element torque converter. It is also found that efficiency of torque converter is maximum at very low speeds.
2078:
is a two-element drive that is incapable of multiplying torque, while a torque converter has at least one extra element—the stator—which alters the drive's characteristics during periods of high slippage, producing an increase in output torque.
2198:
velocity at low impeller speeds, which allows the turbine to be stalled for long periods with little danger of overheating (as when a vehicle with an automatic transmission is stopped at a traffic signal or in traffic congestion while still in gear).
2214:
The maximum amount of torque multiplication produced by a converter is highly dependent on the size and geometry of the turbine and stator blades, and is generated only when the converter is at or near the stall phase of operation. Typical
2117:
to improve cruising power transmission efficiency and reduce heat. The application of the clutch locks the turbine to the impeller, causing all power transmission to be mechanical, thus eliminating losses associated with fluid drive.
2207:
efficiency as the converter enters the coupling phase is a result of the turbulence and fluid flow interference generated by the stator, and as previously mentioned, is commonly overcome by mounting the stator on a one-way clutch.
2464:
become permanently locked together, thus preventing the stator from rotating during the coupling phase. Most often, seizure is precipitated by severe loading and subsequent distortion of the clutch components. Eventually,
2157:. The turbine has reached approximately 90 percent of the speed of the impeller. Torque multiplication has essentially ceased and the torque converter is behaving in a manner similar to a simple fluid coupling. In modern
2173:
design, periods of high slippage cause the fluid flow returning from the turbine to the impeller to oppose the direction of impeller rotation, leading to a significant loss of efficiency and the generation of considerable
2809:
2241:
of the power source and the intended application. Changing the blade geometry of the stator and/or turbine will change the torque-stall characteristics, as well as the overall efficiency of the unit. For example,
2186:
helps to correctly direct the returning fluid to the stator so the latter can do its job. The shape of the blades is important as minor variations can result in significant changes to the converter's performance.
2855:
1119:{\displaystyle I_{s}{\dot {\omega _{s}}}+\rho S_{s}{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{s}R_{s}^{2}+R_{s}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{s}}-\omega _{t}R_{t}^{2}-R_{t}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{t}})Q+\tau _{s}}
878:{\displaystyle I_{t}{\dot {\omega _{t}}}+\rho S_{t}{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{t}R_{t}^{2}+R_{t}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{t}}-\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}-R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}})Q+\tau _{t}}
637:{\displaystyle I_{i}{\dot {\omega _{i}}}+\rho S_{i}{\dot {Q}}=-\rho (\omega _{i}R_{i}^{2}+R_{i}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{i}}-\omega _{s}R_{s}^{2}-R_{s}{\frac {Q}{A}}\tan {\alpha _{s}})Q+\tau _{i}}
2259:
efficiency. If the driver abruptly opened the throttle, a valve would switch the stator pitch to a different angle of attack, increasing torque multiplication at the expense of efficiency.
2288:
As described above, impelling losses within the torque converter reduce efficiency and generate waste heat. In modern automotive applications, this problem is commonly avoided by use of a
2145:). The stall phase actually lasts for a brief period when the load (e.g., vehicle) initially starts to move, as there will be a very large difference between pump and turbine speed.
2133:. The prime mover is applying power to the impeller but the turbine cannot rotate. For example, in an automobile, this stage of operation would occur when the driver has placed the
402:
Hrovat derived the equations of the pump, turbine, stator, and conservation of energy. Four first-order differential equations can define the performance of the torque converter.
2292:
that physically links the impeller and turbine, effectively changing the converter into a purely mechanical coupling. The result is no slippage, and virtually no power loss.
391:
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2008:
1979:
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2141:. At stall, the torque converter can produce maximum torque multiplication if sufficient input power is applied (the resulting multiplication is called the
178:, the torque converter connects the prime mover to the automatic gear train, which then drives the load. It is thus usually located between the engine's
396:
The equation expands to include the fifth power of radius; as a result, torque converter properties are very dependent on the size of the device.
2234:
to be relatively inefficient around the coupling speed, whereas low stall ratio converters tend to provide less possible torque multiplication.
3338:
2830:
2907:
311:
2432:
In high performance, racing and heavy duty commercial converters, the pump and turbine may be further strengthened by a process called
3023:
227:
3333:
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119:
53:
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2219:
multiplication ratios range from 1.8:1 to 2.5:1 for most automotive applications (although multi-element designs as used in the
231:
100:
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applications, it is usually at this stage of operation where the lock-up clutch is applied, a procedure that tends to improve
2980:
2627:
2488:: Prolonged operation under excessive loading, very abrupt application of load, or operating a torque converter at very high
72:
57:
3058:
2446:: Continuous high levels of slippage may overwhelm the converter's ability to dissipate heat, resulting in damage to the
79:
3133:
2082:
In a torque converter there are at least three rotating elements: the impeller, which is mechanically driven by the
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171:
86:
46:
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2134:
2098:, which prevents the stator from counter-rotating with respect to the prime mover but allows forward rotation.
195:
167:
68:
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2439:
Overloading a converter can result in several failure modes, some of them potentially dangerous in nature:
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2402:
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transmission, introduced in 1949, which locked up the converter at cruising speeds, unlocking when the
2113:
Although not strictly a part of classic torque converter design, many automotive converters include a
320:
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was floored for quick acceleration or as the vehicle slowed. This feature was also present in some
132:
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As with a basic fluid coupling the theoretical torque capacity of a converter is proportional to
2179:
2169:
The key to the torque converter's ability to multiply torque lies in the stator. In the classic
2095:
289:
226:
There are also mechanical designs for torque converters, many of which are similar to mechanical
215:
136:
146:
3068:
2955:
2937:
2789:
2450:
93:
2950:
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2553:
2517:, used in bus, refuse, fire, construction, distribution, military and specialty applications
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1986:
1957:
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27:
Fluid coupling that transfers rotating power from a prime mover to a rotating driven load
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Mathematical formulations for the torque converter are available from several authors.
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263:
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and the transmission. The equivalent device in a manual transmission is the mechanical
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more slowly than the input shaft, thus providing the equivalent of an adaptive
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2725:"Bond Graph Modeling and Computer Simulation of Automotive Torque Converters"
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The characteristics of the torque converter must be carefully matched to the
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in gear but is preventing the vehicle from moving by continuing to apply the
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3148:
3113:
2572:
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automatic transmissions was the variable-pitch stator, in which the blades'
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or capable of acting as such as well. They include the pendulum-based
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234:, the Lambert friction gearing disk drive transmission and the
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2605:
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The first automotive application of the lock-up principle was
29:
2885:
210:
is the hydrodynamic device described above. There are also
2856:"The Sydney Morning Herald - Google News Archive Search"
214:
systems which are widely used in small machines such as
2756:"Dynamic Models for Torque Converter Equipped Vehicles"
2581:, produces Torque converter for Ford, GM, Mazda, Subaru
2411:
2387:
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2094:. In practice, however, the stator is mounted on an
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2018:
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Torque converter equations of motion are governed by
3257:
3172:
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2936:
2575:, used in vehicle, marine and oilfield applications
206:By far the most common form of torque converter in
174:, to a rotating driven load. In a vehicle with an
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2626:and used in buses from 1933 to 1939 and also some
2417:
2393:
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2126:A torque converter has three stages of operation:
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2002:
1973:
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189:A torque converter serves to increase transmitted
254:, such as cars, buses, and on/off highway trucks.
2831:"Mekydro Transmission | InterTrains.co.uk"
2066:A simpler correlation is provided by Kotwicki.
162:is a device, usually implemented as a type of
2901:
8:
2102:of torque multiplication. For example, the
2556:, produces Torque Converters for Ford, GM,
2908:
2894:
2886:
2876:HowStuffWorks article on torque converters
2618:Lysholm-Smith, named after its inventor,
2410:
2386:
2381:is the mass density of the fluid (kg/m),
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238:with expanding pulleys and a belt drive.
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2715:
166:, that transfers rotating power from a
2784:. Automotive Handbook (3rd ed.).
2604:, forestry machines, popular in city
2460:: The inner and outer elements of the
269:Industrial power transmission such as
2881:YouTube video about torque converters
2812:. Worldwide.espacenet.com. 1933-03-07
2782:Hydrodynamic couplings and converters
273:drives, almost all modern forklifts,
7:
3349:Automotive transmission technologies
2250:A design feature once found in some
2202:Efficiency and torque multiplication
58:adding citations to reliable sources
3344:Continuously variable transmissions
2480:Blade deformation and fragmentation
228:continuously variable transmissions
3024:Continuously variable transmission
25:
2729:Journal of the Franklin Institute
2193:Unavoidably, some of the fluid's
3303:
3302:
3292:
2086:; the turbine, which drives the
386:{\displaystyle \tau =\sum \left}
34:
2810:"Espacenet - Original document"
232:Constantinesco torque converter
45:needs additional citations for
2654:automobile transmission system
2628:British Rail Derby Lightweight
1763:
1701:
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1610:
1581:
1519:
1490:
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1233:
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260:and other heavy duty vehicles.
1:
3339:Mechanical power transmission
3059:Automated manual transmission
2723:Hrovat, D; Tobler, W (1985).
2354:{\displaystyle r\,N^{2}D^{5}}
2741:10.1016/0016-0032(85)90067-5
3134:Semi-automatic transmission
2247:vehicle's characteristics.
154:model of a torque converter
3375:
2971:Internal combustion engine
2760:SAE Technical Paper Series
2632:Ulster Transport Authority
2316:Capacity and failure modes
172:internal combustion engine
3288:
3270:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
3159:Transmission control unit
3099:Limited-slip differential
3064:Electrorheological clutch
2923:
2585:Voith turbo transmissions
2284:Lock-up torque converters
2070:Torque converter elements
3334:Mechanical power control
3049:Dual-clutch transmission
2754:Kotwicki, A. J. (1982).
2699:Transmission (mechanics)
2401:is the impeller speed (
208:automobile transmissions
3019:Constant-velocity joint
2662:British United Traction
2658:Rolls-Royce (Twin Disc)
2470:operation is attempted.
2269:Triple Turbine Dynaflow
2061:is fluid inertia length
248:Automatic transmissions
2999:Automatic transmission
2474:Stator clutch breakage
2419:
2395:
2375:
2355:
2055:
2026:
2004:
1975:
1946:
1917:
1888:
1859:
1830:
1808:
1783:
1120:
879:
638:
387:
310:'s eighteenth century
283:construction equipment
176:automatic transmission
155:
143:
2788:. 1993. p. 539.
2664:diesel multiple units
2639:British Rail Class 35
2634:diesel multiple units
2593:diesel multiple units
2511:, used in automobiles
2462:one-way stator clutch
2458:Stator clutch seizure
2420:
2396:
2376:
2356:
2180:one-way stator clutch
2056:
2054:{\displaystyle L_{f}}
2027:
2005:
2003:{\displaystyle a_{s}}
1981:is turbine exit angle
1976:
1974:{\displaystyle a_{t}}
1947:
1945:{\displaystyle a_{p}}
1918:
1916:{\displaystyle R_{s}}
1889:
1887:{\displaystyle R_{t}}
1860:
1858:{\displaystyle R_{p}}
1831:
1809:
1807:{\displaystyle \rho }
1784:
1121:
880:
639:
388:
312:turbomachine equation
149:
135:
3104:Locking differential
3039:Direct-shift gearbox
2558:Allison Transmission
2515:Allison Transmission
2409:
2385:
2365:
2324:
2038:
2016:
2010:is stator exit angle
1987:
1958:
1929:
1900:
1871:
1842:
1820:
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1131:
890:
649:
408:
321:
54:improve this article
3129:Preselector gearbox
3109:Manual transmission
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1342:
1327:
1309:
1294:
1055:
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814:
745:
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302:Theory of operation
290:railway locomotives
266:propulsion systems.
3275:Electric generator
3180:Wheel hub assembly
2598:ZF Friedrichshafen
2589:diesel locomotives
2415:
2391:
2371:
2351:
2122:Operational phases
2096:overrunning clutch
2051:
2022:
2000:
1971:
1952:is pump exit angle
1942:
1913:
1884:
1855:
1826:
1804:
1779:
1455:
1417:
1379:
1361:
1346:
1328:
1313:
1295:
1280:
1116:
1041:
972:
875:
800:
731:
634:
559:
490:
383:
222:Mechanical systems
216:compact excavators
156:
144:
69:"Torque converter"
3359:Torque converters
3316:
3315:
3069:Epicyclic gearing
2938:Automotive engine
2637:Mekydro, used in
2425:is the diameter (
2418:{\displaystyle D}
2394:{\displaystyle N}
2374:{\displaystyle r}
2025:{\displaystyle I}
1894:is turbine radius
1829:{\displaystyle A}
1696:
1605:
1514:
1268:
1257:
1230:
1198:
1166:
1077:
1008:
947:
919:
836:
767:
706:
678:
595:
526:
465:
437:
357:
202:Hydraulic systems
139:torque converter
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3366:
3306:
3305:
3296:
3173:Wheels and tires
3144:Torque converter
2910:
2903:
2896:
2887:
2864:
2863:
2858:. Archived from
2852:
2846:
2845:
2843:
2842:
2833:. Archived from
2827:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2720:
2694:Torque amplifier
2424:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2340:
2339:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1923:is stator radius
1922:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1864:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1813:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1744:
1743:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1713:
1712:
1697:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1653:
1652:
1640:
1639:
1638:
1622:
1621:
1606:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1562:
1561:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1531:
1530:
1515:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1489:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1463:
1451:
1450:
1441:
1440:
1430:
1425:
1413:
1412:
1403:
1402:
1392:
1387:
1374:
1369:
1359:
1354:
1341:
1336:
1326:
1321:
1308:
1303:
1293:
1288:
1270:
1269:
1261:
1258:
1253:
1252:
1243:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1225:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1161:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1125:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1078:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1054:
1049:
1040:
1039:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1009:
1001:
999:
998:
985:
980:
971:
970:
949:
948:
940:
937:
936:
921:
920:
915:
914:
905:
902:
901:
884:
882:
881:
876:
874:
873:
855:
854:
853:
837:
829:
827:
826:
813:
808:
799:
798:
786:
785:
784:
768:
760:
758:
757:
744:
739:
730:
729:
708:
707:
699:
696:
695:
680:
679:
674:
673:
664:
661:
660:
643:
641:
640:
635:
633:
632:
614:
613:
612:
596:
588:
586:
585:
572:
567:
558:
557:
545:
544:
543:
527:
519:
517:
516:
503:
498:
489:
488:
467:
466:
458:
455:
454:
439:
438:
433:
432:
423:
420:
419:
392:
390:
389:
384:
382:
378:
377:
373:
358:
356:
345:
287:diesel-hydraulic
160:torque converter
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
3374:
3373:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3284:
3253:
3168:
3164:Universal joint
3094:Hotchkiss drive
2985:
2932:
2919:
2914:
2872:
2867:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2840:
2838:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2674:
2660:, used in some
2615:
2587:, used in many
2529:Exedy, used in
2505:
2500:
2434:furnace brazing
2407:
2406:
2383:
2382:
2363:
2362:
2341:
2331:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2286:
2256:angle of attack
2204:
2163:fuel efficiency
2124:
2072:
2065:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2014:
2013:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1818:
1817:
1796:
1795:
1769:
1752:
1735:
1721:
1704:
1678:
1661:
1644:
1630:
1613:
1587:
1570:
1553:
1539:
1522:
1496:
1480:
1470:
1442:
1432:
1404:
1394:
1244:
1217:
1204:
1185:
1172:
1153:
1140:
1129:
1128:
1106:
1086:
1059:
1031:
1017:
990:
962:
928:
906:
893:
888:
887:
865:
845:
818:
790:
776:
749:
721:
687:
665:
652:
647:
646:
624:
604:
577:
549:
535:
508:
480:
446:
424:
411:
406:
405:
363:
359:
349:
337:
333:
319:
318:
304:
299:
244:
224:
204:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3372:
3370:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3321:
3320:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3300:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3265:Electric motor
3261:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3182:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3079:Friction drive
3076:
3074:Fluid coupling
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2995:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2965:Plug-in hybrid
2958:
2953:
2948:
2942:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2878:
2871:
2870:External links
2868:
2866:
2865:
2862:on 2016-05-12.
2847:
2822:
2801:
2794:
2773:
2768:10.4271/820393
2746:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2689:Servomechanism
2686:
2684:Fluid coupling
2681:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2667:Vickers-Coates
2665:
2655:
2650:, used in the
2645:
2635:
2624:Leyland Motors
2622:, produced by
2614:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2595:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2561:
2551:
2542:
2533:
2527:
2518:
2512:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2455:
2414:
2390:
2370:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2317:
2314:
2290:lock-up clutch
2285:
2282:
2252:General Motors
2203:
2200:
2195:kinetic energy
2171:fluid coupling
2167:
2166:
2152:
2146:
2123:
2120:
2115:lock-up clutch
2076:fluid coupling
2071:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2048:
2044:
2033:
2021:
2011:
1997:
1993:
1982:
1968:
1964:
1953:
1939:
1935:
1924:
1910:
1906:
1895:
1881:
1877:
1866:
1865:is pump radius
1852:
1848:
1837:
1825:
1815:
1803:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1692:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1267:
1264:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1073:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1004:
997:
993:
989:
984:
979:
975:
969:
965:
961:
958:
955:
952:
946:
943:
935:
931:
927:
924:
918:
913:
909:
900:
896:
872:
868:
864:
861:
858:
852:
848:
843:
840:
835:
832:
825:
821:
817:
812:
807:
803:
797:
793:
789:
783:
779:
774:
771:
766:
763:
756:
752:
748:
743:
738:
734:
728:
724:
720:
717:
714:
711:
705:
702:
694:
690:
686:
683:
677:
672:
668:
659:
655:
631:
627:
623:
620:
617:
611:
607:
602:
599:
594:
591:
584:
580:
576:
571:
566:
562:
556:
552:
548:
542:
538:
533:
530:
525:
522:
515:
511:
507:
502:
497:
493:
487:
483:
479:
476:
473:
470:
464:
461:
453:
449:
445:
442:
436:
431:
427:
418:
414:
394:
393:
381:
376:
372:
369:
366:
362:
355:
352:
348:
343:
340:
336:
332:
329:
326:
308:Leonhard Euler
303:
300:
298:
295:
294:
293:
267:
261:
255:
243:
240:
223:
220:
203:
200:
196:reduction gear
164:fluid coupling
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3371:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3309:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3139:Shift-by-wire
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2976:Petrol engine
2974:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2946:Diesel engine
2944:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2929:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2906:
2904:
2899:
2897:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2861:
2857:
2851:
2848:
2837:on 2010-03-02
2836:
2832:
2826:
2823:
2811:
2805:
2802:
2797:
2795:0-8376-0330-7
2791:
2787:
2783:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2719:
2716:
2710:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2560:, and Hyundai
2559:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2498:Manufacturers
2497:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2412:
2404:
2388:
2368:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2291:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2069:
2067:
2046:
2042:
2034:
2019:
2012:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1908:
1904:
1896:
1879:
1875:
1867:
1850:
1846:
1838:
1823:
1816:
1801:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1693:
1690:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1607:
1602:
1599:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1511:
1508:
1501:
1497:
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71: –
70:
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65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3217:Racing slick
3154:Transfer box
3143:
3124:Park-by-wire
3119:Parking pawl
3034:Differential
3009:Direct-drive
2991:Transmission
2981:Steam engine
2926:Part of the
2925:
2860:the original
2850:
2839:. Retrieved
2835:the original
2825:
2814:. Retrieved
2804:
2786:Robert Bosch
2781:
2776:
2759:
2749:
2732:
2728:
2718:
2644:locomotives.
2641:
2608:applications
2485:
2479:
2473:
2457:
2443:
2438:
2431:
2319:
2294:
2287:
2261:
2249:
2239:torque curve
2236:
2217:stall torque
2213:
2209:
2205:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2168:
2154:
2149:Acceleration
2148:
2142:
2135:transmission
2130:
2125:
2112:
2100:
2091:
2081:
2073:
2064:
1836:is flow area
1790:
1127:
886:
645:
404:
401:
398:
395:
305:
225:
205:
188:
159:
157:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3195:Alloy wheel
3054:Drive wheel
3044:Drive shaft
3004:Chain drive
2704:Water brake
2620:Alf Lysholm
2602:automobiles
2568:automobiles
2554:LuK USA LLC
2549:automobiles
2540:automobiles
2531:automobiles
2525:automobiles
2444:Overheating
2309:Borg-Warner
2244:drag racing
2143:stall ratio
2084:prime mover
252:automobiles
212:hydrostatic
168:prime mover
3323:Categories
3280:Alternator
2928:Automobile
2917:Powertrain
2841:2009-10-31
2816:2014-07-21
2735:: 93–114.
2711:References
2652:Ultramatic
2566:, used in
2547:, used in
2538:, used in
2523:, used in
2521:BorgWarner
2486:Ballooning
2301:Ultramatic
2277:Turboglide
2231:Turboglide
2176:waste heat
2159:automotive
2032:is inertia
1814:is density
258:Forwarders
236:Variomatic
170:, like an
80:newspapers
3329:Variators
3149:Transaxle
3114:Manumatic
3084:Gearshift
2956:Fuel cell
2573:Twin Disc
2448:elastomer
2273:Chevrolet
2228:Chevrolet
1802:ρ
1767:−
1749:
1733:−
1718:
1699:ρ
1658:
1642:−
1627:
1608:ρ
1567:
1551:−
1536:
1517:ρ
1453:−
1415:−
1377:−
1275:ρ
1266:˙
1240:ρ
1228:˙
1196:˙
1164:˙
1135:ρ
1108:τ
1088:α
1083:
1057:−
1033:ω
1029:−
1019:α
1014:
964:ω
957:ρ
954:−
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926:ρ
917:˙
908:ω
867:τ
847:α
842:
816:−
792:ω
788:−
778:α
773:
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716:ρ
713:−
704:˙
685:ρ
676:˙
667:ω
626:τ
606:α
601:
575:−
551:ω
547:−
537:α
532:
482:ω
475:ρ
472:−
463:˙
444:ρ
435:˙
426:ω
368:⋅
342:×
331:∑
325:τ
180:flexplate
110:July 2017
3308:Category
3247:Tubeless
3232:Run-flat
3212:Off-road
3029:Coupling
2951:Electric
2672:See also
2509:Aisin AW
2361:, where
2305:throttle
2224:Dynaflow
2155:Coupling
2107:Dynaflow
297:Function
271:conveyor
152:cut-away
141:cut-away
2648:Packard
2503:Current
2467:galling
2405:), and
2297:Packard
275:winches
94:scholar
18:Mekydro
3354:Torque
3298:Portal
3258:Hybrid
3222:Radial
3200:Hubcap
3014:Clutch
2961:Hybrid
2930:series
2792:
2679:Clutch
2564:Subaru
2139:brakes
2092:stator
1791:where
285:, and
264:Marine
191:torque
184:clutch
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
3242:Spare
3185:Wheel
3089:Giubo
2642:Hymek
2579:Valeo
2545:Jatco
2536:Isuzu
2493:area.
2451:seals
2265:Buick
2221:Buick
2131:Stall
2104:Buick
242:Usage
101:JSTOR
87:books
3237:Snow
3227:Rain
3207:Tire
2790:ISBN
2630:and
2613:Past
2591:and
2271:and
2226:and
2088:load
73:news
3190:Rim
2764:doi
2737:doi
2733:319
2606:bus
2490:RPM
2403:rpm
2299:'s
2275:'s
2267:'s
1746:tan
1715:tan
1655:tan
1624:tan
1564:tan
1533:tan
1080:tan
1011:tan
839:tan
770:tan
598:tan
529:tan
250:on
56:by
3325::
2762:.
2758:.
2731:.
2727:.
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2182:.
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314::
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