1700:. Specifically, various measures of speed of processing were used to examine changes in the speed of information processing as a function of age. Kail (1991) showed that speed of processing increases exponentially from early childhood to early adulthood. Studies of RTs in young children of various ages are consistent with common observations of children engaged in activities not typically associated with chronometry. This includes speed of counting, reaching for things, repeating words, and other developing vocal and motor skills that develop quickly in growing children. Once reaching early maturity, there is then a long period of stability until speed of processing begins declining from middle age to senility (Salthouse, 2000). In fact, cognitive slowing is considered a good index of broader changes in the functioning of the brain and
1757:. While many of these studies suffer from low sample sizes (generally fewer than 200 individuals), their results are summarized below in brief along with the authors' proposed biologically plausible mechanisms. Larger scale meta-analyses have also been conducted to examine these relations. Based on thousands of individuals, neuroticism was found to be a negative correlate (corrected r = -.12 with the withdrawal and volatility aspects) and the enthusiasm aspect of extraversion was found to be a positive correlate (corrected r = .21 with simple reaction time, .15 with choice reaction time, and .16 with choice movement time). This pattern is similar to what was observed for the compound trait of optimism. Agreeableness and conscientiousness did not demonstrate meaningful relations.
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to reach central processing mechanisms within 8–10 ms, while visual stimulus tends to take around 20–40 ms. Animal senses also differ considerably in their ability to rapidly change state, with some systems able to change almost instantaneously and others much slower. For example, the vestibular system, which controls the perception of one's position in space, updates much more slowly than does the auditory system. The range of sensory discrimination of a given sense also varies considerably both within and across sensory modality. For example, Kiesow (1903) found in a reaction time task of taste that human subjects are more sensitive to the presence of salt on the tongue than of sugar, reflected in a faster RT by more than 100 ms to salt than to sugar.
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concluded that the observers performed a constant-rate mental rotation to align the two objects so they could be compared. Cooper and
Shepard (1973) presented a letter or digit that was either normal or mirror-reversed, and presented either upright or at angles of rotation in units of 60 degrees. The subject had to identify whether the stimulus was normal or mirror-reversed. Response time increased roughly linearly as the orientation of the letter deviated from upright (0 degrees) to inverted (180 degrees), and then decreases again until it reaches 360 degrees. The authors concluded that the subjects mentally rotate the image the shortest distance to upright, and then judge whether it is normal or mirror-reversed.
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been theoretically and empirically supported. This section elaborates on how the diffusion model helps explain the RT-cognitive ability relationship. Increased clarity could involve a mixture of technical vocabulary with some particularly evocative examples. For instance, a metaphor from a balance scale beginning to tip one way or another as accumulating evidence is one way to make it clearer. And the vivid examples can be real-world situations, like deliberating on a decision being compared with analyzing evidence in a courtroom. This blend of technical vocabulary with practical examples allows the reader to gain a deeper understanding of how the diffusion model works in relation to cognitive studies.
1301:(STM), then after encoding the information from the probe stimulus the subject needs to compare the probe to each of the four items in memory and then make a decision. If there were only two items in the initial set of digits, then only two processes would be needed. The data from this study found that for each additional item added to the set of digits, about 38 milliseconds were added to the response time of the subject. This supported the idea that a subject did a serial exhaustive search through memory rather than a serial self-terminating search. Sternberg (1969) developed a much-improved method for dividing RT into successive or serial stages, called the additive factor method.
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effect of choosing certain pre-processing methods needs to be considered (e.g. Second, we need to disclose the pre-processing decisions in order to reproduce and replicate findings.) As a result, a systematic literature review on the Simon effect revealed that the order in which analytical choices are conducted are rarely reported and findings within the Simon effects was affected different analytical choices. As a result, a checklist to report reaction time pre-processing to make the decisions more explicit and transparency has been recommended to make the reaction time data more transparent in order to maximise transparency within reaction time data.
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variable interval, if presented in equal frequency but in random order, tend to produce slower RTs when the intervals are shorter than the mean of the series, and can be faster or slower when greater than the mean. Whether held constant or variable, foreperiods of less than 300 ms may produce delayed RTs because processing of the warning may not have had time to complete before the stimulus arrives. This type of delay has significant implications for the question of serially-organized central processing, a complex topic that has received much empirical attention in the century following this foundational work.
1206:(fMRI), techniques were used to measure activity through electrical event-related potentials in a study when subjects were asked to identify if a digit that was presented was above or below five. According to Sternberg's additive theory, each of the stages involved in performing this task includes: encoding, comparing against the stored representation for five, selecting a response, and then checking for error in the response. The fMRI image presents the specific locations where these stages are occurring in the brain while performing this simple mental chronometry task.
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2005, 2009; Lake and Meck, 2013). For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft (Maricq and Church, 1983; Zetterström et al., 1983) advances the start of responding during interval timing (Taylor et al., 2007), whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing (Drew et al., 2003; Lake and Meck, 2013). ... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing (Coull et al., 2012), while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing (Taylor et al., 2007).
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useful organizing principle to distinguish the two areas in terms of their research questions and the purposes for which a number of chronometric tasks were devised. The experimental approach to mental chronometry has been used to investigate a variety of cognitive systems and functions that are common to all humans, including memory, language processing and production, attention, and aspects of visual and auditory perception. The following is a brief overview of several well-known experimental tasks in mental chronometry.
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the generation of a decision in a two-choice task. This model successfully integrates the roles of mean reaction time, response time variability, and accuracy in modeling the rate of diffusion as a variable representing the accumulated weight of evidence that generates a decision in an RT task. Under the diffusion model, this evidence accumulates by undertaking a continuous random walk between two boundaries that represent each response choice in the task. Applications of this model have shown that the basis of the
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tremor rate of an extended finger, which is about 8–12 tremors per second, in depressing a key in response to a stimulus. This tendency suggested that response times distributions have an inherent periodicity, and that a given RT is influenced by the point during the tremor cycle at which a response is solicited. This finding was further supported by subsequent work in the mid-1900s showing that responses were less variable when stimuli were presented near the top or bottom points of the tremor cycle.
563:(1869). Donders found that simple RT is shorter than recognition RT, and that choice RT is longer than both. Donders also devised a subtraction method to analyze the time it took for mental operations to take place. By subtracting simple RT from choice RT, for example, it is possible to calculate how much time is needed to make the connection. This method provides a way to investigate the cognitive processes underlying simple perceptual-motor tasks, and formed the basis of subsequent developments.
649:. Many researchers consider the lower limit of a valid response time trial to be somewhere between 100 and 200 ms, which can be considered the bare minimum of time needed for physiological processes such as stimulus perception and for motor responses. Responses faster than this often result from an "anticipatory response", wherein the person's motor response has already been programmed and is in progress before the onset of the stimulus, and likely do not reflect the process of interest.
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compare those before deciding. In the rule based task they had to also categorize the letters as either vowels or consonants before making their choice. The time taken to perform the rule match task was longer than the name match task which was longer than the physical match task. Using the subtraction method experimenters were able to determine the approximate amount of time that it took for subjects to perform each of the cognitive processes associated with each of these tasks.
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1336:(TN). A picture can be presented with an associated sentence that falls into one of these four categories. The subject then decides if the sentence matches the picture or does not. The type of sentence determines how many processes need to be performed before a decision can be made. According to the data from Clark and Chase (1972) and Just and Carpenter (1971), the TA sentences are the simplest and take the least time, than FA, FN, and TN sentences.
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than the maximum height of the distribution (mode). One of the most obvious reasons for this standard pattern is that while it is possible for any number of factors to extend the response time of a given trial, it is not physiologically possible to shorten RT on a given trial past the limits of human perception (typically considered to be somewhere between 100 and 200 ms), nor is it logically possible for the duration of a trial to be negative.
1772:< 0.20) association between RT and Neuroticism, wherein more neurotic individuals tended to be slower at RT tasks. The authors interpret this as reflecting a higher arousal threshold in response to stimuli of varying intensity, speculating that higher Neuroticism individuals may have relatively "weak" nervous systems. In a somewhat larger study of 242 college undergraduates, Neuroticism was found to be more substantially correlated (
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1448:. For example, researchers have found that the perceptual processing of multiple stimuli, which necessarily precedes the decision to respond and the response itself, can be processed in parallel, while the decision component must be processed serially. Moreover, variation in general intelligence is chiefly represented in this decision component of RT, while sensory processing and movement time appear to be mostly reflective of non-
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the other components of the test. This assumption—that the incremental effect on RT was strictly additive—was not able to hold up to later experimental tests, which showed that the insertions were able to interact with other portions of the RT paradigm. Despite this, Donders' theories are still of interest and his ideas are still used in certain areas of psychology, which now have the statistical tools to use them more accurately.
978:, two vertical lines of differing lengths are shown side-by-side to participants simultaneously. Participants are asked to identify as quickly as possible whether the line on the right is longer or shorter than the line on the left. One of these lines would retain a constant length across trials, while the other took on a range of 15 different values, each one presented an equal number of times across the session.
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system, experimental psychologists often use response times as a dependent variable under different experimental conditions. This approach to the study of mental chronometry is typically aimed at testing theory-driven hypotheses intended to explain observed relationships between measured RT and some experimentally manipulated variable of interest, which often make precisely formulated mathematical predictions.
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1406:: There is thus a tendency for individuals with higher IQ to be faster on RT tests. Although its mechanistic underpinnings are still debated, the relationship between RT and cognitive ability today is as well-established an empirical fact as any phenomenon in psychology. A 2008 literature review on the mean correlation between various measures of reaction time and intelligence was found to be −0.24 (
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of the intervals between the warning and the presentation of the stimulus to be reacted to. The importance of the length and variability of expectancy in mental chronometry research was first observed in the early 1900s, and remains an important consideration in modern research. It is reflected today in modern research in the use of a variable
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astronomers, and sought to improve accuracy by taking these individual differences in timing into account. This led various astronomers to seek out ways to minimize these differences between individuals, which came to be known as the "personal equation" of astronomical timing. This phenomenon was explored in detail by
English statistician
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bird more quickly than he will answer that an ostrich is a bird despite these questions accessing the same two levels in memory. This led to the development of spreading activation models of memory (e.g., Collins & Loftus, 1975), wherein links in memory are not organized hierarchically but by importance instead.
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physically identical or not. The next task was the name match task where subjects had to identify whether two letters had the same name. The task involving the most cognitive processes was the rule match task in which subjects had to determine whether the two letters presented both were vowels or not vowels.
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with the rate of the diffusion process, rather than with the non-decision residual time. Diffusion modeling can also successfully explain the worst performance rule by assuming that the same measure of ability (diffusion rate) mediates performance on both simple and complex cognitive tasks, which has
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and P3 latency increases with more demanding task conditions. Measures of P3 latency have also been found to be consistent with the worst performance rule, wherein the correlation between P3 latency quantile mean and cognitive assessment scores becomes more strongly negative with increasing quantile.
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The correlation between cognitive ability and RT increases as a function of task complexity. The difference in the correlation between intelligence and RT in simple and multi-choice RT paradigms exemplifies the much-replicated finding that this association is largely mediated by the number of choices
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Researchers have yet to develop consensus for a unified neurophysiological theory that fully explains the basis of the relationship between RT and cognitive ability. It may reflect more efficient information processing, better attentional control, or the integrity of neuronal processes. Such a theory
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Mental chronometry has been used in identifying some of the processes associated with understanding a sentence. This type of research typically revolves around the differences in processing four types of sentences: true affirmative (TA), false affirmative (FA), false negative (FN), and true negative
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Regions of the Brain
Involved in a Number Comparison Task Derived from EEG and fMRI Studies. The regions represented correspond to those showing effects of notation used for the numbers (pink and hatched), distance from the test number (orange), choice of hand (red), and errors (purple). Picture from
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Reaction times trials of any given individual are always distributed non-symmetrically and skewed to the right, therefore rarely following a normal (Gaussian) distribution. The typical observed pattern is that mean RT will always be a larger value than median RT, and median RT will be a greater value
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Early studies of the effects of response characteristics on reaction times were chiefly concerned with the physiological factors that influence the speed of response. For example, Travis (1929) found in a key-pressing RT task that 75% of participants tended to incorporate the down-phase of the common
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The neurotransmitter dopamine is released from projections originating in the midbrain. Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity (Maricq and Church, 1983; Buhusi and Meck,
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A 2014 study measured choice RT in a sample of 63 high and 63 low
Extraversion participants, and found that higher levels of Extraversion were associated with faster responses. Although the authors note this is likely a function of specific task demands rather than underlying individual differences,
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in the form of a digit from 0–9. The subject then answered as quickly as possible whether the probe was in the previous set of digits or not. The size of the initial set of digits determined the RT of the subject. The idea is that as the size of the set of digits increases the number of processes
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The distinction between this experimental approach and the use of chronometric tools to investigate individual differences is more conceptual than practical, and many modern researchers integrate tools, theories and models from both areas to investigate psychological phenomena. Nevertheless, it is a
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is the number of alternatives. The Jensen Box is a more recent application of Hick's law. Hick's law has interesting modern applications in marketing, where restaurant menus and web interfaces (among other things) take advantage of its principles in striving to achieve speed and ease of use for the
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The sensory modality over which a stimulus is administered in a reaction time task is highly dependent on the afferent conduction times, state change properties, and range of sensory discrimination inherent to our different senses. For example, early researchers found that an auditory signal is able
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The use of mental chronometry in psychological research is far ranging, encompassing nomothetic models of information processing in the human auditory and visual systems, as well as differential psychology topics such as the role of individual differences in RT in human cognitive ability, aging, and
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Performance on simple and choice reaction time tasks is associated with a variety of health-related outcomes, including general, objective health composites as well as specific measures like cardiorespiratory integrity. The association between IQ and earlier all-cause mortality has been found to be
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frequently investigate the causes and consequences of information processing modeled by chronometric studies from experimental psychology. While traditional experimental studies of RT are conducted within-subjects with RT as a dependent measure affected by experimental manipulations, a differential
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and
Quillian (1969) had a hierarchical structure indicating that recall speed in memory should be based on the number of levels in memory traversed in order to find the necessary information. But the experimental results did not agree. For example, a subject will reliably answer that a robin is a
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measurements for decades, the images obtained with PET have attracted great interest from other branches of neuroscience, popularizing mental chronometry among a wider range of scientists in recent years. The way that mental chronometry is utilized is by performing RT based tasks which show through
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reaction time (CRT) tasks require distinct responses for each possible class of stimulus. In a choice reaction time task which calls for a single response to several different signals, four distinct processes are thought to occur in sequence: First, the sensory qualities of the stimuli are received
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In simple RT tasks, constant foreperiods of about 300 ms over a series of trials tends to produce the fastest responses for a given individual, and responses lengthen as the foreperiod becomes longer, an effect that has been demonstrated up to foreperiods of many hundreds of seconds. Foreperiods of
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Another observation first made by early chronometric research was that a "warning" sign preceding the appearance of a stimulus typically resulted in shorter reaction times. This short warning period, referred to as "expectancy" in this foundational work, is measured in simple RT tasks as the length
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Although a unified theory of reaction time and intelligence has yet to achieve consensus among psychologists, diffusion modeling provides one promising theoretical model. Diffusion modeling partitions RT into residual "non-decision" and stochastic "diffusion" stages, the latter of which represents
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as the basis of information theory). This promised to link intelligence directly to the resolution of information even in very basic information tasks. There is some support for a link between the slope of the RT curve and intelligence, as long as reaction time is tightly controlled. The notion of
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and
Metzler (1971) presented a pair of three-dimensional shapes that were identical or mirror-image versions of one another. RT to determine whether they were identical or not was a linear function of the angular difference between their orientation, whether in the picture plane or in depth. They
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A virtual rendering of a Jensen box. The home button is depicted in the lower center of the array. Participants are told to move their finger from the home button to one of eight additional response buttons when specific LED lights illuminate. This produces several measures of participant response
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Although
Donders' work paved the way for future research in mental chronometry tests, it was not without its drawbacks. His insertion method, often referred to as "pure insertion", was based on the assumption that inserting a particular complicating requirement into an RT paradigm would not affect
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in the nervous system. Distributional characteristics of response times such as means and variance are considered useful indices of processing speed and efficiency, indicating how fast an individual can execute task-relevant mental operations. Behavioral responses are typically button presses, but
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has a long history of study that dates back to the early 1900s, with some early researchers reporting a near-perfect correlation in a sample of five students. The first review of these incipient studies, in 1933, analyzed over two dozen studies and found a smaller but reliable association between
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The physical match task was the most simple; subjects had to encode the letters, compare them to each other, and make a decision. When doing the name match task subjects were forced to add a cognitive step before making a decision: they had to search memory for the names of the letters, and then
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CRT tasks can be highly variable. They can involve stimuli of any sensory modality, most typically of visual or auditory nature, and require responses that are typically indicated by pressing a key or button. For example, the subject might be asked to press one button if a red light appears and a
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RT involves comparing pairs of simultaneously presented visual displays and then pressing one of two buttons according to which display appears brighter, longer, heavier, or greater in magnitude on some dimension of interest. Discrimination RT paradigms fall into three basic categories, involving
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The mean RTs for sprinters at the
Beijing Olympics were 166 ms for males and 169 ms for females, but in one out of 1,000 starts they can achieve 109 ms and 121 ms, respectively. This study also concluded that longer female RTs can be an artifact of the measurement method used, suggesting that the
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This model and its variants account for these distributional features by partitioning a reaction time trial into a non-decision residual stage and a stochastic "diffusion" stage, where the actual response decision is generated. The distribution of reaction times across trials is determined by the
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equally possible choices. The experiment measured the subject's RT based on the number of possible choices during any given trial. Hick showed that the individual's RT increased by a constant amount as a function of available choices, or the "uncertainty" involved in which reaction stimulus would
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Human response times on simple reaction time tasks are usually on the order of 200 ms. The processes that occur during this brief time enable the brain to perceive the surrounding environment, identify an object of interest, decide an action in response to the object, and issue a motor command to
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Anticipatory muscle tension is another physiological factor that early researchers found as a predictor of response times, wherein muscle tension is interpreted as an index of cortical arousal level. That is, if physiological arousal state is high upon stimulus onset, greater preexisting muscular
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The assumption that mental operations can be measured by the time required to perform them is considered foundational to modern cognitive psychology. To understand how different brain systems acquire, process and respond to stimuli through the time course of information processing by the nervous
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The third broad type of discrimination RT task, wherein stimuli are administered continuously, is exemplified by a 1955 experiment in which participants are asked to sort packs of shuffled playing cards into two piles depending on whether the card had a large or small number of dots on its back.
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would be reflected in variation of sensory discrimination and speed of response to stimuli, and he built various machines to test different measures of this, including RT to visual and auditory stimuli. His tests involved a selection of over 10,000 men, women and children from the London public.
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Davies, G.; Marioni, R. E.; Liewald, D. C.; Hill, W. D.; Hagenaars, S. P.; Harris, S. E.; Ritchie, S. J.; Luciano, M.; Fawns-Ritchie, C.; Lyall, D.; Cullen, B.; Cox, S. R.; Hayward, C.; Porteous, D. J.; Evans, J.; McIntosh, A. M.; Gallacher, J.; Craddock, N.; Pell, J. P.; … Deary, I. J. (2016).
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Metascientists frequently investigate the order in which our analytical choices affect the analyses on reaction time. The effect of preprocessing weakens inferences scientific evidence, it can be seen as different but rational, leading to conflicting results, false positives and negatives. The
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Up through the beginning of the 21st century, psychologists studying reaction time and intelligence continued to find such associations, but were largely unable to agree about the true size of the association between reaction time and psychometric intelligence in the general population. This is
170:, which seeks to determine and explain the mental differences between individuals. He was the first to use rigorous RT tests with the express intention of determining averages and ranges of individual differences in mental and behavioral traits in humans. Galton hypothesized that differences in
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Early researchers noted that varying the sensory qualities of the stimulus affected response times, wherein increasing the perceptual salience of stimuli tends to decrease reaction times. This variation can be brought about by a number of manipulations, several of which are discussed below. In
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Purely psychological inquiries into the nature of reaction time came about in the mid-1850s. Psychology as a quantitative, experimental science has historically been considered as principally divided into two disciplines: Experimental and differential psychology. The scientific study of mental
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developed a series of letter-matching studies to measure the mental processing time of several tasks associated with recognition of a pair of letters. The simplest task was the physical match task, in which subjects were shown a pair of letters and had to identify whether the two letters were
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of the presented stimulus in an RT task. This effect was documented in early research for response times to sense of taste by varying the area over taste buds for detection of a taste stimulus, and for the size of visual stimuli as amount of area in the visual field. Similarly, increasing the
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proposed that the reflexive response to pain, for example, is carried by some sort of fiber—what is recognized as part of the nervous system today—up to the brain, where it is then processed as the subjective experience of pain. However, this biological stimulus-response reflex was thought by
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Welford (1980) notes that the historical study of human reaction times were broadly concerned with five distinct classes of research problems, some of which evolved into paradigms that are still in use today. These domains are broadly described as sensory factors, response characteristics,
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lapses. To improve the reliability of individual response times, researchers typically require a subject to perform multiple trials, from which a measure of the 'typical' or baseline response time can be calculated. Taking the mean of the raw response time is rarely an effective method of
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applied himself to the problem of accuracy in recording stellar transits, which was typically done by using the ticking of a metronome to estimate the time at which a star passed the hairline of a telescope. Bessel noticed timing discrepancies under this method between records of multiple
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Loenneker, Hannah D.; Buchanan, Erin M.; Martinovici, Ana; Primbs, Maximilian A.; Elsherif, Mahmoud M.; Baker, Bradley J.; Dudda, Leonie A.; Đurđević, Dušica F.; Mišić, Ksenija; Peetz, Hannah K.; Röer, Jan P.; Schulze, Lars; Wagner, Lisa; Wolska, Julia K.; Kührt, Corinna (1 March 2024).
1217:(PET) to detect them. Also, fMRI was used which have detected the precise brain areas that are active during mental chronometry tasks. Many studies have shown that there is a small number of brain areas which are widely spread out which are involved in performing these cognitive tasks.
1539:. Mean RT across these studies reveal a heritability of around 0.44, meaning that 44% of the variance in mean RT is associated with genetic differences, while standard deviation of RTs show a heritability of around 0.20. Additionally, mean RTs and measures of IQ have been found to be
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psychologists largely fell out of favor with the advent of behaviorism in the 1920s. Nevertheless, the study of conscious accompaniments in the context of reaction time was an important historical development in the late 1800s and early 1900s. For example, Wundt and his associate
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tension facilitates faster responses; if arousal is low, weaker muscle tension predicts slower response. However, too much arousal (and therefore muscle tension) was also found to negatively affect performance on RT tasks as a consequence of an impaired signal-to-noise ratio.
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An example of the second type of discrimination paradigm, which administers stimuli successfully or serially, is a classic 1963 study in which participants are given two sequentially lifted weights and asked to judge whether the second was heavier or lighter than the first.
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of RT has been found to explain over 50% of the variance in RTs when meta-analyzed over four studies, which included nine separate RT paradigms. The biological and neurophysiological underpinnings of this general factor have yet to be firmly established, though research is
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by the sensory organs and transmitted to the brain; second, the signal is identified, processed, and reasoned by the individual; third, the choice decision is made; and fourth, the motor response corresponding to that choice is initiated and carried out by an action.
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published the first large-scale study of intelligence and reaction time in a representative population sample across a range of ages, finding a correlation between psychometric intelligence and simple reaction time of –0.31 and four-choice reaction time of –0.49.
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RT tasks require that the subject press a button when one stimulus type appears and withhold a response when another stimulus type appears. For example, the subject may have to press the button when a green light appears and not respond when a blue light appears.
1010:, where participants are instructed to read the names of words printed in colored ink from lists. Modern versions of the Stroop task, which use single stimulus pairs for each trial, are also examples of a multi-choice CRT paradigm with vocal responding.
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One of the earliest attempts to mathematically model the effects of the sensory qualities of stimuli on reaction time duration came from the observation that increasing the intensity of a stimulus tended to produce shorter response times. For example,
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duration of a stimulus available in a reaction time task was found to produce slightly faster reaction times to visual and auditory stimuli, though these effects tend to be small and are largely consequent of the sensitivity to sensory receptors.
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and colleagues, using various methods of measuring speed of processing, showed that it is closely associated with changes in working memory and thought (Demetriou, Mouyi, & Spanoudis, 2009). These relations are extensively discussed in the
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reaction time is the motion required for an observer to respond to the presence of a stimulus. For example, a subject might be asked to press a button as soon as a light or sound appears. Mean RT for college-age individuals is about 160
1776:≈ 0.25) with response variability, with higher Neuroticism associated with greater RT standard deviations. The authors speculate that Neuroticism may confer greater variance in reaction time through the interference of "mental noise."
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2198:
Piéron, H. (1920). "Nouvelles recherches sur l'analyse du temps de latence sensorielle en fonction des intensités excitatrices (Further evidence on the laws of sensory processing time as a function of the excitatory intensity)".
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Dutilh, G.; Vandekerckhove, J.; Ly, A.; Matzke, D.; Pedroni, A.; Frey, R.; Rieskamp, J.; Wagenmakers, E. J. (2017). "A test of the diffusion model explanation for the worst performance rule using preregistration and blinding".
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starting block sensor system might overlook a female false-start due to insufficient pressure on the pads. The authors suggested compensating for this threshold would improve false-start detection accuracy with female runners.
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As with many sensory manipulations, such physiological response characteristics as predictors of RT operate largely outside of central processing, which differentiates these effects from those of preparation, discussed below.
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represents the sum of possibilities including "no signal". This accounts for the fact that in a choice task, the subject must not only make a choice but also first detect whether a signal has occurred at all (equivalent to
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Illustration of the pain pathway in René Descartes' Traite de l'homme (Treatise of Man) 1664. The long fiber running from the foot to the cavity in the head is pulled by the heat and releases a fluid that makes the muscles
96:, and subjective time perception. Conclusions about information processing drawn from RT are often made with consideration of task experimental design, limitations in measurement technology, and mathematical modeling.
896:) represents the width of the decision boundary, or the amount of evidence needed before a response is made. The trial terminates when the accumulating evidence reaches either the correct or the incorrect boundary.
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The number of possible options was recognized early as a significant determinant of response time, with reaction times lengthening as a function of both the number of possible signals and possible responses.
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designed reaction time tasks to attempt to measure the speed of neural transmission. Wundt, for example, conducted experiments to test whether emotional provocations affected pulse and breathing rate using a
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Kiesow, F. (1903). "Zur Frage nach der
Fortplanzungsgeschwindigkeit der erregung im sensiblen Nerven des Menschen ("On the question of the speed of propagation of excitation in the human nervous system")".
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Schmiedek, F.; Oberauer, K.; Wilhelm, O.; Süß, H.-M.; Wittmann, W. W. (2007). "Individual differences in components of reaction time distributions and their relations to working memory and intelligence".
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chiefly mediated by a measure of reaction time. These studies generally find that faster and more accurate responses to reaction time tasks are associated with better health outcomes and longer lifespan.
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A number of different approaches have been developed to analyze RT measurements, particularly in how to effectively deal with issues that arise from trimming outliers, data transformations, measurement
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represents a variable exponent that differs across senses and conditions. This formulation reflects the observation that reaction time will decrease as stimulus intensity increases down to the constant
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is an example of an instrument designed to measure choice RT with visual stimuli and keypress response. Response criteria can also be in the form of vocalizations, such as the original version of the
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likely due to the fact that the majority of samples studied had been selected from universities and had unusually high mental ability scores relative to the general population. In 2001, psychologist
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The first documentation of human reaction time as a scientific variable would come several centuries later, from practical concerns that arose in the field of astronomy. In 1820, German astronomer
1720:), and this deterioration is systematically associated with changes in many other cognitive processes, such as executive functions, working memory, and inferential processes. In the theory of
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The slowest of an individual's RT trials tend to be more strongly associated with cognitive ability than the individual's fastest responses, a phenomenon known as the "worst performance rule".
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The effects of stimulus intensity on reducing RTs was found to be relative rather than absolute in the early 1930s. One of the first observations of this phenomenon comes from the research of
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a variety of clinical and psychiatric outcomes. The experimental approach to mental chronometry includes topics such as the empirical study of vocal and manual latencies, visual and auditory
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913:
Modern chronometric research typically uses variations on one or more of the following broad categories of reaction time task paradigms, which need not be mutually exclusive in all cases.
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In addition to stimulus intensity, varying stimulus strength (that is, "amount" of stimulus available to the sensory apparatus per unit time) can also be achieved by increasing both the
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478:
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The conception of human reaction to an external stimulus being mediated by a biological interface (such as a nerve) is nearly as old as the philosophical discipline of science itself.
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251:
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Bazana, P. G.; Stelmack, R. M. (2002). "Intelligence and information processing during an auditory discrimination task with backward masking: An event-related potential analysis".
797:
44:(ECTs), which are relatively simple perceptual-motor tasks typically administered in a laboratory setting. Mental chronometry is one of the core methodological paradigms of human
5137:
Milligan, W. L.; et al. (1984). "A comparison of physical health and psychosocial variables as predictors of reaction time and serial learning performance in elderly men".
4397:
McGue, M.; Bouchard, T. J. (1989). "Genetic and environmental determinants of information processing and special mental abilities: A twin analysis". In
Sternberg, R. J. (ed.).
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Chronometric measurements from standard reaction time paradigms are raw values of time elapsed between stimulus onset and motor response. These times are typically measured in
1610:-related brain activity occurs following stimulation evaluation but before motor response, while components involved in sensory processing change little across differences in
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4382:
Bouchard, T. J. Jr.; Lykken, D. T.; Segal, N. L.; Wilcox, K. J. (1986). "Development in Twins Reared Apart: A test of the chronogenetic hypothesis". In Demirjian, A. (ed.).
188:
general, the variation in reaction times produced by manipulating sensory factors is likely more a result of differences in peripheral mechanisms than of central processes.
2915:"A Bayesian Mixture Modelling of Stop Signal Reaction Time Distributions: The Second Contextual Solution for the Problem of Aftereffects of Inhibition on SSRT Estimations"
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psychologist studying RT will typically hold conditions constant to ascertain between-subjects variability in RT and its relationships with other psychological variables.
1062:
884:(DDM) is a well-defined mathematical formulation to explain observed variance in response times and accuracy across trials in a (typically two-choice) reaction time task.
940:, and he or she, since 2009, must be disqualified – even despite an IAAF-commissioned study in 2009 that indicated top sprinters are able to sometimes react in 80–85 ms.
146:
chronometry, one of the earliest developments in scientific psychology, has taken on a microcosm of this division as early as the mid-1800s, when scientists such as
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Festinger, L. (1943). "Studies in decision: I. Decision-time, relative frequency of judgment and subjective confidence as related to physical stimulus difference".
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Data from W. E. Hick (1952) demonstrating Hick's Law: The relationship between reaction time and number of response options across two participants (red and blue).
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eye movements, vocal responses, and other observable behaviors are often used. Reaction time is thought to be constrained by the speed of signal transmission in
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365:, who demonstrated with a series of candles placed at different focal distances that the effects of stimulus intensity on RT depended on previous level of
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characterizing the typical response time, and alternative approaches (such as modeling the entire response time distribution) are often more appropriate.
4203:
Lee, J. J.; Chabris, C. F. (2013). "General Cognitive Ability and the Psychological Refractory Period: Individual Differences in the Mind's Bottleneck".
733:). This phenomenon is called "Hick's law" and is said to be a measure of the "rate of gain of information". The law is usually expressed by the formula:
2373:
Marshall, W. H.; Talbot, S. A.; Ades, H. W. (1943). "Cortical response of the anaesthetized cat to gross photic and electrical afferent stimulation".
71:
Mental chronometry uses measurements of elapsed time between sensory stimulus onsets and subsequent behavioral responses to study the time course of
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5331:
Gupta, S.; Nicholson, J. (1985). "Simple visual reaction time, personality and strength of the nervous system: A signal-detection theory approach".
2966:"The Asymmetric Laplace Gaussian (ALG) Distribution as the Descriptive Model for the Internal Proactive Inhibition in the Standard Stop Signal Task"
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656:
Density plot and central tendencies of reaction time (ms) trials on a two-choice task demonstrating the right skewed distribution typical to RT data
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6381:
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Brown, T. L.; Gore, C. L.; Carr, T. H. (2002). "Visual attention and word recognition in Stroop color naming: Is word recognition "automatic"?".
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as a correlate of the "decision" stage of a reaction time task. These studies have generally found that the magnitude of the association between
4820:
van Ravenzwaaij, D.; Brown, S.; Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2011). "An integrated perspective on the relation between response speed and intelligence".
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other authors have proposed the RT-Extraversion relationship as representing individual differences in motor response, which may be mediated by
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1950:
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1203:
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3017:"A Look at the Primary Order Preserving Properties of Stochastic Orders: Theorems, Counterexamples and Applications in Cognitive Psychology"
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Schubert, A.-L.; Hagemann, D.; Frischkorn, G. T. (2017). "Is general intelligence little more than the speed of higher-order processing?".
36:
on cognitive tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of mental operations. Reaction time (RT; also referred to as "
5358:
Robinson, M. D.; Tamir, M. (2005). "Neuroticism as mental noise: A relation between neuroticism and reaction time standard deviations".
1484:) than mean RTs, with greater variance or "spread-outedness" in an individual's distribution of RTs more strongly associated with lower
72:
3307:
Pierrel, R.; Murray, C. S. (1963). "Some relationships between comparative judgment, confidence, and decision time in weight-lifting".
1626:
Visual representation of the hypothesized stages of a reaction time task and each stage's association with diffusion model parameters.
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686:
speed-accuracy tradeoffs, mixture models, convolution models, stochastic orders related comparisons, and the mathematical modeling of
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Tiffin, J.; Westhafer, F. L. (1940). "The relation between reaction time and temporal location of the stimulus on the tremor cycle".
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appear next. Uncertainty is measured in "bits", which are defined as the quantity of information that reduces uncertainty by half in
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often studied reaction time by asking participants to describe the conscious process that occurred during performance on such tasks.
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2019:
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Ferrée, C. E.; Rand, G. (1927). "Intensity of light and speed of vision studied with special reference to industrial situations".
1480:. Standard deviations of RTs have been found to be as strongly or more strongly correlated with measures of general intelligence (
2664:
1728:, change in speed of processing with age, as indicated by decreasing RT, is one of the pivotal factors of cognitive development.
1017:, which posits that average reaction times lengthen as a function of more available choices. Hick's law can be reformulated as:
6331:
5986:
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Kemp, E. H.; Coppée, G. E.; Robinson, E. H. (1937). "Electric responses of the brain stem to unilateral auditory stimulation".
68:
to help elucidate the biological mechanisms underlying perception, attention, and decision-making in humans and other species.
4042:
Sheppard LD, Vernon PA (February 2008). "Intelligence and speed of information-processing: A review of 50 years of research".
645:
execute the movement. These processes span the domains of perception and movement, and involve perceptual decision making and
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6210:
4493:"On the relationship between P3 latency and mental ability as a function of increasing demands in a selective attention task"
1555:
1460:, relating the slope of RT increases to the complexity of decision required (measured in units of uncertainty popularized by
2121:
Pearson, Karl (1902). "On the mathematical theory of errors of judgment, with special reference to the personal equation".
92:, temporal judgment and integration, language and reading, movement time and motor response, perceptual and decision time,
7323:
5304:
Stelmack, R. M.; Houlihan, M.; McGarry-Roberts, P. A. (1993). "Personality, reaction time, and event-related potentials".
1750:
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5625:"We don't know what you did last summer. On the importance of transparent reporting of reaction time data pre-processing"
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associated with reaction time in a sample of around 95,000 individuals. These variants were found to span two regions on
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5277:
Rammsayer, T. H.; Indermühle, R.; Troche, S. J. (2014). "Psychological refractory period in introverts and extraverts".
4176:
Deary, I. J.; Der, G.; Ford, G. (2001). "Reaction times and intelligence differences: A population-based cohort study".
1214:
1209:
In the 1980s, neuroimaging experiments allowed researchers to detect the activity in localized brain areas by injecting
1183:
4412:
McGue, M.; Bouchard, T. J.; Lykken, D. T.; Feier, D. (1984). "Information processing abilities in twins reared apart".
892:) is the average rate at which this evidence accumulates in the presence of this random noise. The decision threshold (
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Hierarchical network models of memory were largely discarded due to some findings related to mental chronometry. The
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2841:"Reaction time in differential and developmental research: A review and commentary on the problems and alternatives"
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of response time across a number of individual trials for a given person or task condition, usually captured by the
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6868:
6847:
5936:
5916:
2536:
Bevan, W.; Hardesty, D. L.; Avant, L. L. (1965). "Response latency with constant and variable interval schedules".
2106:
Brebner, J. M. T.; Welford, A. T. (1980). "Introduction: A historical background sketch". In Welford, A. T. (ed.).
1765:. However, these studies are difficult to interpret in light of their small samples and have yet to be replicated.
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Demetriou A, Mouyi A, Spanoudis G (September 2010). "The development of mental processing.". In Overton WF (ed.).
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41:
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Saville, C. W. N.; Beckles, K. D. O.; Macleod, C. A.; Feige, B.; Biscaldi, M.; Beauducel, A.; Klein, C. (2016).
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that need to be completed before a decision can be made increases as well. So if the subject has four items in
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Mean response time and variability in RT trials both contribute independent variance in their association with
1441:
1191:
683:
57:
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Coyle, T. R. (2003). "A review of the worst performance rule: Evidence, theory, and alternative hypotheses".
1190:, psychologists started to modify their mental chronometry paradigms for functional imaging. Although psycho(
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Bates TC, Stough C (1998). "Improved Reaction Time Method, Information Processing Speed, and Intelligence".
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have been shown to expedite responses during interval timing, while dopamine antagonists (specifically, for
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65:
53:
45:
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4442:"Genome-wide association study of cognitive functions and educational attainment in UK Biobank (N=112 151)"
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Reaction time in such a task is often measured by the total amount of time it takes to complete the task.
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rate at which evidence accumulates in neurons with an underlying "random walk" component. The drift rate (
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638:
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61:
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Lemmon, V. W. (1928). "The relation of reaction time to measures of intelligence, memory, and learning".
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would need to explain several unique features of the relationship, several of which are discussed below.
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881:
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Freeman, G. L. (1933). "The facilitative and inhibitory effects of muscular tension upon performance".
358:, which represents a theoretical lower limit below which human physiology cannot meaningfully operate.
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Descartes and others as occurring instantaneously, and therefore not subject to objective measurement.
4544:"A neural analogue of the worst performance rule: Insights from single-trial event-related potentials"
3089:
Smith, P. L (2000). "Stochastic dynamic models of response time and accuracy: A foundational primer".
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Donders FC (1869). Koster WG (ed.). "On the speed of mental processes: Attention and Performance II".
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Building on Donders' early observations of the effects of number of response options on RT duration,
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3187:"On the implications of a sex difference in the reaction times of sprinters at the Beijing Olympics"
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7016:
6885:
6542:
6001:
5961:
4967:
Kail R (May 1991). "Developmental change in speed of processing during childhood and adolescence".
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Welford, A. T. (1980). "Chapter 3: Choice Reaction Time: Basic Concepts". In Welford, A. T. (ed.).
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1992:
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Kuang S (April 2017). "Is reaction time an index of white matter connectivity during training?".
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Graphical representation of drift-diffusion rate used to model reaction times in two-choice tasks
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609:
Response time on chronometric tasks are typically concerned with five categories of measurement:
560:
2275:
Froeberg, S. (1907). "The relation between the magnitude of stimulus and the time of reaction".
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The IAAF has a controversial rule that if an athlete moves in less than 100 ms, it counts as a
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2015:
1984:
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1288:(1966) devised an experiment wherein subjects were told to remember a set of unique digits in
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Example of the Sternberg memory-scanning task (figure adapted from Plomin & Spinath, 2002)
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to detect an auditory stimulus, and approximately 190 milliseconds to detect visual stimulus.
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118:
6785:
3160:
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Hovland, C. I. (1936). "The influence of adaptation illumination upon visual reaction time".
1606:-RT relationship residing chiefly in the "decision" component of a task, wherein most of the
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Empirical research into the nature of the relationship between reaction time and measures of
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Sherwood, D. E.; Selder, D. J. (1979). "Cardiorespiratory health, reaction time and aging".
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Jensen, A. R. (1987). "Individual differences in the Hick paradigm". In Vernon, P.A. (ed.).
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Welford, A. T. (1980). "Chapter 6: The single-channel hypothesis". In Welford, A. T. (ed.).
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The interest in the content of consciousness that typified early studies of Wundt and other
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Example of the Posner letter-matching task (figure adapted from Plomin & Spinath, 2002)
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5108:. The Handbook of Life-Span Development. Vol. 1. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 36–55.
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measures of intelligence and the production of faster responses on a variety of RT tasks.
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1310:
716:(1952) devised an RT experiment which presented a series of nine tests in which there are
614:
40:") is measured by the elapsed time between stimulus onset and an individual's response on
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Demetriou A, Mouyi A, Spanoudis G (2008). "Modeling the structure and development of g".
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Sternberg S (1969). "The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders' method".
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receptors) produce the opposite effect. Similarly, age-related loss of dopamine from the
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or error rate, the proportion of correct responses for a given person or task condition.
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Deary, Ian J.; Der, Geoff (2005). "Reaction time explains IQ's association with death".
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Ratcliff, R.; Rouder, J. N. (1998). "Modeling response times for two-choice decisions".
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3628:"Striatal dopamine transporters correlate with simple reaction time in elderly subjects"
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Freeman, G. L. (1937). "The optimal locus of "anticipatory tensions" in muscular work".
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4761:
4736:
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4652:
4519:
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Cooper LA, Shepard RN (1973). "Chronometric studies of the rotation of mental images".
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Shepard RN, Metzler J (February 1971). "Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects".
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4865:"A diffusion model explanation of the worst performance rule for reaction time and IQ"
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Collins AM, Loftus EF (1975). "A spreading activation theory of semantic processing".
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1465:"bits" of information affecting the size of this relationship has been popularized by
141:
An early apparatus constructed for measuring reaction time via the "personal equation"
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7313:
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Clark HH, Chase WG (1972). "On the process of comparing sentences against pictures".
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1996:
637:, the difference between mean RTs across tasks of different type or complexity; and
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indicates the existence of a general factor of reaction time, sometimes labeled as
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1633:, the non-decision reaction time component, consists of the sum of encoding time
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correlation between IQ and mean RT includes as-yet unknown environmental forces.
1199:
neuroimaging the parts of the brain which are involved in the cognitive process.
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In a classic example of a simultaneous discrimination RT paradigm, conceived by
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603:
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3910:
Just MA, Carpenter PA (1971). "Comprehension of negation with quantification".
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Plomin, R.; Spinath, F. (2002). "Genetics and general cognitive ability (g)".
3542:
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Researchers spanning more than a century have generally reported medium-sized
1174:
the article: "Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience".
1003:
713:
687:
559:
The first scientist to recognize the importance of response options on RT was
25:
Representation of the stages of processing in a typical reaction time paradigm
5650:
5590:
5535:
5527:
5478:
5418:
4953:
4653:"The diffusion decision model: Theory and data for two-choice decision tasks"
4216:
3586:
2982:
2931:
2734:
1696:
There is extensive recent research using mental chronometry for the study of
968:
stimuli that are administered simultaneously, sequentially, or continuously.
7451:
7288:
7172:
7147:
7127:
7044:
6996:
6990:
6975:
6715:
6632:
6268:
6180:
6155:
6136:
6026:
4713:
4509:
3398:
Stroop, J. R. (1935). "Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions".
1705:
1544:
1456:
available in the task. Much of the theoretical interest in RT was driven by
1440:
The serial components of a reaction time trial are not equally dependent on
872:
674:
673:
that extends the right tail of an individual's RT distribution is momentary
594:
Two-alternative forced choice § Computational models of decision making
156:
89:
81:
5658:
5608:
5496:
5426:
5395:"Outlier exclusion procedures must be blind to the researcher's hypothesis"
5379:
5253:
5220:
5052:
4898:
4841:
4806:
4770:
4686:
4629:
4594:
4528:
4477:
4318:
4224:
3699:
3661:
3605:
3510:
3456:
3230:
3110:
3102:
3001:
2950:
2866:
2804:
Ratcliff, Roger (1993). "Methods for dealing with reaction time outliers".
2742:
2631:
2557:
2142:
1988:
1853:
Kranzler, John H. (2012). "Mental Chronometry". In Seel, Norbert M. (ed.).
1473:" associated with his name became a common standard tool in RT-IQ research.
633:, a measure of the asymmetry of reaction time distributions across trials;
5716:
5158:
4988:
4028:
3828:
3750:
2825:
2706:
2386:
2212:
7486:
7466:
7308:
7214:
7114:
6905:
6900:
6283:
6044:
6036:
5894:
5884:
5185:
3043:
3016:
1762:
1249:
630:
201:(1920) proposed formulae to model this relationship of the general form:
5582:
5559:"Flexibility in reaction time analysis: many roads to a false positive?"
4930:"Cerebrovascular adaptations to habitual resistance exercise with aging"
2420:
Travis, L. E. (1929). "The relation of voluntary movements to tremors".
2156:
Cronbach, Lee J (1957). "The two disciplines of scientific psychology".
1602:
Other ERP studies have found consilience with the interpretation of the
843:
are constants representing the intercept and slope of the function, and
7481:
7471:
7401:
7273:
7184:
7049:
6622:
6612:
6534:
6525:
6510:
6412:
6397:
6242:
6165:
5874:
5410:
5031:
Salthouse TA (October 2000). "Aging and measures of processing speed".
4621:
4458:
4107:
Peak, H.; Boring, E. G. (1926). "The factor of speed in intelligence".
3972:
Collins AM, Quillian MR (1969). "Retrieval time from semantic memory".
3328:
2964:
Soltanifar, M; Escobar, M; Dupuis, A; Chevrier, A; Schachar, R (2022).
2857:
2840:
2782:
2495:
1571:
1241:
904:
5678:
Response Times: Their Role in Inferring Elementary Mental Organization
3340:
3338:
2042:
Response times: Their role in inferring elementary mental organization
1232:
is strongly positively correlated with improved (shortened) RT; e.g.,
7476:
7426:
7421:
6720:
5879:
4147:
4120:
4020:
3411:
3345:
Crossman, E. R. F. W. (1955). "The measurement of discriminability".
3293:
2623:
2596:
2522:
2460:
2433:
2322:
2169:
618:
423:
This relationship can be summarized in simple terms by the equation:
93:
3320:
2580:
2487:
1169:
5752:
4277:
Looking Down on Human Intelligence: From Psychometrics to the Brain
3033:
2769:
Whelan, Robert (2008). "Effective analysis of reaction time data".
2610:
Klemmer, E. T. (1956). "Time uncertainty in simple reaction time".
543:
denotes the probability of a stimulus appearing at any given time.
7456:
7268:
7167:
7122:
6730:
6479:
6170:
6126:
6118:
3721:
Sternberg S (August 1966). "High-speed scanning in human memory".
3570:"Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits"
3568:
Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS (October 2013).
2010:
Medina, José M; Wong, Willy; Díaz, José A; Colonius, Hans (2015).
1745:
Several researchers have reported associations between RT and the
1621:
1360:
1314:
1276:
1168:
903:
871:
703:
651:
634:
136:
103:
20:
2309:
Wells, G. R. (1913). "The influence of stimulus duration on RT".
7461:
7446:
7436:
6890:
6827:
5869:
5855:
5510:
Aguinis, Herman; Gottfredson, Ryan K.; Joo, Harry (April 2013).
5245:
Of Anchors & Sails: Personality-Ability Trait Constellations
4934:
American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology
4491:
Kapanci, T.; Merks, S.; Rammsayer, T. H.; Troche, S. J. (2019).
3475:"Timing the brain: mental chronometry as a tool in neuroscience"
2721:
Wong AL, Haith AM, Krakauer JW (August 2015). "Motor Planning".
1943:
Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences
1567:
1187:
725:. In Hick's experiment, the RT is found to be a function of the
6800:
5828:
4386:. London, England: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. pp. 299–310.
2882:"A Frequentist Mixture Modelling of Stop Signal Reaction Times"
1431:
Mechanistic properties of the RT-cognitive ability relationship
629:
in individual responses within or across conditions of a task;
7441:
5813:
Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience
1554:(GWAS) of cognitive function found 36 genome-wide significant
2253:
Elsberg, C. A.; Spotnitz, H. (1938). "The senses of taste".
5557:
Morís Fernández, Luis; Vadillo, Miguel A. (February 2020).
4737:"Individual differences, aging, and IQ in two-choice tasks"
1780:
Reaction time as a function of different analytical choices
1520:
Biological and neurophysiological manifestations of the RT-
1165:
Application in biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience
134:, who designed one of the first apparatuses to measure it.
6896:
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
2913:
Soltanifar, M; Escobar, M; Dupuis, A; Schachar, R (2021).
2880:
Soltanifar, M; Dupuis, A; Schachar, R; Escobar, M (2019).
1582:, respectively. This study additionally found significant
1503:, which is both related to and distinct from psychometric
1495:
When multiple measures of RT are studied in a population,
5734:
Stochastic Modeling of Elementary Psychological Processes
4928:
Allison, Elric Y.; Al-Khazraji, Baraa K. (1 March 2024).
4134:
Beck, L. F. (1933). "The role of speed in intelligence".
3526:"Memory scanning: New findings and current controversies"
2123:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1768:
In a similar vein, other researchers have found a small (
1543:
in the range of 0.90, suggesting that the lower observed
4290:
van Ravenzwaaij D, Brown S, Wagenmakers EJ (June 2011).
4069:
Cattell, J. M. (1890). "Mental tests and measurements".
3563:
3561:
1013:
Models of choice reaction time are closely aligned with
5824:
1260:
Reaction time as a function of experimental conditions
3124:
Ratcliff, R. (1978). "A theory of memory retrieval".
1677:-RT relationship is specifically the relationship of
1535:
have shown that performance on chronometric tasks is
1382:
Reaction time as a function of individual differences
1141:
1120:
1100:
1074:
1026:
849:
829:
809:
742:
529:
509:
489:
432:
344:
323:
303:
283:
263:
210:
1586:
between RT, memory, and verbal-numerical reasoning.
7500:
7391:
7358:
7332:
7213:
7113:
7030:
7004:
6861:
6708:
6661:
6593:
6533:
6523:
6445:
6372:
6292:
6233:
6117:
6035:
5945:
5907:
5893:
5862:
5106:
Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span
1726:
the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
606:measurements with equal intervals and a true zero.
179:preparation, choice, and conscious accompaniments.
5003:
1153:
1126:
1106:
1086:
1056:
855:
835:
815:
791:
535:
515:
495:
472:
350:
329:
309:
289:
269:
245:
1492:individuals tend to have less variable responses.
4917:. Perception: and Psychophysics, 79(3), 713–725.
4863:Ratcliff, R.; Schmiedek, F.; McKoon, G. (2008).
4399:Advances in the psychology of human intelligence
4163:Speed of information processing and intelligence
3673:
3671:
3347:The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
1002:different button if a yellow light appears. The
5808:Historical Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
5753:"The golden mean as clock cycle of brain waves"
5242:Stanek, Kevin; Ones, Deniz (20 November 2023).
3185:Lipps DB, Galecki AT, Ashton-Miller JA (2011).
1711:neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
1692:Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
32:is the scientific study of processing speed or
3974:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
3912:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
1618:Diffusion modeling of RT and cognitive ability
6812:
5840:
5736:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
4735:Ratcliff, R.; Thapar, A.; McKoon, G. (2010).
8:
5360:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
5306:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
5072:
5070:
5006:Intellectual development: birth to adulthood
4575:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3530:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
1716:During senescence, RT deteriorates (as does
16:Study of processing speed on cognitive tasks
5399:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
4787:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
4610:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
3437:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
3378:
3376:
3161:"Brake Reaction Times of Unalerted Drivers"
2658:
2656:
2270:
2268:
2101:
2099:
6819:
6805:
6797:
6530:
5904:
5847:
5833:
5825:
5451:Berger, Alexander; Kiefer, Markus (2021).
2680:
2678:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2063:
2061:
1305:Shepard and Metzler's mental rotation task
473:{\displaystyle RT=a+b\log {\frac {1}{p}},}
317:represents an irreducible time value, and
5804:– Measuring Mental Chronometry on the Web
5776:
5640:
5598:
5486:
5468:
4888:
4760:
4676:
4518:
4508:
4467:
4457:
3651:
3595:
3585:
3541:
3500:
3490:
3419:
3220:
3210:
3042:
3032:
2991:
2981:
2940:
2930:
2897:
2856:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2330:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1140:
1119:
1099:
1073:
1025:
848:
828:
808:
765:
741:
588:Measurement and mathematical descriptions
528:
508:
488:
457:
431:
343:
322:
302:
282:
262:
229:
220:
209:
7350:International Commission on Stratigraphy
4401:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 7–45.
4384:Human growth: A multidisciplinary review
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1855:Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning
1835:Timed antagonistic response alethiometer
166:is typically credited as the founder of
80:as well as the processing efficiency of
1845:
1640:(first panel) and response output time
1356:
1319:Example of mental rotation task stimuli
246:{\displaystyle RT={\frac {a}{i^{n}}}+k}
5446:
5444:
5333:Personality and Individual Differences
5279:Personality and Individual Differences
4044:Personality and Individual Differences
3074:Lidwell W, Holden K, Butler J (2003).
2665:"A literature review on reaction time"
2035:
2033:
2031:
1256:, strongly correlates with slowed RT.
1252:, as measured by SPECT imaging of the
1220:Current medical reviews indicate that
523:are constants related to the task and
5680:. New York: Oxford University Press.
3574:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
3468:
3466:
2044:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1204:functional magnetic resonance imaging
420:that precedes stimulus presentation.
7:
6781:
3644:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.02.012
2667:. Clemson University. Archived from
2072:. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
1304:
1272:
792:{\displaystyle RT=a+b\log _{2}(n+1)}
729:of the number of available choices (
3060:Originally from Colman, A. (2001).
1857:. Springer US. pp. 2180–2182.
1292:. Subjects were then given a probe
625:; intraindividual variability, the
297:represents a reducible time value,
56:, but is also commonly analyzed in
4109:Journal of Experimental Psychology
3860:10.1016/B978-0-12-170150-5.50009-3
3400:Journal of Experimental Psychology
3309:The American Journal of Psychology
3282:Journal of Experimental Psychology
3091:Journal of Mathematical Psychology
2711:(Original work published in 1868.)
2612:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2511:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2449:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2422:Journal of Experimental Psychology
1795:CDR computerized assessment system
1589:Neurophysiological research using
1469:and the Jensen box tool, and the "
1178:With the advent of the functional
14:
7070:Discrete time and continuous time
4651:Ratcliff, R.; McKoon, G. (2008).
1893:Chronometric explorations of mind
944:Recognition or go/no-go paradigms
6995:
6989:
6780:
6771:
6770:
5816:
5213:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00781.x
5114:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd001010
3236:
2360:10.1152/ajplegacy.1937.120.2.304
2014:. Lausanne: Frontiers Media SA.
1566:, which appear to be in or near
1357:Posner's letter matching studies
1273:Sternberg's memory-scanning task
900:Standard reaction time paradigms
5516:Organizational Research Methods
5393:André, Quentin (January 2022).
4834:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.02.002
4311:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.02.002
3076:Universal. Principles of Design
2012:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
1346:Teachable Language Comprehender
1094:denotes mean RT across trials,
602:(ms), and are considered to be
277:represents stimulus intensity,
7143:History of timekeeping devices
5732:Townsend JT, Ashby FG (1984).
5174:Medicine and Science in Sports
4753:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2009.09.001
4279:. UK: Oxford University Press.
3421:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-5ADB-7
3058:Hick's Law at Encyclopedia.com
2886:Biostatistics and Epidemiology
2581:"The measurement of attention"
2476:American Journal of Psychology
2348:American Journal of Physiology
2070:A Tenth of a Second: A History
1161:in the original formulation).
786:
774:
690:variation in timed responses.
661:Distribution of response times
100:History and early observations
1:
5787:10.1016/S0960-0779(03)00026-2
5045:10.1016/S0301-0511(00)00052-1
4369:10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00054-0
4262:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80052-X
4190:10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00062-9
3986:10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80069-1
3924:10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80051-8
3852:Visual Information Processing
3692:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01853-2
3387:. London: Academic Press Inc.
3269:. London: Academic Press Inc.
3064:. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
2899:10.1080/24709360.2019.1660110
2649:. London: Academic Press Inc.
2240:10.1080/00221309.1936.9713158
2228:Journal of General Psychology
2110:. London: Academic Press Inc.
1981:10.1080/17588928.2016.1205575
1863:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_238
1552:genome-wide association study
1331:Sentence-picture verification
5757:Chaos, Solitons and Fractals
5709:10.1016/0301-0511(88)90013-0
5642:10.1016/j.cortex.2023.11.012
5345:10.1016/0191-8869(85)90139-4
5091:10.1016/j.intell.2007.10.002
4881:10.1016/j.intell.2006.12.002
4560:10.1016/j.intell.2015.12.005
4426:10.1016/0160-2896(84)90010-2
3897:10.1016/0010-0285(72)90019-9
3821:10.1126/science.171.3972.701
3786:10.1016/0001-6918(69)90055-9
3743:10.1126/science.153.3736.652
3680:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
3492:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030051
3212:10.1371/journal.pone.0026141
2699:10.1016/0001-6918(69)90065-1
1574:and signaling activities by
1215:positron emission tomography
1057:{\displaystyle MRT=K+\log N}
7090:Gravitational time dilation
6926:Barycentric Coordinate Time
6585:Geological history of Earth
5248:. University of Minnesota.
4981:10.1037/0033-2909.109.3.490
4946:10.1152/ajpheart.00625.2023
4799:10.1037/0096-3445.136.3.414
4669:10.1162/neco.2008.12-06-420
3473:Posner MI (February 2005).
3449:10.1037/0096-3445.131.2.220
3078:. Gloucester, MA: Rockport.
2818:10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.510
2538:Perceptual and Motor Skills
1741:Big-Five personality traits
1402:between RT and measures of
7597:
6946:Geocentric Coordinate Time
6931:Barycentric Dynamical Time
6869:Coordinated Universal Time
5937:Orders of magnitude (time)
5563:Royal Society Open Science
5372:10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.107
5318:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.399
5291:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.033
5010:. Boston: Academic Press.
4587:10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.998
4056:10.1016/j.paid.2007.09.015
3951:10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407
3062:A Dictionary of Psychology
2375:Journal of Neurophysiology
1689:
1387:Differential psychologists
1308:
697:
591:
42:elementary cognitive tasks
7100:Time-translation symmetry
6987:
6911:International Atomic Time
6838:
6766:
6648:Time translation symmetry
5751:Weiss V, Weiss H (2003).
5470:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.675558
3543:10.1080/14640747508400459
3359:10.1080/17470215508416692
3138:10.1037/0033-295x.85.2.59
2550:10.2466/pms.1965.20.3.969
1895:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
1800:Implicit-association test
1647:(third panel), such that
1471:choice reaction apparatus
1194:)logists have been using
5528:10.1177/1094428112470848
4217:10.1177/0956797612471540
3587:10.3389/fnint.2013.00075
2983:10.3390/brainsci12060730
2932:10.3390/brainsci11081102
2735:10.1177/1073858414541484
2585:Psychological Monographs
2311:Psychological Monographs
2068:Canales, Jimena (2009).
1591:event-related potentials
1348:(TLC) model proposed by
960:Discrimination paradigms
617:but occasionally by the
571:Conscious accompaniments
394:Response characteristics
7360:Astronomical chronology
7333:Archaeology and geology
7040:Absolute space and time
6956:IERS Reference Meridian
6951:International Date Line
6862:International standards
6603:Absolute space and time
6254:Astronomical chronology
5457:Frontiers in Psychology
5151:10.1093/geronj/39.6.704
4714:10.1111/1467-9280.00067
4510:10.3390/brainsci9020028
3159:Taoka GT (March 1989).
2332:2027/mdp.39015082033716
2255:Bull. Neural Inst., N.Y
2183:Wundt, Wilhelm (1902).
1945:. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
1830:Psychomotor retardation
1749:personality factors of
1580:growth factor receptors
1452:individual differences.
1196:electroencephalographic
168:differential psychology
66:behavioral neuroscience
54:differential psychology
6653:Time reversal symmetry
5957:Italian six-hour clock
5254:10.24926/9781946135988
5139:Journal of Gerontology
4969:Psychological Bulletin
4136:Psychological Bulletin
4090:Archives of Psychology
3103:10.1006/jmps.1999.1260
3015:Soltanifar, M (2022).
2845:Psychological Bulletin
2806:Psychological Bulletin
2292:Trans. Illum. Eng. Soc
2277:Archives of Psychology
2143:10.1098/rsta.1902.0005
1969:Cognitive Neuroscience
1669:
1541:genetically correlated
1366:
1320:
1282:
1230:ventral tegmental area
1202:With the invention of
1175:
1155:
1128:
1108:
1088:
1058:
910:
877:
857:
837:
817:
793:
709:
657:
621:and less commonly the
537:
517:
497:
474:
352:
331:
311:
291:
271:
247:
142:
110:
73:information processing
62:cognitive neuroscience
26:
7319:Weekday determination
7205:Sundial markup schema
6418:Time and fate deities
6363:The Unreality of Time
6302:A series and B series
5697:Biological Psychology
5201:Psychological Science
5033:Biological Psychology
4702:Psychological Science
4275:Deary, I. J. (2000).
4205:Psychological Science
4165:. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
3632:Neurobiology of Aging
2387:10.1152/jn.1943.6.1.1
2213:10.3406/psy.1920.4403
2201:L'Année Psychologique
2187:. Leipzig: Engelmann.
2158:American Psychologist
1820:Psychomotor agitation
1698:cognitive development
1686:Cognitive development
1625:
1364:
1318:
1280:
1236:pharmaceuticals like
1172:
1156:
1129:
1109:
1089:
1059:
907:
882:drift-diffusion model
875:
868:Drift-diffusion model
858:
838:
818:
794:
707:
655:
538:
518:
498:
475:
353:
332:
312:
292:
272:
248:
148:Hermann von Helmholtz
140:
107:
24:
7340:Chronological dating
7080:Theory of relativity
6941:Daylight saving time
6669:Chronological dating
6638:Theory of relativity
5982:Daylight saving time
4741:Cognitive Psychology
4446:Molecular Psychiatry
4009:Psychological Review
3939:Psychological Review
3885:Cognitive Psychology
3524:Sternberg S (1975).
3126:Psychological Review
3044:10.3390/math10224362
2771:Psychological Record
2663:Kosinski RJ (2008).
2579:Woodrow, H. (1914).
2129:(300–311): 235–299.
1825:Psychomotor learning
1815:Movement in learning
1732:Health and mortality
1584:genetic correlations
1442:general intelligence
1254:dopamine transporter
1139:
1118:
1098:
1072:
1024:
847:
827:
807:
740:
527:
507:
487:
430:
342:
321:
301:
281:
261:
208:
192:Strength of stimulus
7550:Time value of money
7345:Geologic time scale
7200:History of sundials
7065:Cosmological decade
7017:Greenwich Mean Time
6848:Orders of magnitude
5962:Thai six-hour clock
5769:2003CSF....18..643W
5583:10.1098/rsos.190831
5575:2020RSOS....790831M
3854:. pp. 75–176.
3813:1971Sci...171..701S
3735:1966Sci...153..652S
3203:2011PLoSO...626141L
2135:1902RSPTA.198..235P
1369:In the late 1960s,
1228:originating in the
1154:{\displaystyle n+1}
1114:is a constant, and
1087:{\displaystyle MRT}
990:Choice RT paradigms
973:social psychologist
917:Simple RT paradigms
693:
7525:Mental chronometry
7153:Marine chronometer
7005:Obsolete standards
6492:Rosy retrospection
6470:Mental chronometry
6294:Philosophy of time
5802:Reaction Time Test
5411:10.1037/xge0001069
4657:Neural Computation
4622:10.1037/xge0000325
4459:10.1038/mp.2016.45
4336:on 2 February 2017
2858:10.1037/bul0000192
2783:10.1007/BF03395630
2723:The Neuroscientist
1941:Jensen AR (2006).
1891:Posner MI (1978).
1718:fluid intelligence
1670:
1367:
1321:
1283:
1176:
1151:
1124:
1104:
1084:
1054:
911:
878:
853:
833:
813:
789:
723:information theory
710:
658:
561:Franciscus Donders
533:
513:
493:
470:
348:
327:
307:
287:
267:
243:
143:
111:
30:Mental chronometry
27:
7563:
7562:
7373:Nuclear timescale
7055:Continuous signal
6794:
6793:
6704:
6703:
6679:Circadian rhythms
6497:Tense–aspect–mood
6352:Temporal finitism
6229:
6228:
6205:Grandfather clock
5263:978-1-946135-98-8
4616:(10): 1498–1512.
3774:Acta Psychologica
2687:Acta Psychologica
2403:Z F Psych Un Phys
1952:978-0-08-044939-5
1872:978-1-4419-1428-6
1722:Andreas Demetriou
1593:(ERPs) have used
1394:Cognitive ability
1299:short-term memory
1290:short-term memory
1226:dopamine pathways
1127:{\displaystyle N}
1107:{\displaystyle K}
856:{\displaystyle n}
836:{\displaystyle b}
816:{\displaystyle a}
536:{\displaystyle p}
516:{\displaystyle b}
496:{\displaystyle a}
465:
351:{\displaystyle k}
330:{\displaystyle n}
310:{\displaystyle k}
290:{\displaystyle a}
270:{\displaystyle i}
235:
7588:
7264:Dominical letter
7195:Equation of time
7158:Marine sandglass
6999:
6993:
6971:Terrestrial Time
6828:Time measurement
6821:
6814:
6807:
6798:
6784:
6783:
6774:
6773:
6691:Glottochronology
6531:
6447:Human experience
6307:B-theory of time
5905:
5849:
5842:
5835:
5826:
5821:
5820:
5790:
5780:
5747:
5728:
5691:
5676:Luce RD (1986).
5663:
5662:
5644:
5619:
5613:
5612:
5602:
5554:
5548:
5547:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5490:
5472:
5448:
5439:
5438:
5390:
5384:
5383:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5328:
5322:
5321:
5301:
5295:
5294:
5274:
5268:
5267:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5196:
5190:
5189:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5074:
5065:
5064:
5028:
5022:
5021:
5009:
4999:
4993:
4992:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4940:(3): H772–H785.
4925:
4919:
4918:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4892:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4817:
4811:
4810:
4781:
4775:
4774:
4764:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4680:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4605:
4599:
4598:
4570:
4564:
4563:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4522:
4512:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4471:
4461:
4436:
4430:
4429:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4341:
4335:
4329:. Archived from
4296:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4211:(7): 1226–1233.
4200:
4194:
4193:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4158:
4152:
4151:
4148:10.1037/h0074499
4131:
4125:
4124:
4121:10.1037/h0071020
4104:
4098:
4097:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4021:10.1037/h0024913
4004:
3998:
3997:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3675:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3599:
3589:
3565:
3556:
3555:
3545:
3521:
3515:
3514:
3504:
3494:
3470:
3461:
3460:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3412:10.1037/h0054651
3395:
3389:
3388:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3342:
3333:
3332:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3294:10.1037/h0056685
3277:
3271:
3270:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3234:
3224:
3214:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3071:
3065:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3036:
3012:
3006:
3005:
2995:
2985:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2934:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2860:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2766:
2755:
2754:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2682:
2673:
2672:
2671:on 11 June 2010.
2660:
2651:
2650:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2624:10.1037/h0042317
2607:
2601:
2600:
2597:10.1037/h0093087
2576:
2570:
2569:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2523:10.1037/h0059635
2506:
2500:
2499:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2461:10.1037/h0061640
2444:
2438:
2437:
2434:10.1037/h0073785
2417:
2411:
2410:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2323:10.1037/h0093070
2306:
2300:
2299:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2272:
2263:
2262:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2170:10.1037/h0043943
2153:
2147:
2146:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2103:
2074:
2073:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2040:Luce RD (1986).
2037:
2026:
2025:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1964:
1958:
1956:
1938:
1897:
1896:
1888:
1877:
1876:
1850:
1556:genetic variants
1533:adoption studies
1444:or psychometric
1340:Models of memory
1160:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1055:
862:
860:
859:
854:
842:
840:
839:
834:
822:
820:
819:
814:
798:
796:
795:
790:
770:
769:
727:binary logarithm
611:Central tendency
542:
540:
539:
534:
522:
520:
519:
514:
502:
500:
499:
494:
479:
477:
476:
471:
466:
458:
385:Sensory modality
357:
355:
354:
349:
336:
334:
333:
328:
316:
314:
313:
308:
296:
294:
293:
288:
276:
274:
273:
268:
252:
250:
249:
244:
236:
234:
233:
221:
127:Friedrich Bessel
58:psychophysiology
7596:
7595:
7591:
7590:
7589:
7587:
7586:
7585:
7566:
7565:
7564:
7559:
7496:
7387:
7354:
7328:
7209:
7109:
7060:Coordinate time
7032:Time in physics
7026:
7000:
6994:
6985:
6857:
6834:
6825:
6795:
6790:
6762:
6753:Time immemorial
6700:
6657:
6618:Coordinate time
6589:
6543:Geological time
6519:
6502:Time management
6465:Generation time
6449:
6441:
6386:
6368:
6288:
6247:
6225:
6113:
6031:
5948:
5941:
5897:
5889:
5858:
5853:
5815:
5798:
5793:
5778:10.1.1.545.6766
5750:
5744:
5731:
5694:
5688:
5675:
5671:
5669:Further reading
5666:
5621:
5620:
5616:
5556:
5555:
5551:
5509:
5508:
5504:
5450:
5449:
5442:
5392:
5391:
5387:
5357:
5356:
5352:
5330:
5329:
5325:
5303:
5302:
5298:
5276:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5198:
5197:
5193:
5171:
5170:
5166:
5136:
5135:
5131:
5124:
5103:
5102:
5098:
5076:
5075:
5068:
5030:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5002:Case R (1985).
5001:
5000:
4996:
4966:
4965:
4961:
4927:
4926:
4922:
4911:
4910:
4906:
4862:
4861:
4857:
4819:
4818:
4814:
4783:
4782:
4778:
4734:
4733:
4729:
4699:
4698:
4694:
4650:
4649:
4645:
4607:
4606:
4602:
4581:(4): 998–1008.
4572:
4571:
4567:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4490:
4489:
4485:
4438:
4437:
4433:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4396:
4395:
4391:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4354:
4353:
4349:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4294:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4202:
4201:
4197:
4175:
4174:
4170:
4160:
4159:
4155:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4106:
4105:
4101:
4087:
4086:
4082:
4068:
4067:
4063:
4041:
4040:
4036:
4006:
4005:
4001:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3936:
3935:
3931:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3849:
3848:
3844:
3807:(3972): 701–3.
3798:
3797:
3793:
3771:
3770:
3766:
3729:(3736): 652–4.
3720:
3719:
3715:
3677:
3676:
3669:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3567:
3566:
3559:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3472:
3471:
3464:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3382:
3381:
3374:
3344:
3343:
3336:
3321:10.2307/1419996
3306:
3305:
3301:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3264:
3263:
3259:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3163:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3073:
3072:
3068:
3056:
3052:
3014:
3013:
3009:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2768:
2767:
2758:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2684:
2683:
2676:
2662:
2661:
2654:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2488:10.2307/1414185
2473:
2472:
2468:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2273:
2266:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2225:
2224:
2220:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2164:(11): 671–684.
2155:
2154:
2150:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2104:
2077:
2067:
2066:
2059:
2052:
2039:
2038:
2029:
2022:
2009:
2008:
2004:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1953:
1940:
1939:
1900:
1890:
1889:
1880:
1873:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1805:Inspection time
1791:
1782:
1743:
1734:
1694:
1688:
1666:
1659:
1652:
1645:
1638:
1631:
1620:
1572:spermatogenesis
1526:
1497:factor analysis
1488:, while higher-
1433:
1396:
1384:
1359:
1342:
1333:
1313:
1311:Mental rotation
1307:
1275:
1262:
1245:
1167:
1137:
1136:
1116:
1115:
1096:
1095:
1070:
1069:
1022:
1021:
992:
962:
946:
919:
902:
870:
845:
844:
825:
824:
805:
804:
761:
738:
737:
702:
696:
669:One reason for
663:
615:arithmetic mean
596:
590:
573:
553:
525:
524:
505:
504:
485:
484:
428:
427:
413:
396:
387:
340:
339:
319:
318:
299:
298:
279:
278:
259:
258:
225:
206:
205:
194:
185:
183:Sensory factors
102:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7594:
7592:
7584:
7583:
7578:
7568:
7567:
7561:
7560:
7558:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7545:Time metrology
7542:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7521:
7520:
7510:
7504:
7502:
7501:Related topics
7498:
7497:
7495:
7494:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7398:
7396:
7389:
7388:
7386:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7370:
7364:
7362:
7356:
7355:
7353:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7336:
7334:
7330:
7329:
7327:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7261:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7219:
7217:
7211:
7210:
7208:
7207:
7202:
7197:
7192:
7190:Dialing scales
7187:
7182:
7177:
7176:
7175:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7150:
7145:
7140:
7135:
7130:
7125:
7119:
7117:
7111:
7110:
7108:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7077:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7036:
7034:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7024:
7022:Prime meridian
7019:
7014:
7012:Ephemeris time
7008:
7006:
7002:
7001:
6988:
6986:
6984:
6983:
6981:180th meridian
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6877:
6876:
6865:
6863:
6859:
6858:
6856:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6839:
6836:
6835:
6826:
6824:
6823:
6816:
6809:
6801:
6792:
6791:
6789:
6788:
6778:
6767:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6712:
6710:
6706:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6699:
6698:
6696:Time geography
6693:
6688:
6686:Clock reaction
6683:
6682:
6681:
6671:
6665:
6663:
6659:
6658:
6656:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6599:
6597:
6591:
6590:
6588:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6576:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6539:
6537:
6528:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6517:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6488:
6487:
6485:time signature
6482:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6456:
6454:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6439:
6438:
6437:
6427:
6426:
6425:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6389:
6387:
6385:
6384:
6379:
6373:
6370:
6369:
6367:
6366:
6359:
6357:Temporal parts
6354:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6327:Eternal return
6324:
6319:
6314:
6312:Chronocentrism
6309:
6304:
6298:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6287:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6245:
6240:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6227:
6226:
6224:
6223:
6222:
6221:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6191:
6190:
6185:
6184:
6183:
6178:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6152:
6151:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6123:
6121:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6111:
6104:
6099:
6097:Hindu Panchang
6094:
6089:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6063:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6041:
6039:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5953:
5951:
5943:
5942:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5913:
5911:
5902:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5866:
5864:
5860:
5859:
5854:
5852:
5851:
5844:
5837:
5829:
5823:
5822:
5810:
5805:
5797:
5796:External links
5794:
5792:
5791:
5763:(4): 643–652.
5748:
5742:
5729:
5692:
5686:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5664:
5614:
5549:
5522:(2): 270–301.
5502:
5440:
5405:(1): 213–223.
5385:
5366:(1): 107–114.
5350:
5339:(4): 461–469.
5323:
5312:(2): 399–409.
5296:
5269:
5262:
5234:
5191:
5180:(2): 186–189.
5164:
5145:(6): 704–710.
5129:
5122:
5096:
5085:(5): 437–454.
5066:
5039:(1–3): 35–54.
5023:
5016:
4994:
4975:(3): 490–501.
4959:
4920:
4904:
4855:
4828:(3): 381–393.
4812:
4793:(3): 414–429.
4776:
4747:(3): 127–157.
4727:
4708:(5): 347–356.
4692:
4663:(4): 873–922.
4643:
4600:
4565:
4534:
4497:Brain Sciences
4483:
4452:(6): 758–767.
4431:
4420:(3): 239–258.
4404:
4389:
4374:
4363:(6): 567–587.
4347:
4282:
4267:
4238:
4195:
4184:(5): 389–399.
4168:
4153:
4142:(2): 169–178.
4126:
4099:
4080:
4061:
4050:(3): 535–551.
4034:
4015:(5): 392–409.
3999:
3980:(2): 240–247.
3964:
3945:(6): 407–428.
3929:
3918:(3): 244–253.
3902:
3891:(3): 472–517.
3875:
3868:
3842:
3791:
3764:
3713:
3686:(4): 169–176.
3667:
3638:(8): 1237–46.
3615:
3557:
3516:
3462:
3443:(2): 220–240.
3427:
3406:(6): 643–662.
3390:
3385:Reaction Times
3372:
3353:(4): 176–195.
3334:
3299:
3288:(4): 291–306.
3272:
3267:Reaction Times
3257:
3243:
3197:(10): e26141.
3177:
3151:
3116:
3097:(3): 408–463.
3081:
3066:
3050:
3007:
2970:Brain Sciences
2956:
2919:Brain Sciences
2905:
2872:
2851:(5): 508–535.
2831:
2812:(3): 510–532.
2796:
2777:(3): 475–482.
2756:
2713:
2674:
2652:
2647:Reaction Times
2637:
2618:(3): 179–184.
2602:
2571:
2544:(3): 969–972.
2528:
2517:(5): 554–564.
2501:
2466:
2455:(3): 318–324.
2439:
2428:(6): 515–524.
2412:
2392:
2365:
2354:(2): 304–322.
2338:
2301:
2282:
2264:
2245:
2234:(2): 414–417.
2218:
2190:
2175:
2148:
2113:
2108:Reaction Times
2075:
2057:
2050:
2027:
2020:
2002:
1975:(2): 126–128.
1959:
1951:
1898:
1878:
1871:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1790:
1787:
1781:
1778:
1742:
1739:
1733:
1730:
1690:Main article:
1687:
1684:
1664:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1619:
1616:
1525:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1493:
1474:
1462:Claude Shannon
1453:
1432:
1429:
1395:
1392:
1383:
1380:
1371:Michael Posner
1358:
1355:
1341:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1309:Main article:
1306:
1303:
1286:Saul Sternberg
1274:
1271:
1261:
1258:
1243:
1182:techniques of
1166:
1163:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1123:
1103:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1066:
1065:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
991:
988:
976:Leon Festinger
965:Discrimination
961:
958:
945:
942:
918:
915:
901:
898:
869:
866:
852:
832:
812:
801:
800:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
768:
764:
760:
757:
754:
751:
748:
745:
698:Main article:
695:
692:
662:
659:
647:motor planning
589:
586:
572:
569:
552:
549:
532:
512:
492:
481:
480:
469:
464:
461:
456:
453:
450:
447:
444:
441:
438:
435:
412:
409:
395:
392:
386:
383:
347:
326:
306:
286:
266:
255:
254:
242:
239:
232:
228:
224:
219:
216:
213:
193:
190:
184:
181:
164:Francis Galton
119:René Descartes
117:thinkers like
101:
98:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7593:
7582:
7579:
7577:
7574:
7573:
7571:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7519:
7516:
7515:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7506:
7505:
7503:
7499:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7399:
7397:
7395:
7394:units of time
7390:
7384:
7383:Sidereal time
7381:
7379:
7376:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7368:Galactic year
7366:
7365:
7363:
7361:
7357:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7337:
7335:
7331:
7325:
7324:Weekday names
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7314:Tropical year
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7279:Intercalation
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:(lunar Hijri)
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7220:
7218:
7216:
7212:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7198:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7174:
7171:
7170:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7120:
7118:
7116:
7112:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7085:Time dilation
7083:
7081:
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7037:
7035:
7033:
7029:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7003:
6998:
6992:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6922:
6921:24-hour clock
6919:
6917:
6916:12-hour clock
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6870:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6860:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6840:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6822:
6817:
6815:
6810:
6808:
6803:
6802:
6799:
6787:
6779:
6777:
6769:
6768:
6765:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6743:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6713:
6711:
6707:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6689:
6687:
6684:
6680:
6677:
6676:
6675:
6674:Chronobiology
6672:
6670:
6667:
6666:
6664:
6660:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6608:Arrow of time
6606:
6604:
6601:
6600:
6598:
6596:
6592:
6586:
6583:
6581:
6580:Geochronology
6578:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6545:
6544:
6541:
6540:
6538:
6536:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6522:
6516:
6512:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6457:
6455:
6453:
6448:
6444:
6436:
6433:
6432:
6431:
6430:Wheel of time
6428:
6424:
6421:
6420:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6374:
6371:
6365:
6364:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6318:
6315:
6313:
6310:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6299:
6297:
6295:
6291:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6274:Periodization
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6251:
6249:
6244:
6241:
6239:
6236:
6235:
6232:
6220:
6219:
6215:
6214:
6213:
6212:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6200:Digital clock
6198:
6196:
6193:
6189:
6186:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6173:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6150:
6147:
6146:
6145:
6142:
6138:
6135:
6134:
6133:
6130:
6129:
6128:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6120:
6116:
6110:
6109:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6046:
6043:
6042:
6040:
6038:
6034:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5977:Relative hour
5975:
5973:
5972:24-hour clock
5970:
5968:
5967:12-hour clock
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5950:
5944:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5914:
5912:
5910:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5896:
5892:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5850:
5845:
5843:
5838:
5836:
5831:
5830:
5827:
5819:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5803:
5800:
5799:
5795:
5788:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5749:
5745:
5743:0-521-27433-8
5739:
5735:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5703:(1–3): 3–67.
5702:
5698:
5693:
5689:
5687:0-19-503642-5
5683:
5679:
5674:
5673:
5668:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5618:
5615:
5610:
5606:
5601:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5569:(2): 190831.
5568:
5564:
5560:
5553:
5550:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5506:
5503:
5498:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5447:
5445:
5441:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5389:
5386:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5354:
5351:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5327:
5324:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5297:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5273:
5270:
5265:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5246:
5238:
5235:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5195:
5192:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5168:
5165:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5133:
5130:
5125:
5123:9780470390139
5119:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5100:
5097:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5073:
5071:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5027:
5024:
5019:
5017:0-12-162880-9
5013:
5008:
5007:
4998:
4995:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4963:
4960:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4924:
4921:
4916:
4908:
4905:
4900:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4859:
4856:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4816:
4813:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4780:
4777:
4772:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4731:
4728:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4696:
4693:
4688:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4647:
4644:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4604:
4601:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4569:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4538:
4535:
4530:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4487:
4484:
4479:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4435:
4432:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4408:
4405:
4400:
4393:
4390:
4385:
4378:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4351:
4348:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4305:(3): 381–93.
4304:
4300:
4293:
4286:
4283:
4278:
4271:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4250:
4242:
4239:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4199:
4196:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4172:
4169:
4164:
4157:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4130:
4127:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4103:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4065:
4062:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4035:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4003:
4000:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3968:
3965:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3933:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3876:
3871:
3869:9780121701505
3865:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3843:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3795:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3768:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3520:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3469:
3467:
3463:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3428:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3391:
3386:
3379:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3273:
3268:
3261:
3258:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3239:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3155:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3132:(2): 59–108.
3131:
3127:
3120:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3082:
3077:
3070:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3051:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3011:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2960:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2906:
2900:
2895:
2892:(1): 90–108.
2891:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2873:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2835:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2800:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2729:(4): 385–98.
2728:
2724:
2717:
2714:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2641:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2505:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2366:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2339:
2333:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2283:
2278:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2051:0-19-503642-5
2047:
2043:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2021:9782889195664
2017:
2013:
2006:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1740:
1738:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1668:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1639:
1632:
1624:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1564:chromosome 12
1561:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1467:Arthur Jensen
1463:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1337:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1317:
1312:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1279:
1270:
1266:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1211:radionuclides
1207:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1171:
1164:
1162:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1121:
1101:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1011:
1009:
1005:
999:
996:
989:
987:
983:
979:
977:
974:
969:
966:
959:
957:
954:
950:
943:
941:
939:
934:
930:
928:
923:
916:
914:
906:
899:
897:
895:
891:
885:
883:
874:
867:
865:
850:
830:
810:
783:
780:
777:
771:
766:
762:
758:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
736:
735:
734:
732:
728:
724:
719:
715:
706:
701:
691:
689:
685:
679:
676:
672:
667:
660:
654:
650:
648:
642:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
595:
587:
585:
583:
578:
577:structuralist
570:
568:
564:
562:
557:
550:
548:
544:
530:
510:
490:
467:
462:
459:
454:
451:
448:
445:
442:
439:
436:
433:
426:
425:
424:
421:
419:
410:
408:
404:
400:
393:
391:
384:
382:
379:
375:
370:
368:
364:
359:
345:
324:
304:
284:
264:
240:
237:
230:
226:
222:
217:
214:
211:
204:
203:
202:
200:
191:
189:
182:
180:
176:
173:
169:
165:
160:
158:
153:
152:Wilhelm Wundt
149:
139:
135:
133:
128:
123:
120:
116:
115:Enlightenment
106:
99:
97:
95:
91:
85:
84:gray matter.
83:
79:
74:
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
38:response time
35:
34:reaction time
31:
23:
19:
7581:Time in life
7530:Decimal time
7524:
7259:Astronomical
7138:Complication
7133:Atomic clock
6748:Time capsule
6742:Tempus fugit
6740:
6662:Other fields
6469:
6361:
6342:Perdurantism
6264:Calendar era
6216:
6209:
6195:Cuckoo clock
6132:astronomical
6106:
5932:Unit of time
5863:Key concepts
5760:
5756:
5733:
5700:
5696:
5677:
5632:
5628:
5617:
5566:
5562:
5552:
5519:
5515:
5505:
5460:
5456:
5402:
5398:
5388:
5363:
5359:
5353:
5336:
5332:
5326:
5309:
5305:
5299:
5282:
5278:
5272:
5244:
5237:
5207:(1): 64–69.
5204:
5200:
5194:
5177:
5173:
5167:
5142:
5138:
5132:
5105:
5099:
5082:
5079:Intelligence
5078:
5036:
5032:
5026:
5005:
4997:
4972:
4968:
4962:
4937:
4933:
4923:
4914:
4907:
4875:(1): 10–17.
4872:
4869:Intelligence
4868:
4858:
4825:
4821:
4815:
4790:
4786:
4779:
4744:
4740:
4730:
4705:
4701:
4695:
4660:
4656:
4646:
4613:
4609:
4603:
4578:
4574:
4568:
4551:
4548:Intelligence
4547:
4537:
4503:(2): 28–40.
4500:
4496:
4486:
4449:
4445:
4434:
4417:
4414:Intelligence
4413:
4407:
4398:
4392:
4383:
4377:
4360:
4357:Intelligence
4356:
4350:
4338:. Retrieved
4331:the original
4302:
4298:
4285:
4276:
4270:
4256:(1): 53–62.
4253:
4249:Intelligence
4247:
4241:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4181:
4178:Intelligence
4177:
4171:
4162:
4156:
4139:
4135:
4129:
4115:(2): 71–94.
4112:
4108:
4102:
4093:
4089:
4083:
4074:
4070:
4064:
4047:
4043:
4037:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3915:
3911:
3905:
3888:
3884:
3878:
3851:
3845:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3777:
3773:
3767:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3683:
3679:
3635:
3631:
3618:
3609:
3577:
3573:
3533:
3529:
3519:
3482:
3479:PLOS Biology
3478:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3403:
3399:
3393:
3384:
3350:
3346:
3315:(1): 28–38.
3312:
3308:
3302:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3266:
3260:
3246:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3171:
3167:
3154:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3075:
3069:
3061:
3053:
3027:(22): 4362.
3024:
3020:
3010:
2973:
2969:
2959:
2922:
2918:
2908:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2774:
2770:
2726:
2722:
2716:
2690:
2686:
2669:the original
2646:
2640:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2591:(5): i-158.
2588:
2584:
2574:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2482:(1): 17–52.
2479:
2475:
2469:
2452:
2448:
2442:
2425:
2421:
2415:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2276:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2184:
2178:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2107:
2069:
2041:
2011:
2005:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1942:
1892:
1854:
1848:
1783:
1773:
1769:
1767:
1759:
1751:Extraversion
1744:
1735:
1715:
1702:intelligence
1695:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1662:
1655:
1648:
1641:
1634:
1627:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1588:
1570:involved in
1560:chromosome 2
1549:
1527:
1524:relationship
1521:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1449:
1445:
1434:
1424:Ian J. Deary
1420:
1415:intelligence
1412:
1407:
1404:intelligence
1400:correlations
1397:
1385:
1376:
1368:
1343:
1334:
1322:
1284:
1267:
1263:
1234:dopaminergic
1224:through the
1219:
1208:
1201:
1180:neuroimaging
1177:
1067:
1012:
1000:
994:
993:
984:
980:
970:
964:
963:
952:
948:
947:
935:
931:
927:milliseconds
921:
920:
912:
893:
889:
886:
879:
802:
730:
717:
711:
680:
668:
664:
643:
608:
600:milliseconds
597:
582:Oswald Külpe
574:
565:
558:
554:
545:
482:
422:
417:
414:
405:
401:
397:
388:
377:
373:
371:
363:Carl Hovland
360:
256:
199:Henri Piéron
195:
186:
177:
172:intelligence
161:
144:
132:Karl Pearson
124:
112:
86:
78:white matter
70:
46:experimental
37:
33:
29:
28:
18:
7540:System time
7535:Metric time
7254:Solar Hijri
7180:Water clock
7163:Radio clock
7095:Time domain
7075:Proper time
6961:Leap second
6843:Chronometry
6758:Time travel
6736:System time
6643:Time domain
6628:Proper time
6452:use of time
6423:Father Time
6403:Immortality
6393:Ages of Man
6322:Endurantism
6279:Regnal year
6259:Big History
6188:water-based
6087:Solar Hijri
5997:Hexadecimal
5947:Measurement
5909:Chronometry
5895:Measurement
3780:: 276–315.
3624:van Dyck CH
3174:(3): 19–21.
3168:ITE Journal
3021:Mathematics
2925:(9): 1102.
2693:: 412–431.
1755:Neuroticism
1550:In 2016, a
1507:. This big-
1238:amphetamine
1008:Stroop task
949:Recognition
938:false start
684:reliability
675:attentional
671:variability
604:ratio scale
411:Preparation
82:neocortical
7570:Categories
7555:Timekeeper
7508:Chronology
7492:Millennium
7378:Precession
7284:Julian day
7105:T-symmetry
6966:Solar time
6936:Civil time
6460:Chronemics
6435:Kalachakra
6347:Presentism
6332:Eternalism
6238:Chronology
6176:mechanical
6127:Main types
6045:Main types
4554:: 95–103.
4077:: 373–380.
3485:(2): e51.
3034:1904.02264
2976:(6): 730.
2409:: 444–453.
2261:: 174–177.
2207:: 58–142.
1841:References
1810:Jensen box
1595:P3 latency
1545:phenotypic
1458:Hick's Law
1213:and using
1015:Hick's Law
1004:Jensen box
909:time (RT).
864:consumer.
714:W. E. Hick
700:Hick's law
694:Hick's law
688:stochastic
592:See also:
418:foreperiod
367:adaptation
7576:Cognition
7452:Fortnight
7299:Lunisolar
7289:Leap year
7223:Gregorian
7173:stopwatch
7148:Hourglass
7128:Astrarium
7045:Spacetime
6976:Time zone
6853:Metrology
6832:standards
6716:Leap year
6633:Spacetime
6507:Yesterday
6408:Dreamtime
6382:Mythology
6269:Deep time
6181:stopwatch
6156:hourglass
6137:astrarium
6067:Gregorian
6060:Lunisolar
6037:Calendars
6027:Time zone
5900:standards
5773:CiteSeerX
5651:0010-9452
5635:: 14–37.
5591:2054-5703
5536:1094-4281
5479:1664-1078
5435:235267813
5419:1939-2222
5285:: 10–15.
4954:0363-6135
4915:Attention
4822:Cognition
4299:Cognition
3552:144503395
3367:143565743
2298:: 79–110.
1724:, one of
1706:Demetriou
1537:heritable
1410:= 0.07).
1222:signaling
1049:
772:
627:variation
455:
157:kymograph
109:contract.
90:attention
50:cognitive
7513:Duration
7487:Saeculum
7467:Olympiad
7309:Solstice
7238:Holocene
7215:Calendar
7115:Horology
6906:ISO 8601
6901:ISO 31-1
6776:Category
6524:Time in
6515:Tomorrow
6377:Religion
6317:Duration
6284:Timeline
6218:Timeline
6017:Sidereal
5885:Eternity
5725:33060819
5659:38154375
5609:32257303
5544:54916947
5497:34194371
5427:34060886
5380:16060749
5229:14499919
5221:15660853
5061:46114262
5053:11035219
4899:18584065
4842:21420077
4807:17696691
4771:19962693
4687:18085991
4638:23688235
4630:28703620
4595:12374449
4529:30700060
4478:27046643
4319:21420077
4233:18754103
4225:23744874
3994:60922154
3959:14217893
3837:16357397
3759:18013423
3708:17720084
3700:11912040
3662:17363113
3606:24198770
3536:: 1–32.
3511:15719059
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3231:22039438
3191:PLOS ONE
3111:10973778
3002:35741615
2951:34439721
2867:30896187
2791:18032729
2751:12535828
2743:24981338
2632:13306861
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2381:: 1–15.
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1989:27472472
1789:See also
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7472:Lustrum
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7243:Islamic
7185:Sundial
7050:Chronon
6786:Commons
6709:Related
6623:Instant
6613:Chronon
6595:Physics
6535:Geology
6526:science
6398:Destiny
6243:History
6211:History
6166:sundial
6149:quantum
6092:Chinese
6082:Islamic
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5875:Present
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