Mesoamerican ballgame - Knowledge (XXG)

1147: 888: 1299: 831: 1315: 815: 1287: 1074: 803: 844: 1478: 663: 33: 249: 241: 868: 1651:, editor Michael Whittington says: "It would seem reasonable that women also played the game—perhaps in all-female teams—or participated in some yet to be understood ceremony enacted on the ballcourt." (p. 186). In the same volume, Gillett Griffin states that although these figurines have been "interpreted by some as females, in the context of ancient Mesoamerican society the question of the presence of female ballplayers, and their role in the game, is still debated." (p. 158). 580: 1419: 372: 1211: 887: 418: 321:

ritual offerings buried at the site, indicating that even at this early date the game had religious and ritual connotations. A stone "yoke" of the type frequently associated with Mesoamerican ballcourts was also reported to have been found by local villagers at the site, leaving open the distinct possibility that these rubber balls were related to the ritual ballgame, and not simply an independent form of sacrificial

1058:, and it is assumed that these captives were sacrificed after losing a rigged ritual ballgame. Rather than nearly nude and sometimes battered captives, the ballcourts at El Tajín and Chichen Itza show the sacrifice of practiced ballplayers, perhaps the captain of a team. Decapitation is particularly associated with the ballgame—severed heads are featured in much Late Classic ballgame art and appear repeatedly in the 1331: 678: 648: 1138:, with precious stones and quetzal feathers at stake. Huemac won the game. When instead of precious stones and feathers, the rain deities offered Huemac their young maize ears and maize leaves, Huemac refused. As a consequence of this vanity, the Toltecs suffered a four-year drought. The same ball game match, with its unfortunate aftermath, signified the beginning of the end of the Toltec reign. 642: 506: 1027: 4131: 486:, points were gained if the ball hit the opposite end wall, while the decisive victory was reserved for the team that put the ball through a ring. However, placing the ball through the ring was a rare event—the rings at Chichen Itza, for example, were set 6 metres (20 ft) off the playing field—and most games were likely won on points. 1193:. Hun Hunahpu's head spits into the hands of a passing goddess who conceives and bears the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The Hero Twins eventually find the ballgame equipment in their father's house and start playing, again to the annoyance of the Lords of Xibalba, who summon the twins to play the ballgame amidst trials and dangers. 620:) they could turn the slippery polymers in raw latex into a resilient rubber. The size varied between 10 and 12 in (25 and 30 cm) (measured in hand spans) and weighed 3 to 6 lb (1.4 to 2.7 kg). The ball used in the ancient handball or stick-ball game was probably slightly larger and heavier than a modern-day baseball. 537:, the stone yoke is thought to be too heavy for actual play and was likely used only before or after the game in ritual contexts. In addition to providing some protection from the ball, the girdle or yoke would also have helped propel the ball with more force than the hip alone. Additionally, some players wore chest protectors called 830: 947:

These examples and others are cited by many researchers who have made compelling arguments that the game served as a way to defuse or resolve conflicts without genuine warfare, to settle disputes through a ballgame instead of a battle. Over time, then, the ballgame's role would expand to include not

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In the 16th-century Aztec ballgame that the Spaniards witnessed, points were lost by a player who let the ball bounce more than twice before returning it to the other team, who let the ball go outside the boundaries of the court, or who tried and failed to pass the ball through one of the stone rings

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of Dainzú, roughly 500 BC, as well as the Aztec players are drawn by Weiditz 2,000 years later (see drawing below). Helmets, likely utilitarian, and elaborate headdresses, likely used only in ritual contexts, are common in ballplayer depictions. Headdresses are particularly prevalent on Maya painted

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The sizes or weights of the balls actually used in the ballgame are not known with any certainty. While several dozen ancient balls have been recovered, they were originally laid down as offerings in a sacrificial bog or spring, and there is no evidence that any of these were used in the ballgame.

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structure. Built in a form that changed remarkably little during 2,700 years, over 1,300 Mesoamerican ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. All ballcourts have the same general shape, a long narrow playing alley flanked by walls with both horizontal and sloping (or, more

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However, based on a review of modern-day game balls, ancient rubber balls, and other archaeological evidence, it is presumed by most researchers that the ancient hip-ball was made of a mix from one or another of the latex-producing plants found all the way from the southeastern rain forests to the

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Villagers, and archaeologists, have recovered a dozen balls ranging in diameter from 10 to 22 cm from the freshwater spring there. Five of these balls have been dated to the earliest-known occupational phase for the site, approximately 1700–1600 BC. These rubber balls were found with other

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The game's paraphernalia—clothing, headdresses, gloves, all but the stone—are long gone, so knowledge on clothing relies on art—paintings and drawings, stone reliefs, and figurines—to provide evidence for pre-Columbian ballplayer clothing and gear, which varied considerably in type and quantity.

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In one notable episode, Hunahpu is decapitated by bats. His brother uses a squash as Hunahpu's substitute head until his real one, now used as a ball by the Lords, can be retrieved and placed back on Hunahpu's shoulders. The twins eventually go on to play the ballgame with the Lords of Xibalba,

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Cosmologic duality. The game is seen as a struggle between day and night, and/or a battle between life and the underworld. Courts were considered portals to the underworld and were built in key locations within the central ceremonial precincts. Playing ball engaged one in the maintenance of the

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For the Aztecs, the playing of the ballgame also had religious significance, but where the 16th-century K´iche´ Maya saw the game as a battle between the lords of the underworld and their earthly adversaries, their Aztec contemporaries may have seen it as a battle of the sun, personified by

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This "boundary maintenance" or "conflict resolution" theory would also account for some of the irregular distribution of ballcourts. Overall, there appears to be a negative correlation between the degree of political centralization and the number of ballcourts at a site. For example, the

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While the length-to-width ratio remained relatively constant at about four-to-one, there was tremendous variation in ballcourt size: The playing field of the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, by far the largest, measures 96.5 by 30 metres (317 by 98 ft), while the Ceremonial Court at

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myth links ballcourts with death and its overcoming. The ballcourt becomes a place of transition, a liminal stage between life and death. The ballcourt markers along the centerline of the Classic playing field depicted ritual and mythical scenes of the ballgame, often bordered by a

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Games were played between two teams of players. The number of players per team could vary, from two to four. Some games were played on makeshift courts for simple recreation while others were formal spectacles on huge stone ballcourts leading to human sacrifice.

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Santley, Robert M.; Berman, Michael J.; Alexander, Rami T. (1991). "The Politicization of the Mesoamerican Ballgame and Its Implications for the Interpretation of the Distribution of Ballcourts in Central Mexico". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).

520:, sometimes augmented with leather hip guards. Loincloths are found on the earliest ballplayer figurines from Tlatilco, Tlapacoya, and the Olmec culture, are seen in the Weiditz drawing from 1528 (below), and, with hip guards, are the sole outfit of modern-day 1915:, p. 41, who finds that the juxtaposition at El Manatí of the deposited balls and serpentine staffs (which may have been used to strike the balls) shows that there was already a "well-developed ideological relationship between the game, power, and serpents." 1314: 1101:

War. This is the most obvious symbolic aspect of the game (see also above, "Proxy for warfare"). Among the Mayas, the ball can represent the vanquished enemy, both in the late-Postclassic K'iche' kingdom (Popol Vuh), and in Classic kingdoms such as that of

1182:. The lords of the underworld became annoyed with the noise from the ball playing and so the primary lords of Xibalba, One Death and Seven Death, sent owls to lure the brothers to the ballcourt of Xibalba, situated on the western edge of the underworld. 1664:

is not accepted by all researchers and even the proponents admit that the proposed Hohokam Ballcourts are significantly different from Mesoamerican ones: they are oblong, with a concave (not flat) surface. See Wilcox's article and photo at end of this

1298: 533:, most likely of wicker or wood covered in fabric or leather. Made of perishable materials, none of these girdles have survived, although many stone "yokes" have been uncovered. Misnamed by earlier archaeologists due to its resemblance to an 779:

Ballcourts were public spaces used for a variety of elite cultural events and ritual activities like musical performances and festivals, and, of course, the ballgame. Pictorial depictions often show musicians playing at ballgames, and

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It has been hypothesized that, for reasons as yet unknown, the stick-game eclipsed the hip-ball game at Teotihuacan and at Teotihuacan-influenced cities, and only after the fall of Teotihuacan did the hip-ball game reassert itself.

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By 300 BC, evidence for the game appears throughout much of the Mesoamerican archaeological record, including ballcourts in the Central Chiapas Valley (the next oldest ballcourts discovered, after Paso de la Amada), and in the

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Across Mesoamerica, ballcourts were built and used for many generations. Although ballcourts are found within most sizable Mesoamerican ruins, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example, the

355:. Although no ballcourts of similar age have been found in Tlatilco or Tlapacoya, it is possible that the ballgame was indeed played in these areas, but on courts with perishable boundaries or temporary court markers. 1185:

Despite the danger the brothers fall asleep and are captured and sacrificed by the lords of Xibalba and then buried in the ballcourt. Hun Hunahpu is decapitated and his head hung in a fruit tree, which bears the first

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Two palmas from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. These palmas were chest protectors worn in the Mesoamerican ballgame and come from Veracruz, Mexico, ca. 700–1000 CE/AD. They are approximately 1½ feet (50 cm)

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school—and those who were most proficient might become so famous that they could play professionally. Games would frequently be staged in the different city wards and markets—often accompanied by large-scale betting.

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As might be expected with a game played over such a long period of time by many cultures, details varied over time and place, so the Mesoamerican ballgame might be more accurately seen as a family of related games.

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Taladoire, Eric; Colsenet, Benoit (1991). "'Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanior':The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).

1415:. But apart from holding important ritual and mythical meaning, the ballgame for the Aztecs was a sport and a pastime played for fun, although in general, the Aztec game was a prerogative of the nobles. 1042:

and the Maya cultures, where the most explicit depictions of human sacrifice can be seen on the ballcourt panels—for example at El Tajín (850–1100 CE) and at Chichen Itza (900–1200 CE)—as well as on the

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rarely, vertical) surfaces. The walls were often plastered and brightly painted. In early ballcourts the alleys were open-ended; later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, giving the structure an

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In the most common theory of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, although some versions allowed the use of forearms, rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid

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It is not known precisely when or where the Mesoamerican ballgame originated, although it is likely that it originated earlier than 2000 BC in the low-lying tropical zones home to the

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and batons, handstones, and the forearm, perhaps at times in combination. Each of the various types of games had its own size of ball, specialized gear and playing field, and rules.

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Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991). "Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).

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Taladoire, Eric (March 4, 2004). "Could We Speak of the Super Bowl at Flushing Meadows?: La Pelota Mixteca, a Third Pre-Hispanic Ballgame, and its Possible Architectural Context".

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aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events. Late in the history of the game, some cultures occasionally seem to have combined competitions with religious

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gives a figure of 16,000 lumps of raw rubber being imported to Tenochtitlan from the southern provinces every six months, although not all of it was used for making balls.

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The primary evidence for female ballplayers is in the many apparently female figurines of the Formative period, wearing a ballplayer loincloth and perhaps other gear. In

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period, the Maya began placing vertical stone rings on each side of the court, the object being to pass the ball through one, an innovation that continued into the later

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Ballcourts, monuments with ballgame imagery and ballgame paraphernalia have been excavated at sites along the Pacific coast of Guatemala and El Salvador including the

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stated that the games were played by a two-man team vs. a two-man team, three-man team vs. a three-man team, and even a two-man team vs. a three-man team (quoted by

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where they were drawn by the German Christoph Weiditz. Besides the fascination with their exotic visitors, the Europeans were amazed by the bouncing rubber balls.

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From the tropical lowlands, the game apparently moved into central Mexico. Starting around 1000 BC or earlier, ballplayer figurines were interred with burials at

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was not found in the highlands of the Aztec Empire, the Aztecs generally received balls and rubber as tribute from the lowland areas where it was grown. The

5199: 1867:, the name bestowed by 20th-century archaeologists on the influential Gulf Coast civilization which had dominated that region three thousand years earlier. 4828: 1553:, season 9's first episode, Bender wins the game in his Mexican ancestors' hometown and also wins the honor of sacrifice upon the altar of the Ancients. 1230:

that marked a portal into another world. The Twins themselves, however, are usually absent from Classic ballgame scenes, with the Classic forerunner of

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is also often seen, worn just below the knee or around the ankle—it is not known what function this served. Gloves appear on the purported ballplayer

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included in this total, since these are outside Mesoamerica and there is significant discussion whether these areas were used for ballplaying or not.

4793: 3883: 3772: 2729: 1746: 933: 624: 5276: 4588: 2094: 2735: 1435:, an early Spanish chronicler, said that "these wretches... sold their children in order to bet and even staked themselves and became slaves". 4663: 4598: 4578: 4089: 2903:. Bradley finds that a raised circular dot, or a U-shaped symbol with a dot in the middle, or raised U- or V-shaped areas each represent maize. 4803: 4070: 4031: 3970: 3920: 3864: 3838: 3754: 3719: 3696: 3669: 3637: 3606: 3567: 3543: 3509: 3457: 3411: 3368: 3334: 3270: 3154: 2789: 2670: 2542: 2417: 2371: 2271: 2149: 2118: 2005: 1729: 432:

Even without human sacrifice, the game could be brutal and there were often serious injuries inflicted by the solid, heavy ball. Today's hip-

139:. These ballcourts vary considerably in size, but all have long narrow alleys with slanted side-walls against which the balls could bounce. 4166: 912:

The Mesoamerican ballgame was a ritual deeply ingrained in Mesoamerican cultures and served purposes beyond that of a mere sporting event.

2491:, pp. 205–208. It is thought that neither the Great Ballcourt nor Tikal's Ceremonial Court were used for ballgames (Scarborough, p. 137). 336:

as far back as 1250–1150 BC. A rudimentary ballcourt, dated to a later occupation at San Lorenzo, 600–400 BC, has also been identified.

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Folio 45. Note that the four players are all holding batons, perhaps indicating that they are playing a type of racquet- or stick-ball.

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Hosler, Dorothy; Sandra Burkett; Michael Tarkanian (June 18, 1999). "Prehistoric Polymers: Rubber Processing in Ancient Mesoamerica".

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defeating them. However, the twins are unsuccessful in reviving their father, so they leave him buried in the ball court of Xibalba.

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Quirarte, Jacinto (1977). "The Ballcourt in Mesoamerica: Its Architectural Development". In Alan Cordy-Collins; Jean Stern (eds.).

1174:) as a symbol for warfare intimately connected to the themes of fertility and death. The story begins with the Hero Twins' father, 1073: 4678: 2487:

p. 100. Taladoire gives these measures for the "playing field", while other authors include the benches and other trappings. See

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The association between human sacrifice and the ballgame appears rather late in the archaeological record, no earlier than the

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Finca Acapulco, San Mateo, and El Vergel, along the Grijalva, have ballcourts dated between 900 and 550 BC (Agrinier, p. 175).

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Detail of a Tepantitla mural showing a hip-ball game on an open-ended ballcourt, represented by the parallel horizontal lines.

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from the Classic Veracruz site of Aparicio (700–900 CE). The Postclassic Maya religious and quasi-historical narrative, the

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open. He also reported that players were even killed when the ball "hit them in the mouth or the stomach or the intestines".

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Shelton, Anthony A. (2003). "The Aztec Theatre State and the Dramatization of War". In Tim Cornell; Thomas B. Allen (eds.).

1782:, pp. 109–110. There is wide agreement on game originating in the tropical lowlands, likely the Gulf Coast or Pacific Coast. 1098:

is thought to have represented the sun. The stone scoring rings are speculated to signify sunrise and sunset, or equinoxes.

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and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including

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Mesoamerican ballgame, and researchers believe that this version was the primary—or perhaps only—version played within the

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The southeast panel of the South Ballcourt at El Tajín shows the protagonist ballplayer being dressed in a warrior's garb.

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and weighed as much as 4 kg (9 lbs), and sizes differed greatly over time or according to the version played.

1623: 5189: 4958: 4543: 4528: 4402: 4058: 4009: 3476: 3445: 3326: 2761: 2658: 964: 796:. A pre-Columbian ceramic from western Mexico shows what appears to be a wrestling match taking place on a ballcourt. 1936:

Ortíz, "Las ofrendas de El Manatí y su posible asociación con el juego de pelota: un yugo a destiempo", pp. 55–67 in

463:, the ball is hit back and forth using only the hips until one team fails to return it or the ball leaves the court. 329: 3884:"El Corazón del Juego: El Juego de Pelota Mesoamericano como Texto Cultural en la Narrativa y el Cine Contemporáneo" 1747:"El Corazón del Juego: El Juego de Pelota Mesoamericano como Texto Cultural en la Narrativa y el Cine Contemporáneo" 81:. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modernized version of the game, 4798: 4553: 2959:

These excerpts from the Popol Vuh can be found in Christenson's recent translation or in any work on the Popol Vuh.

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compound at Teotihuacan show a number of small scenes that seem to portray various types of ball games, including:

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p. 109, who states that Matacapan and Tikal did indeed build ballcourts but only after the fall of Teotihuacan.

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Life, Death and Duality: A Handbook of the Rev. Edmund P. Joyce, C.S.C. Collection of Ritual Ballgame Sculpture

1039: 702: 394:. Ample archaeological evidence exists for games where the ball was struck by a wooden stick (e.g., a mural at 248: 2172: 662: 449:

The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame, regardless of the version, are not known in any detail. In modern-day

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only external mediation, but also the resolution of competition and conflict within the society as well.

102:, where the aim is to keep the ball in play. The stone ballcourt goals are a late addition to the game. 4991: 4938: 4833: 4500: 4465: 4455: 4396: 1529: 1379:("in the holy ballcourt")—here several important rituals would take place on the festivals of the month 616: 443: 240: 160: 4733: 1860: 820:

The yoke and kneepads identify this molded ceramic Maya figurine as a ballplayer. Like many of these

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One of a series of murals from the South Ballcourt at El Tajín, showing the sacrifice of a ballplayer

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Other scholars support these arguments by pointing to the warfare imagery often found at ballcourts:

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are seen with a right kneepad—no left—and a wrapped right forearm, as shown in the Maya image above.

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tree. Someone discovered that by mixing latex with sap from the vine of a species of morning glory (

5256: 5119: 4415: 4342: 4317: 4282: 4262: 4142: 2529:(1991). "Ballcourts of the Northern Maya Lowlands". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). 2399: 1966: 1534: 314: 3691:(in Spanish). México D.F.: SigloXXI Editores and Casa de Cultura, Gobierno del Estado de Sinaloa. 3182:(in Spanish). San Salvador, El Salvador: Ministerio de Cultura y Comunicaciones. pp. 225–228. 1458: 1017:, "until quite recently was connected with warfare and many reminders of that association remain". 579: 5204: 5016: 4748: 4743: 4603: 4450: 4386: 4367: 4302: 4297: 4229: 3625: 3437: 3429: 3395: 3314: 3258: 3228: 3212: 3195: 3147:

An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador

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Aztec ullamaliztli players performing for Charles V in Spain, drawn by Christoph Weiditz in 1528.

937: 921: 549: 407: 333: 278:, archaeologists have found the oldest ballcourt yet discovered, dated to approximately 1400 BC. 4322: 4062: 4050: 4023: 3501: 3493:

Social Patterns in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 9 and 10 October 1993

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Little is known about the game's symbolic contents. Several themes recur in scholarly writing.

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The Mesoamerican ballgame is known by a wide variety of names. In English, it is often called

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Cohodas, Marvin (1991). "Ballgame imagery of the Maya Lowlands: History and Iconography". In

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Kneepads are seen on a variety of players from many areas and eras and are worn by forearm-

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Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Maya: The Great Classic of Central American Spirituality

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production. The earliest-known rubber balls in the world come from the sacrificial bog at

282: 117: 88: 62: 4148: 3749:. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. 1821: 1210: 5149: 5134: 5124: 5026: 4763: 4593: 4548: 4445: 4357: 4312: 3708: 3658: 3556: 3483: 3357: 3319: 2619:, p. 174: "We suggest that the ballgame was used as a substitute and a symbol for war." 2531: 2395: 2168: 1432: 1261:

Despite the lack of a ballcourt, ball games were not unknown there. The murals of the

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placed on each wall along the center line. According to 16th-century Aztec chronicler

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The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame are not known, but judging from its descendant,

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Alegría, Ricardo E. (1951). "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles".

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Blom, Frans (1932). "The Maya Ball-Game 'Pok-ta-pok', called Tlachtli by the Aztecs".

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A captive-within-the-ball motif is seen on the Hieroglyphic Stairs at Structure 33 in

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Orr, Heather (2005). "Ballgames: The Mesoamerican Ballgame". In Lindsay Jones (ed.).

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A solid rubber ball used or similar to those used in the Mesoamerican ballgame, from

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The Lords of Life: The Iconography of Power and Fertility in Preclassic Mesoamerica

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A map showing sites where early ballcourts, balls, or figurines have been recovered

95: 83: 3945: 3798:. The Greenwood Press "Daily Life Through History". Westport CT: Greenwood Press. 2893:. Snite Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 1. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame. 1272:

Teams using sticks on an open field whose end zones are marked by stone monuments.

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and similarly styled figurines from the same period have been found at the nearby

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Metropolitan Museum of Art (2002). "Recent Acquisitions, A selection 2001–2002".

1599: 1134:

source, the Leyenda de los Soles, the Toltec king Huemac played ball against the

438:

players are "perpetually bruised" while nearly 500 years ago Spanish chronicler

5062: 4943: 4923: 4788: 4648: 4638: 4523: 4267: 1516: 1269:

A two-player game in an open-ended masonry ballcourt. (See third picture below.)

1247: 1175: 1158:, dated to 591. The ball displays the finely incised portrait of a young deity. 1105:

Fertility. Formative period ballplayer figurines—most likely females—often wear

916:, a 16th-century Spanish missionary and historian, tells that the Aztec emperor 769: 714: 709:, a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24. In contrast, northern 698: 656: 652: 584: 395: 375:

Some ballcourts had upper goals, scoring on which would end the match instantly.

99: 78: 3624:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the 3394:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the 3257:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the 2772:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the 2631:, p. 340: the ballgame was "a boundary maintenance mechanism between polities". 2354:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the 2258:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the 5099: 4996: 4868: 4783: 4698: 4608: 4158: 2228: 1497:

and sites right at the southeast periphery of the Mesoamerican region such as

1494: 1227: 1155: 925: 854: 793: 765: 641: 505: 456: 363:, as well as ceramic ballgame tableaus from Western Mexico (see photo below). 156: 4108: 4001: 3899: 3851:; Alexander Voss (2006). "A Game of Life and Death – The Maya Ball Game". In 3813: 3305: 2875:

The ball-as-sun analogy is common in ballgame literature; see, among others,

1965:(exhibition catalogue, February 2 – April 5, 1992 ed.). Notre Dame, IN: 1762: 4873: 4703: 4080: 4041: 3980: 3874: 3821: 3764: 3729: 3679: 3647: 3577: 3519: 3467: 3421: 3378: 3344: 3280: 3224: 3164: 3099: 2898: 2799: 2680: 2552: 2427: 2381: 2015: 1974: 1408: 1251: 1167: 1059: 1048: 1026: 997: 929: 917: 517: 348: 271: 132: 3953: 3523: 2324:

states that the ball used by present-day players is 8 pounds (3.6 kg).

1238:

ball court, holding the severed arm of Hunahpu, as an important exception.

1062:. There has been speculation that the heads and skulls were used as balls. 990: 944:

king, played against three rivals, with the winner ruling over the losers.

728:

Ancient cities with particularly fine ballcourts in good condition include

541:

which were inserted into the yoke and stood upright in front of the chest.

496: 4130: 5072: 5036: 4986: 4848: 4633: 3050: 1549: 1427: 1235: 1187: 737: 718: 352: 340: 128: 5079: 4563: 4440: 4362: 2348:"The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli" 1661: 1498: 1179: 1170:

establishes the importance of the game (referred to in Classic Maya as

1086: 789: 773: 745: 710: 671: 422: 388: 173: 136: 3216: 1612:. Cf. Chapter 4: "Sudden Death in the New World" about the Ulama game. 1304:

Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla, Teotihuacan murals. Note the

808:

A relief of the Crown showing a scene from the Mesoamerican Ball Game.

4425: 2866:, p. 243: "occasionally decapitated heads (sic) were placed in play" 2455:

p. 98. There are slightly over 200 ballcourts also identified in the

1676: 1392: 1275:

Separate renditions of single players. (See first two details below.)

1135: 1110: 1109:

icons. At El Tajín, the ballplayer sacrifice ensures the renewal of

941: 553: 530: 499: 471: 305:(i.e. "rubber people") since the region was strongly identified with 294: 113: 106: 3261:, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 3081:, p. 45 and others, although there is by no means a universal view; 977:

Captives are a prominent part of ballgame iconography. For example:

608:

northern desert. Most balls were made from latex sap of the lowland

155:). This term originates from a 1932 article by Danish archaeologist 4090:"Glyphs for "Handspan" and "Strike" in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts" 3915:. Facts on File Library of World History. New York: Facts On File. 3628:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 3208: 2262:, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 725:, although Mesoamerican ballgame iconography has been found there. 5169: 3363:. Ancient peoples and places series. London: Thames & Hudson. 3046: 1864: 1829: 1476: 1417: 1255: 1190: 1145: 1106: 1072: 1025: 1001: 953: 874: 850: 761: 753: 733: 729: 686: 661: 640: 578: 504: 502:, while Teotihuacan murals show men playing stick-ball in skirts. 475: 416: 313:, an early Olmec-associated site located in the hinterland of the 306: 70: 31: 2927:

Códice Chimalpopoca: Anales de Cuauhtitlan y Leyenda de los Soles

1121:

cosmic order of the universe and the ritual regeneration of life.

1085:

brings a rubber ball offering to a temple. The balls each hold a

383:

In general, the hip-ball version is most popularly thought of as

5129: 741: 534: 4162: 986:

Several ceramic figurines show war captives holding game balls.

442:

reported that some bruises were so severe that they had to be

36:

The ball in front of the goal during a game of pok-ta-pok, 2006

3538:. Palo Alto, California: Peek Publications. pp. 191–212. 3288:

Garza Camino, Mercedes de la; Ana Luisa Izquierdo (1980). "El

2827:, p. 249: "It would not be surprising if the game were rigged" 1178:, and uncle, Vucub Hunahpu, playing ball near the underworld, 73:

with ritual associations played since at least 1650 BC by the

3203:(4). Menasha, WI: Society for American Archaeology: 348–352. 2252:"Dressed to Kill: Stone Regalia of the Mesoamerican Ballgame" 1334:

An I-shaped ballcourt with players and balls depicted in the

960:

and few external rivals, had relatively few ballcourts while

529:

In many cultures, further protection was provided by a thick

347:

site. It was about this period, as well, that the so-called

135:, and possibly as far north as what is now the U.S. state of 1051:, also links human sacrifice with the ballgame (see below). 824:

style figurines, it also functions as a whistle. 600–900 CE.

428:

player. The outfit is similar to that worn by Aztec players.

3618:"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame" 3149:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 221, 226. 2766:"The Maya Ballgame: Rebirth in the Court of Life and Death" 2647:"Pre-Hispanic Ballcourts from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico" 1515:

Batey, a ball game played on many Caribbean islands in the

127:

have been found throughout Mesoamerica, as for example at

3689:

El juego de pelota en Mesoamérica: raíces y supervivencia

1720:

Graña Behrens, Daniel (2001). "El Juego de Pelota Maya".

2994: 2992: 2641:

Kowalewski, Stephen A.; Gary M. Feinman; Laura Finsten;

928:, wagering his annual income against several Xochimilco 270:

One candidate for the birthplace of the ballgame is the

3475:

Ortíz C., Ponciano; María del Carmen Rodríguez (1999).

1624:"Indigenous groups keep ancient sports alive in Mexico" 189: 177: 3622: