Microprocessor - Knowledge (XXG)

2237:, which allowed two CPUs to reside on the same memory bus with built in arbitration. The NS32016/32 outperformed the MC68000/10, but the NS32332—which arrived at approximately the same time as the MC68020—did not have enough performance. The third generation chip, the NS32532, was different. It had about double the performance of the MC68030, which was released around the same time. The appearance of RISC processors like the AM29000 and MC88000 (now both dead) influenced the architecture of the final core, the NS32764. Technically advanced—with a superscalar RISC core, 64-bit bus, and internally overclocked—it could still execute Series 32000 instructions through real-time translation. 1460:, to make a single-chip implementation, known as the CTC 1201. In late 1970 or early 1971, TI dropped out being unable to make a reliable part. In 1970, with Intel yet to deliver the part, CTC opted to use their own implementation in the Datapoint 2200, using traditional TTL logic instead (thus the first machine to run "8008 code" was not in fact a microprocessor at all and was delivered a year earlier). Intel's version of the 1201 microprocessor arrived in late 1971, but was too late, slow, and required a number of additional support chips. CTC had no interest in using it. CTC had originally contracted Intel for the chip, and would have owed them 2047:

combination of an x86 CPU and an x87 coprocessor forms a single multi-chip microprocessor; the two chips are programmed as a unit using a single integrated instruction set. The 8087 and 80187 coprocessors are connected in parallel with the data and address buses of their parent processor and directly execute instructions intended for them. The 80287 and 80387 coprocessors are interfaced to the CPU through I/O ports in the CPU's address space, this is transparent to the program, which does not need to know about or access these I/O ports directly; the program accesses the coprocessor and its registers through normal instruction opcodes.

65: 2522: 2514: 54: 1332: 84: 1215: 862: 44: 33: 474: 1271:, the Intel engineer assigned to evaluate the project, believed the Busicom design could be simplified by using dynamic RAM storage for data, rather than shift register memory, and a more traditional general-purpose CPU architecture. Hoff came up with a four-chip architectural proposal: a ROM chip for storing the programs, a dynamic RAM chip for storing data, a simple 2056: 263: 1941:, while most 8-bit microprocessors such as the Intel 8080 used the more common, smaller, and less expensive plastic 40-pin DIP. A follow-on chip, the TMS 9980, was designed to compete with the Intel 8080, had the full TI 990 16-bit instruction set, used a plastic 40-pin package, moved data 8 bits at a time, but could only address 16 2078:, introduced in 1979. The 68k, as it was widely known, had 32-bit registers in its programming model but used 16-bit internal data paths, three 16-bit Arithmetic Logic Units, and a 16-bit external data bus (to reduce pin count), and externally supported only 24-bit addresses (internally it worked with full 32 bit addresses). In 2011:, cementing their PC market dominance with the processor family's backwards compatibility. The 80186 and 80188 were essentially versions of the 8086 and 8088, enhanced with some onboard peripherals and a few new instructions. Although Intel's 80186 and 80188 were not used in IBM PC type designs, second source versions from NEC, the 1464: (equivalent to $ 376,171 in 2023) for their design work. To avoid paying for a chip they did not want (and could not use), CTC released Intel from their contract and allowed them free use of the design. Intel marketed it as the 8008 in April, 1972, as the world's first 8-bit microprocessor. It was the basis for the famous " 1234: (equivalent to $ 450 in 2023). The claim of being the first is definitely false, as the earlier TMS1802NC was also a true microprocessor built on a single chip and the same applies for the - prototype only - 8-bit TMX 1795. The first known advertisement for the 4004 is dated November 15, 1971, and appeared in 2566:

CPU, it was a processor that was developed over five years of research, began in 1996 using a team of 250 researchers. The effort to accomplish the impossible was buttressed by development of and through—remote-collaboration and assigning younger engineers to work with more experienced engineers. The

2387:

had been intended since the architecture's design in the early 90s and was not a major cause of incompatibility. Existing integer registers are extended as are all related data pathways, but, as was the case with IA-32, both floating-point and vector units had been operating at or above 64 bits

1663:

use minimum electric power for long uneventful stretches of a voyage. Timers or sensors would awaken the processor in time for important tasks, such as navigation updates, attitude control, data acquisition, and radio communication. Current versions of the Western Design Center 65C02 and 65C816 also

1120:

terminal, the TMX 1795 (later TMC 1795.) Like the 8008, it was rejected by customer Datapoint. According to Gary Boone, the TMX 1795 never reached production. Still it reached a working prototype state at 1971 February 24, therefore it is the world's first 8-bit microprocessor. Since it was built to

1093:

was quoted as saying that historians may ultimately place Hyatt as a co-inventor of the microprocessor, in the way that Intel's Noyce and TI's Kilby share credit for the invention of the chip in 1958: "Kilby got the idea first, but Noyce made it practical. The legal ruling finally favored Noyce, but

1017:

in 1968, and began his computer design career with the CADC. From its inception, it was shrouded in secrecy until 1998 when at Holt's request, the US Navy allowed the documents into the public domain. Holt has claimed that no one has compared this microprocessor with those that came later. According

517:

such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both. Some people say that running 32-bit arithmetic on an 8-bit chip could end up using more power, as the chip must execute software with multiple instructions. However, others say that modern 8-bit chips are always more power-efficient than

1133:

series; it was later redesignated as part of the TMS 0100 series, which was used in the TI Datamath calculator. Although marketed as a calculator-on-a-chip, the TMS1802NC was fully programmable, including on the chip a CPU with an 11-bit instruction word, 3520 bits (320 instructions) of ROM and 182

2627:

processors became widely used in PCs and laptops, newer processors - similar to the higher cost professional level Intel Xeon's - with additional cores that execute instructions in parallel so software performance typically increases, provided the software is designed to utilize advanced hardware.

2661:

In 2002, less than 10% of all the CPUs sold in the world were 32-bit or more. Of all the 32-bit CPUs sold, about 2% are used in desktop or laptop personal computers. Most microprocessors are used in embedded control applications such as household appliances, automobiles, and computer peripherals.

1022:

The scientific papers and literature published around 1971 reveal that the MP944 digital processor used for the F-14 Tomcat aircraft of the US Navy qualifies as the first microprocessor. Although interesting, it was not a single-chip processor, as was not the Intel 4004 – they both

2631:

Apple, Intel, and AMD currently lead the market with multiple core desktop and workstation CPU's. Although they frequently leapfrog each other for the lead in the performance tier. Intel retains higher frequencies and thus has the fastest single core performance, while AMD is often the leader in

550:

broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful, low-cost, microprocessors. Increasingly stringent pollution control standards effectively require automobile manufacturers to use microprocessor engine management systems to allow optimal control of emissions over the widely

2320:

built later versions of the architecture based on their own designs. During this span, these processors increased in complexity (transistor count) and capability (instructions/second) by at least three orders of magnitude. Intel's Pentium line is probably the most famous and recognizable 32-bit

2046:

math coprocessors to add hardware floating-point and transcendental function capabilities to the 8086 through 80386 CPUs. The 8087 works with the 8086/8088 and 80186/80188, the 80187 works with the 80186 but not the 80188, the 80287 works with the 80286 and the 80387 works with the 80386. The

1317:

at the time of the MCS-4 development but Vadász's attention was completely focused on the mainstream business of semiconductor memories so he left the leadership and the management of the MCS-4 project to Faggin, who was ultimately responsible for leading the 4004 project to its realization.

1039:

and had larger chips – an excellent computer engineering design by any standards. Its design indicates a major advance over Intel, and two year earlier. It actually worked and was flying in the F-14 when the Intel 4004 was announced. It indicates that today's industry theme of

561:

Microprocessor control of a system can provide control strategies that would be impractical to implement using electromechanical controls or purpose-built electronic controls. For example, an internal combustion engine's control system can adjust ignition timing based on engine speed, load,

1308:

and designed the world's first commercial integrated circuit using SGT, the Fairchild 3708, had the correct background to lead the project into what would become the first commercial general purpose microprocessor. Since SGT was his very own invention, Faggin also used it to create his new

2245:

market and was killed. The design team went to Intel and there designed the Pentium processor, which is very similar to the NS32764 core internally. The big success of the Series 32000 was in the laser printer market, where the NS32CG16 with microcoded BitBlt instructions had very good

1192:

Calculators were becoming the largest single market for semiconductors so Pico and GI went on to have significant success in this burgeoning market. GI continued to innovate in microprocessors and microcontrollers with products including the CP1600, IOB1680 and PIC1650. In 1987, the GI

1094:

they are considered co-inventors. The same could happen here." Hyatt would go on to fight a decades-long legal battle with the state of California over alleged unpaid taxes on his patent's windfall after 1990, which would culminate in a landmark Supreme Court case addressing states'

2156:

architecture, but poor performance compared to contemporary architectures such as Intel's own 80286 (introduced 1982), which was almost four times as fast on typical benchmark tests. However, the results for the iAPX432 was partly due to a rushed and therefore suboptimal

2553:

was the first commercial CPU offered to system builders and enthusiasts. The Abit BP9 supports two Intel Celeron CPU's and when used with a SMP enabled operating system (Windows NT/2000/Linux) many applications obtain much higher performance than a single CPU. The early

1143: 2388:

for several years. Unlike what happened when IA-32 was extended to x86-64, no new general purpose registers were added in 64-bit PowerPC, so any performance gained when using the 64-bit mode for applications making no use of the larger address space is minimal.

1299:

as project leader, a move that ultimately made the single-chip CPU final design a reality (Shima meanwhile designed the Busicom calculator firmware and assisted Faggin during the first six months of the implementation). Faggin, who originally developed the

2379:

that run 64-bit natively, the software is also geared to fully utilize the capabilities of such processors. The move to 64 bits is more than just an increase in register size from the IA-32 as it also doubles the number of general-purpose registers.

1084:

article that his invention would have been created had his prospective investors backed him, and that the venture investors leaked details of his chip to the industry, though he did not elaborate with evidence to support this claim. In the same article,

2628:

Operating systems provided support for multiple-cores and SMD CPU's, many software applications including large workload and resource intensive applications - such as 3-D games - are programmed to take advantage of multiple core and multi-CPU systems.

2558:

are easily overclockable and hobbyists used these relatively inexpensive CPU's clocked as high as 533Mhz - far beyond Intel's specification. After discovering the capacity of these motherboards Intel removed access to the multiplier in later CPU's.

3796: 2678:, those count for only about 2% of all CPUs sold. The quality-adjusted price of laptop microprocessors improved −25% to −35% per year in 2004–2010, and the rate of improvement slowed to −15% to −25% per year in 2010–2013. 988:-based chipset as the core CPU. The design was significantly (approximately 20 times) smaller and much more reliable than the mechanical systems it competed against and was used in all of the early Tomcat models. This system contained "a 20-bit, 4524:"Essentially, the 80C187 can be treated as an additional resource or an extension to the CPU. The 80C186 CPU together with an 80C187 can be used as a single unified system." Intel 80C187 datasheet, p. 3, November 1992 (Order Number: 270640-004). 2127:), and had two follow-on generations, the WE 32100 and WE 32200. These microprocessors were used in the AT&T 3B5 and 3B15 minicomputers; in the 3B2, the world's first desktop super microcomputer; in the "Companion", the world's first 32-bit 1267:. Busicom's original design called for a programmable chip set consisting of seven different chips. Three of the chips were to make a special-purpose CPU with its program stored in ROM and its data stored in shift register read-write memory. 2855:

A microprocessor itself is incapable of performing calculations and requires a support system in order to do so. The CPU support system includes a storage system in which not only the operating instructions but also the data (operands) are

4411: 1280: 788:; this originally suggested that the number of components that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every year. With present technology, it is actually every two years, and as a result Moore later changed the period to two years. 1275:

device, and a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU). Although not a chip designer, he felt the CPU could be integrated into a single chip, but as he lacked the technical know-how the idea remained just a wish for the time being.

298:

that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can

558:) can be tailored to fit the needs of a product line, allowing upgrades in performance with minimal redesign of the product. Unique features can be implemented in product line's various models at negligible production cost. 2284:

processor space due in large part to its power efficiency, its licensing model, and its wide selection of system development tools. Semiconductor manufacturers generally license cores and integrate them into their own

2567:

teams work achieved success with the new microprocessor, Power4. It is a two-in-one CPU that more than doubled performance at half the price of the competition, and a major advance in computing. The business magazine

1076:' filings for the TMX 1795 and TMS 0100, Hyatt's invention was never manufactured. This nonetheless led to claims that Hyatt was the inventor of the microprocessor and the payment of substantial royalties through a 333:

As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed

2673:

In 2003, about $ 44 billion (equivalent to about $ 73 billion in 2023) worth of microprocessors were manufactured and sold. Although about half of that money was spent on CPUs used in desktop or laptop

2240:

When National Semiconductor decided to leave the Unix market, the chip was redesigned into the Swordfish Embedded processor with a set of on-chip peripherals. The chip turned out to be too expensive for the

2818:

microprocessor is not a stand-alone computer, since it lacks memory and input/output control. These are the missing parts that the microcontroller supplies, making it more nearly a complete computer on a

3397: 2082:

the MC68000 internal microcode was modified to emulate the 32-bit System/370 IBM mainframe. Motorola generally described it as a 16-bit processor. The combination of high performance, large (16

1177:

Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single-chip calculator ICs. They had significant previous design experience on multiple calculator chipsets with both GI and

1080:

subsidiary, until Texas Instruments prevailed in a complex legal battle in 1996, when the U.S. Patent Office overturned key parts of the patent, while allowing Hyatt to keep it. Hyatt said in a 1990

3066:. 2016. quote: "Basically, by getting your work done faster, you can put the CPU in sleep mode for longer periods of time. Thus, 32-bit MCUs are more power-efficient than 8-bit MCUs, right? Wrong." 3059: 2312:, and server markets, and these microprocessors became faster and more capable. Intel had licensed early versions of the architecture to other companies, but declined to license the Pentium, so 3825:"Chip Designer's 20-Year Quest : Computers: Gilbert Hyatt's solitary battle to patent the microprocessor appears to have paid off, if it can withstand legal challenges. Here's his story" 493:. 4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems. Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible 735:, which had earlier proposed a multi-chip design in 1969, before Faggin's team at Intel changed it into a new single-chip design. Intel introduced the first commercial microprocessor, the 3365: 3390: 3180: 4766: 1485:(1976) was also a Faggin design, using low voltage N channel with depletion load and derivative Intel 8-bit processors: all designed with the methodology Faggin created for the 4004. 3308: 3245: 373:

processed subsets of each word. While this required extra logic to handle, for example, carry and overflow within each slice, the result was a system that could handle, for example,

6149: 350:

words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs.

2131:

computer; and in "Alexander", the world's first book-sized super microcomputer, featuring ROM-pack memory cartridges similar to today's gaming consoles. All these systems ran the

3350: 551:

varying operating conditions of an automobile. Non-programmable controls would require bulky, or costly implementation to achieve the results possible with a microprocessor.

2620:

was released in June 2007. The companies were engaged in a never-ending race for speed, indeed more demanding software mandated more processing power and faster CPU speeds.

848:, Boysel constructed a demonstration system where a single AL1 formed part of a courtroom demonstration computer system, together with RAM, ROM, and an input-output device. 326:, or others). The control logic retrieves instruction codes from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction. A single 1440:

microprocessor. The 8008 was not, however, an extension of the 4004 design, but instead the culmination of a separate design project at Intel, arising from a contract with

4869: 1481:(1974), which offered improved performance over the 8008 and required fewer support chips. Federico Faggin conceived and designed it using high voltage N channel MOS. The 4703: 3949: 3865: 3160: 2538:

is a configuration of two, four, or more CPU's (in pairs) that are typically used in servers, certain workstations and in desktop personal computers, since the 1990s. A

2355:), the 64-bit desktop era began. Both versions can run 32-bit legacy applications without any performance penalty as well as new 64-bit software. With operating systems 1100: 464:(SoCs) often integrate one or more microprocessor and microcontroller cores with other components such as radio modems, and are used in smartphones and tablet computers. 4271: 3914:"Microprocessor Patent Holder Signs Contract : Invention: La Palma inventor signs with Dutch electronics giant, the first company to accord validity to his patent" 5121: 3278: 1014: 6260: 5443: 4485: 5962: 1849: 1313:

design that made it possible to implement a single-chip CPU with the proper speed, power dissipation and cost. The manager of Intel's MOS Design Department was

4903: 844:

in 1969. At the time, it formed part of a nine-chip, 24-bit CPU with three AL1s. It was later called a microprocessor when, in response to 1990s litigation by

3725: 2214:

Other large companies designed the 68020 and follow-ons into embedded equipment. At one point, there were more 68020s in embedded equipment than there were

1146:

The PICO1/GI250 chip introduced in 1971: It was designed by Pico Electronics (Glenrothes, Scotland) and manufactured by General Instrument of Hicksville NY.

6119: 5685: 5502: 3551: 2691: 204:

ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the

114:(IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's 3640: 2293:

include an ARM processor, as do a wide variety of other products. There are microcontroller-oriented ARM cores without virtual memory support, as well as

485:

Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity. Longer word sizes allow each

2772: 1129:

The TMS1802NC was announced September 17, 1971, and implemented a four-function calculator. The TMS1802NC, despite its designation, was not part of the

118:(CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations. The microprocessor is a multipurpose, 4191: 3056: 3031: 5465: 3514: 177:

improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same according to

2229:

introduced a very similar 16-bit pinout, 32-bit internal microprocessor called the NS 16032 (later renamed 32016), the full 32-bit version named the

6114: 2250:

introduced the first SMP server-class computer using the NS 32032. This was one of the design's few wins, and it disappeared in the late 1980s. The

4789: 3923: 3834: 7077: 6186: 1448:—fundamental aspects of the design came not from Intel but from CTC. In 1968, CTC's Vic Poor and Harry Pyle developed the original design for the 3484: 1987:

introduced the 8086 as a cost-effective way of porting software from the 8080 lines, and succeeded in winning much business on that premise. The

4586: 4419: 5939: 3211: 2460: 3332: 1699:. By virtue of its CMOS technology and associated benefits, the 6100 was being incorporated into some military designs until the early 1980s. 4939: 4389: 3719: 3456: 2848: 2811: 1007:

chipset, are well known. Ray Holt's autobiographical story of this design and development is presented in the book: The Accidental Engineer.

4758: 1064:

In 1990, American engineer Gilbert Hyatt was awarded U.S. Patent No. 4,942,516, which was based on a 16-bit serial computer he built at his

489:

of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating

6883: 6007: 5270: 5114: 4964: 3300: 3233: 2505:, but as ARM has become increasingly powerful, in the early 2010s, it became the third RISC architecture in the general computing segment. 4648: 384:

has the advantage of faster access than off-chip memory and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications. Processor

4147: 4010: 3777: 380:

The ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip makes it feasible to integrate memory on the same die as the processor. This

6893: 6034: 4735: 4094: 3891: 2356: 1965: 1158:

Royal Digital III calculator. This chip could also arguably lay claim to be one of the first microprocessors or microcontrollers having

2976: 5161: 2952: 2893: 2079: 162: 161:(VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated 6201: 6029: 6002: 5381: 4173: 3771: 3117: 1842: 1415: 945: 5352: 883: 876: 7016: 6579: 5472: 5438: 5433: 5317: 4352: 3801: 3508:"Technological Innovation in the Semiconductor Industry: A Case Study of the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors" 2400: 1590: 1497:

was released in 1975 (both designed largely by the same people). The 6502 family rivaled the Z80 in popularity during the 1980s.

300: 166: 4865: 1899:

MicroFlame 9440, both introduced in 1975–76. In late 1974, National introduced the first 16-bit single-chip microprocessor, the

362:, first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating-point calculations. 197: 6991: 6888: 6289: 6196: 5997: 5240: 5218: 5107: 4699: 3945: 2351:), in September 2003, followed by Intel's near fully compatible 64-bit extensions (first called IA-32e or EM64T, later renamed 2294: 2199:

was introduced next, improving upon the previous design by integrating the MMU into the chip. The continued success led to the

2109:

The world's first single-chip fully 32-bit microprocessor, with 32-bit data paths, 32-bit buses, and 32-bit addresses, was the

1349: 1036: 510: 4267: 4213: 3857: 314:

section. The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more

5736: 5171: 4322: 4004: 1396: 1353: 926: 4454: 3001: 215:

Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see

64: 3462: 3270: 2459:

introduced the world's first commercially available 64-bit RISC microprocessor. Competing projects would result in the IBM

1368: 898: 6191: 6039: 5873: 5487: 5448: 5305: 4064: 1881: 689:, released as a single MOS LSI chip in 1971. The single-chip microprocessor was made possible with the development of MOS 685:

While there is disagreement over who invented the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the

531: 216: 4560: 3669: 7067: 7062: 7057: 6628: 6473: 6468: 6390: 5866: 5827: 5482: 5477: 5411: 5223: 5089: 3691: 1835: 1649: 1608: 1601: 1558:, automotive, industrial and consumer devices. WDC pioneered the licensing of microprocessor designs, later followed by 1318:

Production units of the 4004 were first delivered to Busicom in March 1971 and shipped to other customers in late 1971.

335: 158: 5347: 4477: 2207:

for better math performance. The 68050 failed to achieve its performance goals and was not released, and the follow-up

7082: 6255: 5952: 5650: 2585:

it broke notable records, including winning a contest against the best players on the Jeopardy! U.S. television show.

1900: 1375: 905: 652: 490: 426: 4895: 4882:… compared with -25% to -35% per year over 2004-2010, the annual decline plateaus around -15% to -25% over 2010-2013. 4285:

Faggin, Federico; Hoff, Marcian E. Jr.; Mazor, Stanley; Shima, Masatoshi (December 1996). "The History of the 4004".

1174:

process was hand drawn at x500 scale on mylar film, a significant task at the time given the complexity of the chip.

5051: 4538: 2211:

was released into a market saturated by much faster RISC designs. The 68k family faded from use in the early 1990s.

747:

in 1970 has also been cited as an early microprocessor, but was not known to the public until declassified in 1998.

620:. The ability to operate computer systems using Boolean Logic was first proven in a 1938 thesis by master's student 6905: 6552: 5969: 5460: 5428: 5198: 5186: 5166: 4819: 4617: 2497:

In the late 1990s, only two 64-bit RISC architectures were still produced in volume for non-embedded applications:

2158: 396: 127: 3706: 2261:(1989) were highly successful 32-bit RISC microprocessors. They were used in high-end workstations and servers by 1684:

microprocessor (the 6100) and a range of peripheral support and memory ICs. The microprocessor recognised the DEC

1342: 1023:

were more like a set of parallel building blocks you could use to make a general-purpose form. It contains a CPU,

872: 636:, UK, from the realisation that the central processor could be controlled by a specialised program in a dedicated 6996: 6959: 6949: 5337: 3601: 3574: 2721: 2534: 2153: 2150: 1926: 1915: 1813: 1574: 1053: 1000: 801: 571: 526:

Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors. These include household

351: 251: 37: 4108: 3540: 3301:"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum" 1512:"revolution" to accelerate sharply in the early 1980s. This delivered such inexpensive machines as the Sinclair 1382: 912: 7052: 7011: 6418: 6354: 6331: 6181: 6143: 5979: 5929: 5924: 5401: 5295: 5203: 3624: 2663: 2289:

products; only a few such vendors such as Apple are licensed to modify the ARM cores or create their own. Most

2247: 1937:

home computer, and the TM990 line of OEM microcomputer boards. The chip was packaged in a large ceramic 64-pin

1041: 422: 412: 407:

A microprocessor is a general purpose processing entity. Several specialized processing devices have followed:

247: 189: 173:. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As 5208: 3145: 2768: 999:". The Navy refused to allow publication of the design until 1997. Released in 1998, the documentation on the 562:

temperature, and any observed tendency for knocking—allowing the engine to operate on a range of fuel grades.

624:, who later went on to become a professor. Shannon is considered "The Father of Information Theory". In 1951 7072: 6964: 6747: 6641: 6605: 6522: 6506: 6348: 6137: 6096: 6084: 5947: 5861: 5782: 5547: 5151: 4842: 4187: 3241: 3018: 2973:"FYI: Today's computer chips are so advanced, they are more 'mercurial' than precise – and here's the proof" 2711: 2706: 2651: 2448: 2273: 2188: 2120: 1896: 1638: 1305: 712: 679: 663: 633: 201: 193: 135: 115: 88: 3974: 3507: 2743: 1364: 894: 6770: 6742: 6652: 6617: 6366: 6360: 6342: 6076: 6070: 5974: 5878: 5769: 5708: 5570: 5213: 2597: 2589: 2428: 2254: 2226: 2184: 2020: 1945:. A third chip, the TMS 9995, was a new design. The family later expanded to include the 99105 and 99110. 1867: 1779: 1065: 833: 821: 781:

describing the custom integrated circuit used in their System 21 small computer system announced in 1968.

682:(CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets. 644: 437: 369:

approach necessary. Instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiple circuits

3794:, Hyatt, Gilbert P, "Single chip integrated circuit computer architecture", issued 1990-07-17 6944: 6853: 6599: 6311: 6129: 5888: 5856: 5814: 5726: 5527: 5342: 5332: 5322: 5312: 5282: 5265: 5130: 4239: 3913: 3824: 3445:"When is a Microprocessor not a Microprocessor? The Industrial Construction of Semiconductor Innovation" 3416: 2696: 2424: 1949: 1641:

than that of any other processor of the era. Thus, the SOS version of the 1802 was said to be the first

1626: 1563: 1535: 678:

could be contained on several MOS LSI chips. Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the

506: 441: 307: 271: 107: 4535:"Implementation of IBM System 370 Via Co-Microprocessors/The Co-Processor Interface on priorart.ip.com" 3476: 2179:, introduced in 1984 added full 32-bit data and address buses. The 68020 became hugely popular in the 1295:, during 1969, Mazor and Hoff moved on to other projects. In April 1970, Intel hired Italian engineer 1154:(GI) introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a complete single-chip calculator IC for the Monroe/ 6974: 6910: 6496: 6218: 6108: 6055: 5587: 5300: 5156: 5138: 4793: 4594: 3685: 2701: 2681:

About 10 billion CPUs were manufactured in 2008. Most new CPUs produced each year are embedded.

2632:

multi-threaded routines due to a more advanced ISA and the process node the CPU's are fabricated on.

2539: 1938: 1657: 1617: 1194: 1163: 1024: 989: 514: 7021: 6623: 3203: 2521: 2340:

in 1996), the early 2000s saw the introduction of 64-bit microprocessors targeted at the PC market.

7006: 6826: 6677: 6659: 6611: 6265: 6212: 6017: 6012: 5989: 5905: 5787: 5642: 5537: 5396: 2513: 2204: 2110: 2027: 2016: 1630: 1521: 1494: 1314: 1197: 655: 581: 359: 143: 2517:

ABIT BP6 motherboard supported two Intel Celeron 366Mhz processors picture shows Zalman heatsinks.

2405:

In the mid-1980s to early 1990s, a crop of new high-performance reduced instruction set computer (

1991:, a version of the 8086 that used an 8-bit external data bus, was the microprocessor in the first 250:, a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of 6878: 6870: 6722: 6697: 6501: 6376: 5900: 5841: 5721: 5453: 5181: 4671: 4056: 3172: 3099: 1873:, introduced in early 1973. An 8-bit version of the chipset was introduced in 1974 as the IMP-8. 1799: 1642: 1264: 1182: 1178: 1151: 1095: 993: 965: 797: 675: 648: 530:, vehicles (and their accessories), tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and 370: 275: 228: 123: 111: 4381: 4375: 3271:"1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum" 2333:

microprocessor designs have been in use in several markets since the early 1990s (including the

3329: 2138:

The first commercial, single chip, fully 32-bit microprocessor available on the market was the

1230:

is often (falsely) regarded as the first true microprocessor built on a single chip, priced at

6831: 6798: 6714: 6646: 6547: 6537: 6527: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6371: 6300: 6206: 6166: 5799: 5749: 5699: 5675: 5557: 5497: 5492: 5374: 5290: 4945: 4935: 4385: 4169: 4139: 4000: 3992: 3918: 3829: 3767: 3751: 3715: 3632: 3452: 2948: 2915: 2907: 2899: 2889: 2869: 2844: 2807: 2716: 2675: 2593: 2251: 2219: 1980: 1769: 1582: 1470: 1457: 1356: in this section and the sections below. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1287:

While the architecture and specifications of the MCS-4 came from the interaction of Hoff with

1155: 1073: 973: 845: 805: 755: 708: 640:. Wilkes is also credited with the idea of symbolic labels, macros and subroutine libraries. 589: 555: 416: 389: 354:, for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in 4725: 3887: 2942: 7001: 6934: 6775: 6682: 6636: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6413: 6283: 6250: 6161: 6156: 6065: 5917: 5912: 5895: 5883: 5822: 5386: 5364: 5250: 5228: 5146: 4663: 4294: 4048: 3759: 3164: 3089: 2972: 2881: 2836: 2799: 2464: 2444: 2330: 2305: 2286: 2281: 2262: 2124: 2068: 1863: 1681: 1634: 1389: 1159: 1028: 919: 767: 759: 674:

was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete

625: 502: 498: 461: 433: 374: 347: 323: 294:

The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of

243: 174: 147: 69: 5072: 6915: 6900: 6848: 6752: 6727: 6564: 6557: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6337: 6245: 6235: 5957: 5792: 5744: 5507: 5391: 5359: 5260: 5255: 5176: 4252: 4097:, press release. TI, Sep. 19, 1971. Originally on ti.com but now archived at archive.org. 3946:"Inventor's fight for recognition ongoing but not all-consuming - Las Vegas Sun Newspaper" 3805: 3545: 3429: 3336: 3063: 3026: 3005: 2923: 2655: 2635: 2436: 1953: 1803: 1653: 1449: 1437: 1296: 1292: 1263:, a Japanese calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to build a chipset for high-performance 1253: 1241: 1236: 1045: 751: 736: 728: 701: 613: 609: 601: 451: 447: 343: 339: 319: 239: 224: 220: 209: 139: 2947:. Instrument Engineers' Handbook. Vol. 2 (4th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 11–12. 2639: 2015:

and V30 frequently were. The 8086 and successors had an innovative but limited method of

1185:

to create an 8-bit computer in MOS and had helped establish a MOS Research Laboratory in

330:

might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.

1504:

requirements, and sometimes the integration of extra circuitry (e.g. the Z80's built-in

7026: 6860: 6843: 6836: 6732: 6589: 6326: 6171: 5754: 5716: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5369: 5193: 5018: 2877: 2487: 2337: 2208: 2200: 2196: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2146: 2095: 2075: 1749: 1597: 1505: 1445: 1117: 996: 785: 659: 629: 621: 605: 585: 527: 494: 327: 287: 4344: 3763: 2885: 1621:

probe to Jupiter (launched 1989, arrived 1995). RCA COSMAC was the first to implement

1142: 303:. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture. 7046: 6821: 6737: 5777: 5759: 5552: 5245: 4700:"Difference Between Symmetric and Asymmetric Multiprocessing (With Comparison Chart)" 3151: 2613: 2609: 2471: 2413:

and others. RISC microprocessors were initially used in special-purpose machines and

2409:) microprocessors appeared, influenced by discrete RISC-like CPU designs such as the 2360: 2242: 2149:, which was introduced in 1981, but was not a commercial success. It had an advanced 2132: 2023:(MMU). The 80386 introduced a flat 32-bit memory model with paged memory management. 1919: 1807: 1793: 1677: 1629:, and because a variant was available fabricated using a special production process, 1578: 1570: 1559: 1555: 1529: 1509: 1490: 1288: 1249: 1116:), Texas Instruments developed in 1970–1971 a one-chip CPU replacement for the 771: 724: 395:

The design of some processors has become complicated enough to be difficult to fully

311: 279: 232: 185: 178: 151: 142:, and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both 57: 4675: 4060: 3176: 3103: 2098:

designs made use of the 68000, as did other designs in the mid-1980s, including the

7031: 6969: 6785: 6762: 6574: 6295: 5233: 4866:"What We Are Paying for: A Quality Adjusted Price Index for Laptop Microprocessors" 4759:"How AMD became a chip giant and leapfrogged Intel after years of playing catch-up" 4220: 2958: 2617: 2266: 2246:

price/performance and was adopted by large companies like Canon. By the mid-1980s,

1892: 1688: 1525: 1501: 1310: 1301: 1272: 1245: 1077: 720: 690: 617: 486: 365:

Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a

119: 4313: 2573:"The newly designed 1GHz Power4 represents a tremendous leap over its predecessor" 2470:

architectures. Soon every major vendor was releasing a RISC design, including the

604:, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to 53: 4667: 4450: 3705:

Parab, Jivan S.; Shelake, Vinod G.; Kamat, Rajanish K.; Naik, Gourish M. (2007).

3444: 2998: 2803: 2592:

CPU's launched on Jan 6, 2006, and were manufactured with two dies packaged on a

322:, which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, 6816: 6780: 6491: 6463: 6321: 6176: 3668:(Speech). Room 8220, Wean Hall, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, US. 2550: 2417: 2343:

With AMD's introduction of a 64-bit architecture backwards-compatible with x86,

2334: 2290: 2060: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1783: 1773: 1763: 1759: 1753: 1665: 1542:

in 1982 and licensed the design to several firms. It was used as the CPU in the

1331: 1121:

the same specification, its instruction set was very similar to the Intel 8008.

981: 861: 784:

Since the early 1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors has followed

667: 478: 366: 295: 283: 157:

The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using

131: 83: 5055: 4843:"WSTS Semiconductor Market Forecast World Release Date: 1 June 2004 - 6:00 UTC" 4052: 4036: 3791: 3168: 17: 6702: 6692: 6687: 6669: 6569: 6542: 5804: 5637: 5607: 5327: 4564: 3975:"The Texas Instruments TMX 1795: The (Almost) first, forgotten microprocessor" 3663: 2840: 2662:

Taken as a whole, the average price for a microprocessor, microcontroller, or

2483: 2479: 2269:, which arrived too late to market to stand a chance and disappeared quickly. 2116: 2091: 2087: 2031: 1988: 1972: 1961: 1904: 1739: 1733: 1478: 1433: 1429: 1227: 1219: 1209: 1186: 1171: 1113: 1032: 841: 813: 763: 740: 697: 686: 593: 539: 535: 455: 392:

is necessary if the processor is not to be delayed by slower external memory.

385: 377:

words using integrated circuits with a capacity for only four bits each.

205: 170: 92: 47: 43: 32: 4949: 4315:

Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor Integrated Circuits with Silicon Gates

3665:

Lecture: Microprocessor Design and Development for the US Navy F14 FighterJet

3636: 2919: 2903: 2026:

The 16-bit Intel x86 processors up to and including the 80386 do not include

1695:. Since it was also produced by Harris Corporation, it was also known as the 1600:, which enjoyed a brief surge of interest due to its innovative and powerful 1031:, and two other support chips like the Intel 4004. It was made from the same 6793: 6790: 6532: 5602: 5580: 2927: 2605: 2601: 2502: 2491: 2475: 2364: 2113: 1957: 1789: 1729: 1615:(aka CDP1802, RCA COSMAC) (introduced in 1976), which was used on board the 1586: 1573:

in 1978. It was an ambitious and well thought-through 8-bit design that was

1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1482: 1441: 1090: 1072:

in 1968; though the patent had been submitted in December 1970 and prior to

972:

and Steve Geller) was invited to produce a digital computer to compete with

959: 837: 744: 694: 671: 670:

on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to

577: 543: 473: 381: 315: 267: 2431:(the R1000 was not released). In 1986, HP released its first system with a 2086:

or 2 bytes) memory space and fairly low cost made it the most popular

2055: 1933:

line of minicomputers. The 9900 was used in the TI 990/4 minicomputer, the

1240:. The microprocessor was designed by a team consisting of Italian engineer 1214: 976:

systems then under development for the main flight control computer in the

4534: 3094: 3077: 2583:

Analysts’ Choice Award for Best Workstation/Server Processor of 2001", and

1593:

design requirements were becoming too complex for pure hard-wired logic).

658:

by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by

6808: 5680: 5627: 5099: 4811: 4625: 4321:. International Electronic Devices Meeting. IEEE Electron Devices Group. 2546: 2423:

The first commercial RISC microprocessor design was released in 1984, by

2192: 2161: 2139: 2099: 2083: 1942: 1934: 1877: 1612: 1486: 1268: 1130: 1069: 1010: 969: 719:

and used his silicon-gate MOS technology to develop the 4004, along with

597: 355: 219:), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest 104: 2600:

and others released new versions of multi-core CPU's, AMD's SMP enabled

2119:, with first samples in 1980, and general production in 1982. After the 1474:

in 1974. This processor had an 8-bit data bus and a 14-bit address bus.

1444:, of San Antonio TX, for a chip for a terminal they were designing, the 1052:

This convergence of DSP and microcontroller architectures is known as a

110:

for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single

5617: 5575: 3579:

First Microprocessor | 50th Anniversary of the Microprocessor 2020

2555: 2432: 2410: 2384: 2234: 2230: 2012: 1908: 1743: 1452:

and operation of the processor. In 1969, CTC contracted two companies,

1279: 1260: 977: 817: 778: 732: 705: 534:, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components (from 4647:

Garnsey, Elizabeth; Lorenzoni, Gianni; Ferriani, Simone (March 2008).

4515:

The 80187 only has a 16-bit data bus because it used the 80387SX core.

4298: 1068:, home in 1969 from boards of bipolar chips after quitting his job at 739:

Intel 4004, in 1971. It was soon followed by the 8-bit microprocessor

184:

Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of

6920: 5632: 5597: 5562: 4849:(Press release). World Semiconductor Trade Statistics. Archived from 4268:"The 40th birthday of—maybe—the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004" 3597: 2563: 2344: 2309: 2128: 1992: 1930: 1889: 1885: 1870: 1817: 1465: 985: 72: 4116: 3019:"Managing the Impact of Increasing Microprocessor Power Consumption" 2577:"IBM is getting very aggressive, and this server is a game changer". 1520: (equivalent to $ 331.79 in 2023). A variation of the 6502, the 262: 3582: 6090: 5622: 5592: 5035: 4649:"Speciation through entrepreneurial spin-off: The Acorn-ARM story" 4478:"General Instrument's microprocessor aimed at minicomputer market" 3625:"The Secret History of the First Microprocessor, the F-14, and Me" 3477:"1971 - Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip" 2549:

was released in 1999 as the first SMP enabled PC motherboard, the

2520: 2512: 2498: 2467: 2456: 2376: 2368: 2317: 2258: 2215: 2103: 2054: 1984: 1685: 1453: 1291:, a software engineer reporting to him, and with Busicom engineer 1278: 1213: 1141: 1004: 809: 796:

These projects delivered a microprocessor at about the same time:

716: 472: 261: 82: 76: 63: 52: 42: 31: 4850: 3234:"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip" 3078:"The Growth of Interest in Microprogramming: A Literature Survey" 2542:

is a single CPU that contains more than one microprocessor core.

1668:, and thus retain data even when the clock is completely halted. 1625:

technology. The CDP1802 was used because it could be run at very

766:

etc., followed soon after. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with

6954: 6102: 6022: 5612: 4971: 2911: 2638:

concepts for multi-core/multi-cpu configurations are related to

2575:. An industry analyst, Brad Day of Giga Information Group said: 2452: 2440: 2414: 2406: 2277: 2180: 1968:, making it one of the most popular 16-bit designs of all time. 1622: 1513: 1167: 547: 5103: 2794:

Warnes, Lionel (2003). "Microprocessors and microcontrollers".

1170:

instruction set on-chip. The layout for the four layers of the

840:

chip containing eight registers and an ALU. It was designed by

5542: 5532: 4730: 4095:"STANDARD CALCULATOR ON A CHIP ANNOUNCED BY TEXAS INSTRUMENTS" 2372: 2313: 2301: 2280:

processor design, which has since come to dominate the 32-bit

1976: 1719: 1325: 855: 637: 5003: 4109:"Microprocessor History: Foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland" 3391:"Excerpts from A Conversation with Gordon Moore: Moore's Law" 2744:"What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller?" 1960:

in 1984. The 65816 16-bit microprocessor was the core of the

1691:

instruction set. As such it was sometimes referred to as the

1656:

could be made arbitrarily low, or even stopped. This let the

4987: 4593:. Bell Labs, Alcatel-Lucent. 17 January 2001. Archived from 2455:

in 1985. The R3000 made the design truly practical, and the

1259:

The project that produced the 4004 originated in 1969, when

777:

The first use of the term "microprocessor" is attributed to

306:

A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an

4168:

16 Bit Microprocessor Handbook by Gerry Kane, Adam Osborne

2183:

supermicrocomputer market, and many small companies (e.g.,

1550:

personal computers as well as in medical implantable grade

3993:"19. The 1970s and the Microprocessor § Texas Instruments" 2528:

dual-socket motherboard shown with Zalman Flower heatsinks

1918:, released in February 1975, which was used mainly in the 1876:

Other early multi-chip 16-bit microprocessors include the

388:

has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, so

27:

Computer processor contained on an integrated-circuit chip

2391:

In 2011, ARM introduced the new 64-bit ARM architecture.

1925:

Another early single-chip 16-bit microprocessor was TI's

1607:

A seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight was

399:, and this has caused problems at large cloud providers. 2451:, then known as Acorn RISC Machine (ARM); first silicon 2067:

16-bit designs had only been on the market briefly when

1585:

logic (subsequent 16-bit microprocessors typically used

518:

32-bit chips when running equivalent software routines.

150:, and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the 4847:

Miyazaki, Japan, Spring Forecast Meeting 18–21 May 2004

2019:, while the 80286 introduced a full-featured segmented 505:

or microcontroller applications that require extremely

5088:

Arthur Daemmrich and Sharon Klotz (12 December 2019).

4624:. TechInsights (United Business Media). Archived from 1222:

with cover removed (left) and as actually used (right)

501:

processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for

200:

type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few

4618:"MCore: Does Motorola Need Another Processor Family?" 4312:

Faggin, F.; Klein, T.; Vadasz, L. (23 October 1968).

3708:

Exploring C for Microcontrollers: A Hands on Approach

1633:(SOS), which provided much better protection against 1181:. The key team members had originally been tasked by 984:

fighter. The design was complete by 1970, and used a

612:. Microprocessors perform binary operations based on 4405: 4403: 4401: 3550:. Los Altos Hills, California: Stanford University. 2868:

Dyer, Stephen A.; Harms, Brian K. (13 August 1993).

2798:. London: Macmillan Education UK. pp. 443–477. 2321:

processor model, at least with the public at broad.

6984: 6933: 6869: 6807: 6761: 6713: 6668: 6588: 6515: 6484: 6389: 6310: 6274: 6228: 6128: 6054: 5988: 5938: 5849: 5840: 5813: 5768: 5735: 5707: 5698: 5518: 5421: 5410: 5281: 5137: 4902:. TechInsights (United Business Media). p. 2. 4591:

Physical Sciences & Communications at Bell Labs

4563:. Bell Laboratories. 7 October 1998. Archived from 4345:"Intel Microprocessor Quick Reference Guide - Year" 4037:"The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors" 3351:"Cramming more components onto integrated circuits" 3146:"The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors" 3118:"Sir Maurice Wilkes, The Father Of Computing, Dies" 2769:"The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors" 2297:(SMP) applications processors with virtual memory. 693:technology (SGT). The earliest MOS transistors had 647:chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher 497:, 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used. An 8- or 3758:. Vol. 37. Academic Press. pp. 104–107. 3144: 2420:, but then gained wide acceptance in other roles. 2074:The most significant of the 32-bit designs is the 1971:Intel "upsized" their 8080 design into the 16-bit 246:. A microprocessor is related but distinct from a 75:processor (AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X, based on 3161:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1101:Franchise Tax Board of California v. Hyatt (2019) 770:addressing also led to the first general-purpose 754:uses of 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as 3999:. University of Illinois Press. pp. 228–9. 3997:Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Silicon 3451:. Michigan State University Press. p. 121. 2833:Microelectronic and Microprocessor-based Systems 1193:Microelectronics business was spun out into the 5052:"Great Microprocessors of the Past and Present" 4412:"Forgotten history: the true origins of the PC" 3991:Seitz, Frederick; Einspruch, Norman G. (1998). 3265: 3263: 1528:and yet another variant, the 8502, powered the 1020: 1015:California State Polytechnic University, Pomona 2835:. London: Macmillan Education UK. p. 16. 2447:became the first commercial success using the 2304:architectures became increasingly dominant in 2222:processor cores are derivatives of the 68020. 711:to develop the first silicon-gate MOS chip at 5115: 4687:the first silicon was run on April 26th 1985. 3969: 3967: 3858:"For Texas Instruments, Some Bragging Rights" 3548:History of Science and Technology Collections 3330:Viatron Computer Systems. "System 21 is Now!" 2233:. Later, National Semiconductor produced the 2167:Motorola's success with the 68000 led to the 2123:in 1984, it was renamed the WE 32000 (WE for 1843: 1827:First supported platform shown in parentheses 1500:A low overall cost, little packaging, simple 1477:The 8008 was the precursor to the successful 425:(GPUs) are processors designed primarily for 8: 4144:Bell Punch Company and the ANITA calculators 2145:Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor was the 6120:Computer performance by orders of magnitude 4030: 4028: 2692:Comparison of instruction set architectures 2265:, among others. Other designs included the 1596:Another early 8-bit microprocessor was the 824:microprocessor was also delivered in 1969. 266:A block diagram of the architecture of the 6585: 6225: 5846: 5704: 5418: 5122: 5108: 5100: 2658:, of which over 2 billion were sold. 1850: 1836: 1706: 1468:" computer kit advertised in the magazine 5073:"Great moments in microprocessor history" 4934:(3rd ed.). India: Tata McGraw-Hill. 4805: 4803: 3093: 2545:This popular two-socket motherboard from 1416:Learn how and when to remove this message 946:Learn how and when to remove this message 816:(November 1971, based on an earlier 1969 542:). Such products as cellular telephones, 134:data as input, processes it according to 4932:Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals 4818:. TechInsights (United Business Media). 4451:"National Semiconductor PACE CPU family" 3986: 3984: 600:. Many more microprocessors are part of 592:are used for computation, text editing, 3598:"World's First Microprocessor Chip Set" 3057:"11 Myths About 8-Bit Microcontrollers" 2734: 2225:During this time (early to mid-1980s), 1929:, which was also compatible with their 1714: 1283:First microprocessor by Intel, the 4004 743:in 1972. The MP944 chipset used in the 4248: 4237: 4107:McGonigal, James (20 September 2006). 4085:U.S. Patent no. 4,074,351 (TMS1802NC.) 3868:from the original on 28 September 2022 3819: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3780:from the original on 29 December 2016. 3683: 3425: 3414: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2670: (equivalent to $ 10.16 in 2023). 1108:Texas Instruments TMX 1795 (1970–1971) 882:Please improve this section by adding 4872:from the original on 11 November 2014 4541:from the original on 11 December 2015 4488:from the original on 25 November 2022 4457:from the original on 25 November 2022 4325:from the original on 19 February 2010 4214:"History in the Computing Curriculum" 4013:from the original on 19 February 2023 3554:from the original on 4 February 2012. 3520:from the original on 19 December 2006 3183:from the original on 24 November 2017 2979:from the original on 13 February 2024 2796:Electronic and Electrical Engineering 2195:) produced desktop-size systems. The 588:. General-purpose microprocessors in 7: 6091:Floating-point operations per second 4930:Ray, A. K.; Bhurchand, K.M. (2013). 4906:from the original on 22 October 2012 4380:(2nd ed.). MIT Press. pp. 4274:from the original on 6 January 2017. 4194:from the original on 14 January 2010 4186:Mack, Pamela E. (30 November 2005). 3952:from the original on 20 October 2022 3643:from the original on 18 January 2024 3506:Shaller, Robert R. (15 April 2004). 3214:from the original on 19 January 2024 2325:64-bit designs in personal computers 1354:adding citations to reliable sources 1339:This section and the sections below 1112:Along with Intel (who developed the 477:Intel Core i9-9900K (2018, based on 238:A microprocessor is distinct from a 4757:Tarasov, Katie (22 November 2022). 4726:"IBM100 - A Computer Called Watson" 4537:. priorart.ip.com. 1 January 1986. 4355:from the original on 6 October 2021 4150:from the original on 11 August 2010 4067:from the original on 14 August 2022 3926:from the original on 4 October 2022 3894:from the original on 4 October 2022 3837:from the original on 4 October 2022 3672:from the original on 1 October 2011 3604:from the original on 6 January 2014 3465:from the original on 30 March 2014. 3311:from the original on 12 August 2021 3248:from the original on 12 August 2021 3037:from the original on 3 October 2015 2775:from the original on 4 October 2022 2596:. In a hotly-contested marketplace 2071:implementations started to appear. 1966:Super Nintendo Entertainment System 1882:Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 1125:Texas Instruments TMS 1802NC (1971) 731:in 1971. The 4004 was designed for 651:and lower manufacturing costs than 4266:Bright, Peter (15 November 2011). 3750:Dyer, S. A.; Harms, B. K. (1993). 3204:"Who Invented the Microprocessor?" 2276:first appeared in 1985. This is a 2080:PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes 1562:(32-bit) and other microprocessor 1048:architectures was started in 1971. 808:' TMS 1802NC (September 1971) and 554:A microprocessor control program ( 432:Other specialized units exist for 87:AMD Ryzen 7 1800X (2017, based on 25: 4822:from the original on 3 April 2015 4738:from the original on 19 July 2021 4706:from the original on 18 July 2021 3888:"The Birth of the Microprocessor" 3731:from the original on 20 July 2011 3281:from the original on 29 July 2020 3202:Laws, David (20 September 2018). 2742:Orion, Veritas (23 August 2024). 1979:family, which powers most modern 1903:, which was later followed by an 7017:Semiconductor device fabrication 5071:Wade Warner (22 December 2004). 4810:Turley, Jim (18 December 2002). 4769:from the original on 1 June 2023 3541:"Interview with Gordon E. Moore" 3487:from the original on 8 June 2010 3143:Shirriff, Ken (30 August 2016). 2944:Process Control and Optimization 2872:. In Yovits, Marshall C. (ed.). 2401:Reduced instruction set computer 2059:Upper interconnect layers on an 1493:in August 1974, and the similar 1330: 860: 169:, resulting in a relatively low 6992:History of general-purpose CPUs 5219:Nondeterministic Turing machine 4894:Barr, Michael (1 August 2009). 3662:Holt, Ray (27 September 2001). 3349:Moore, Gordon (19 April 1965). 2608:line in 2001, Sun released the 1956:16-bit upgrade of the WDC CMOS 1888:OEM board set and the packaged 1581:, and implemented using purely 1341:needs additional citations for 511:mixed-signal integrated circuit 194:small-scale integrated circuits 7078:Telecommunications engineering 5172:Deterministic finite automaton 4188:"The Microcomputer Revolution" 3856:Markoff, John (20 June 1996). 2562:In 2001 IBM released the 2435:CPU. In 1987, in the non-Unix 2300:From 1993 to 2003, the 32-bit 1536:The Western Design Center, Inc 1442:Computer Terminals Corporation 1150:In 1971, Pico Electronics and 1138:Pico/General Instrument (1971) 852:Garrett AiResearch CADC (1970) 745:F-14 Central Air Data Computer 469:Speed and power considerations 1: 5963:Simultaneous and heterogenous 4864:Sun, Liyang (25 April 2014). 4377:A History of Modern Computing 4374:Ceruzzi, Paul E. (May 2003). 3764:10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 3396:. Intel. 2005. Archived from 2886:10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 2654:sold in the world were 8-bit 1566:(IP) providers in the 1990s. 884:secondary or tertiary sources 828:Four-Phase Systems AL1 (1969) 715:in 1968. Faggin later joined 643:Following the development of 596:, and communication over the 513:with noise-sensitive on-chip 217:history of computing hardware 6647:Integrated memory controller 6629:Translation lookaside buffer 5828:Memory dependence prediction 5271:Random-access stored program 5224:Probabilistic Turing machine 5050:John Bayko (December 2003). 4668:10.1016/j.respol.2007.11.006 4476:EDN Staff (1 January 2000). 4410:Wood, Lamont (August 2008). 2804:10.1007/978-0-230-21633-4_23 2383:The move to 64 bits by 1602:instruction set architecture 1432:was followed in 1972 by the 1304:technology (SGT) in 1968 at 272:arithmetic and logic section 270:microprocessor, showing the 159:Very-Large-Scale Integration 6103:Synaptic updates per second 4506:Intel 8087 datasheet, pg. 1 3752:"Digital Signal Processing" 3564:Bassett 2003. pp. 115, 122. 3513:. George Mason University. 3483:. Computer History Museum. 2870:"Digital Signal Processing" 2439:' 32-bit, then cache-less, 2028:floating-point units (FPUs) 1901:National Semiconductor PACE 532:electrical circuit breakers 7099: 6507:Heterogeneous architecture 5429:Orthogonal instruction set 5199:Alternating Turing machine 5187:Quantum cellular automaton 5095:. Smithsonian Institution. 5019:"How Microprocessors Work" 4812:"The Two Percent Solution" 4113:McGonigal personal website 4053:10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 3754:. In Yovits, M. C. (ed.). 3447:. In Finn, Bernard (ed.). 3169:10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 2650:In 1997, about 55% of all 2398: 2189:Charles River Data Systems 1995:. Intel then released the 1975:, the first member of the 1952:(WDC) introduced the CMOS 1538:(WDC) introduced the CMOS 1207: 957: 700:, which Italian physicist 569: 128:digital integrated circuit 6997:Microprocessor chronology 6960:Dynamic frequency scaling 6115:Cache performance metrics 5004:"The Gecko's CPU Library" 4841:WSTS Board Of Directors. 4616:Turley, Jim (July 1998). 2841:10.1007/978-1-349-06978-1 2722:Microprocessor chronology 2535:symmetric multiprocessing 2509:SMP and multi-core design 2007:and, in 1985, the 32-bit 1916:General Instrument CP1600 1054:digital signal controller 802:Central Air Data Computer 572:Microprocessor chronology 423:Graphics processing units 415:(DSP) is specialized for 352:Floating-point arithmetic 252:digital signal processing 163:metal–oxide–semiconductor 7012:Hardware security module 6355:Digital signal processor 6332:Graphics processing unit 6144:Graphics processing unit 4790:"Microchip on the March" 4561:"Shoji, M. Bibliography" 3690:: CS1 maint: location ( 2999:"8-bit vs 32-bit Micros" 2831:Morris, Noel M. (1985). 2616:with eight-cores, AMD's 2295:symmetric multiprocessor 1569:Motorola introduced the 1252:, and Japanese engineer 1035:technology, operated at 1018:to Parab et al. (2007), 968:(who employed designers 779:Viatron Computer Systems 413:digital signal processor 248:digital signal processor 212:and introduced in 1971. 148:sequential digital logic 6965:Dynamic voltage scaling 6748:Memory address register 6642:Branch target predictor 6606:Address generation unit 6349:Physics processing unit 6138:Central processing unit 6097:Transactions per second 6085:Instructions per second 6008:Array processing (SIMT) 5152:Stored-program computer 4900:Embedded Systems Design 4896:"Real men program in C" 4816:Embedded Systems Design 4622:Embedded Systems Design 3714:. Springer. p. 4. 3600:. Ray M. Holt website. 3305:www.computerhistory.org 3275:www.computerhistory.org 3242:Computer History Museum 3208:Computer History Museum 2712:List of microprocessors 2707:Heterogeneous computing 2121:divestiture of AT&T 2030:. Intel introduced the 1897:Fairchild Semiconductor 1866:microprocessor was the 1639:electrostatic discharge 1508:circuitry) allowed the 1489:released the competing 1306:Fairchild Semiconductor 1037:military specifications 774:from the mid-1970s on. 713:Fairchild Semiconductor 680:central processing unit 666:(LSI) with hundreds of 664:large-scale integration 634:University of Cambridge 576:The advent of low-cost 403:Special-purpose designs 338:sizes to increase from 116:central processing unit 95:socket on a motherboard 6771:Hardwired control unit 6653:Memory management unit 6618:Memory management unit 6367:Secure cryptoprocessor 6361:Tensor Processing Unit 6343:Vision processing unit 6077:Cycles per instruction 6071:Instructions per cycle 6018:Associative processing 5709:Instruction pipelining 5131:Processor technologies 4788:Cantrell, Tom (1998). 4440:Intel 8008 data sheet. 4247:Cite journal requires 4035:Shirriff, Ken (2016). 3575:"First Microprocessor" 3424:Cite journal requires 3076:Wilkes, M. V. (1969). 3062:12 August 2022 at the 2941:Liptak, B. G. (2006). 2529: 2518: 2227:National Semiconductor 2064: 2021:memory management unit 1868:National Semiconductor 1780:System Management Mode 1680:family consisted of a 1284: 1223: 1147: 1066:Northridge, California 1050: 871:relies excessively on 834:Four-Phase Systems AL1 822:Four-Phase Systems AL1 645:MOS integrated circuit 482: 291: 175:microprocessor designs 96: 80: 61: 50: 40: 6854:Sum-addressed decoder 6600:Arithmetic logic unit 5727:Classic RISC pipeline 5681:Epiphany architecture 5528:Motorola 68000 series 4868:. Wellesley College. 4702:. 22 September 2016. 4587:"Timeline: 1982–1984" 4140:"ANITA at its Zenith" 3756:Advances in Computers 3443:Basset, Ross (2003). 3095:10.1145/356551.356553 3082:ACM Computing Surveys 2874:Advances in Computers 2697:Computer architecture 2524: 2516: 2425:MIPS Computer Systems 2218:Pentiums in PCs. The 2058: 1950:Western Design Center 1862:The first multi-chip 1564:intellectual property 1282: 1244:, American engineers 1217: 1145: 958:Further information: 540:phonograph turntables 522:Embedded applications 507:low-power electronics 476: 442:Hardware acceleration 358:. Integration of the 308:arithmetic logic unit 265: 167:fabrication processes 86: 67: 56: 46: 35: 6975:Performance per watt 6553:replacement policies 6219:Package on a package 6109:Performance per watt 6013:Pipelined processing 5783:Tomasulo's algorithm 5588:Clipper architecture 5444:Application-specific 5157:Finite-state machine 5036:"IC Die Photography" 4972:"The CPU Collection" 4796:on 20 February 2007. 3948:. 21 December 2014. 3449:Exposing Electronics 2702:Computer engineering 2540:multi-core processor 2203:, which included an 1914:Next in list is the 1350:improve this article 1189:, Scotland in 1967. 1060:Gilbert Hyatt (1970) 997:multi-microprocessor 346:words up to today's 7068:Digital electronics 7063:Japanese inventions 7058:American inventions 7007:Digital electronics 6660:Instruction decoder 6612:Floating-point unit 6266:Soft microprocessor 6213:System in a package 5788:Reservation station 5318:Transport-triggered 4853:on 7 December 2004. 4270:. arstechnica.com. 3922:. 7 November 1991. 3833:. 21 October 1990. 3804:25 May 2012 at the 3539:RW (3 March 1995). 3371:on 18 February 2008 3364:(8). Archived from 2880:. pp. 59–118. 2017:memory segmentation 1710:Part of a series on 1652:, meaning that the 1648:The RCA 1802 had a 1631:silicon on sapphire 1589:to some extent, as 1522:MOS Technology 6510 1495:MOS Technology 6502 1265:desktop calculators 1198:PIC microcontroller 820:design). Arguably, 762:, various kinds of 656:integrated circuits 582:integrated circuits 509:, or are part of a 360:floating-point unit 144:combinational logic 7083:1971 introductions 6879:Integrated circuit 6723:Processor register 6377:Baseband processor 5722:Operand forwarding 5182:Cellular automaton 4567:on 16 October 2008 3862:The New York Times 3585:on 6 January 2014. 3481:The Silicon Engine 3403:on 29 October 2012 3335:2011-03-21 at the 3238:The Silicon Engine 3004:2014-07-14 at the 2771:. 30 August 2016. 2748:Ampheo Electronics 2676:personal computers 2625:dual and quad-core 2530: 2519: 2135:operating system. 2090:of its class. The 2065: 1800:x86 virtualization 1643:radiation-hardened 1285: 1224: 1183:Elliott Automation 1152:General Instrument 1148: 1096:sovereign immunity 966:Garrett AiResearch 798:Garrett AiResearch 709:self-aligned gates 676:computer processor 649:transistor density 594:multimedia display 590:personal computers 515:analog electronics 483: 456:peripheral devices 427:realtime rendering 292: 112:integrated circuit 97: 91:) processor in an 81: 62: 51: 41: 36:Texas Instruments 7040: 7039: 6929: 6928: 6548:Instruction cache 6538:Scratchpad memory 6385: 6384: 6372:Network processor 6301:Network on a chip 6256:Ultra-low-voltage 6207:Multi-chip module 6050: 6049: 5836: 5835: 5823:Branch prediction 5800:Register renaming 5694: 5693: 5676:VISC architecture 5498:Quantum computing 5493:VISC architecture 5375:Secondary storage 5291:Microarchitecture 5251:Register machines 4986:Gennadiy Shvets. 4941:978-1-259-02977-6 4391:978-0-262-53203-7 4299:10.1109/40.546561 3919:Los Angeles Times 3830:Los Angeles Times 3721:978-1-4020-6067-0 3458:978-0-87013-658-0 3124:. 3 December 2010 2850:978-0-333-36190-0 2813:978-0-333-99040-7 2717:Microarchitecture 2646:Market statistics 2594:multi-chip module 2551:Intel Pentium Pro 1860: 1859: 1770:Virtual 8086 mode 1575:source compatible 1516:, which sold for 1471:Radio-Electronics 1458:Texas Instruments 1426: 1425: 1418: 1400: 1204:Intel 4004 (1971) 1082:Los Angeles Times 1074:Texas Instruments 974:electromechanical 956: 955: 948: 930: 846:Texas Instruments 806:Texas Instruments 556:embedded software 491:power consumption 417:signal processing 16:(Redirected from 7090: 7002:Processor design 6894:Power management 6776:Instruction unit 6637:Branch predictor 6586: 6284:System on a chip 6226: 6066:Transistor count 5990:Flynn's taxonomy 5847: 5705: 5508:Addressing modes 5419: 5365:Memory hierarchy 5229:Hypercomputation 5147:Abstract machine 5124: 5117: 5110: 5101: 5096: 5094: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5058:on 15 April 2013 5054:. Archived from 5046: 5044: 5042: 5030: 5028: 5026: 5014: 5012: 5010: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4953: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4879: 4877: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4838: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4827: 4807: 4798: 4797: 4792:. Archived from 4785: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4754: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4734:. 7 March 2012. 4722: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4696: 4690: 4689: 4684: 4682: 4653: 4644: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4557: 4551: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4531: 4525: 4522: 4516: 4513: 4507: 4504: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4447: 4441: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4418:. Archived from 4407: 4396: 4395: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4320: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4225: 4219:. Archived from 4218: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4183: 4177: 4166: 4160: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4115:. Archived from 4104: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4032: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4018: 3988: 3979: 3978: 3971: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3821: 3808: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3730: 3713: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3689: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3593: 3587: 3586: 3581:. Archived from 3571: 3565: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3519: 3512: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3440: 3434: 3433: 3427: 3422: 3420: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3370: 3355: 3346: 3340: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3267: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3148: 3140: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3097: 3073: 3067: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3036: 3023: 3015: 3009: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2876:. Vol. 37. 2865: 2859: 2858: 2828: 2822: 2821: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2765: 2752: 2751: 2750:. Orion Veritas. 2739: 2669: 2656:microcontrollers 2581:The Power4 won " 2449:ARM architecture 2445:Acorn Archimedes 2287:system on a chip 2282:embedded systems 2151:capability-based 2125:Western Electric 2076:Motorola MC68000 1983:type computers. 1852: 1845: 1838: 1742:emulation mode ( 1707: 1645:microprocessor. 1635:cosmic radiation 1524:was used in the 1519: 1463: 1436:, intel's first 1421: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1401: 1399: 1365:"Microprocessor" 1358: 1334: 1326: 1315:Leslie L. Vadász 1309:methodology for 1233: 951: 944: 940: 937: 931: 929: 895:"Microprocessor" 888: 864: 856: 628:was invented by 626:Microprogramming 602:embedded systems 584:has transformed 503:system on a chip 452:embedded systems 448:Microcontrollers 434:video processing 244:system on a chip 225:handheld devices 221:embedded systems 21: 7098: 7097: 7093: 7092: 7091: 7089: 7088: 7087: 7053:Microprocessors 7043: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7022:Tick–tock model 6980: 6936: 6925: 6865: 6849:Address decoder 6803: 6757: 6753:Program counter 6728:Status register 6709: 6664: 6624:Load–store unit 6591: 6584: 6511: 6480: 6381: 6338:Image processor 6313: 6306: 6276: 6270: 6246:Microcontroller 6236:Embedded system 6224: 6124: 6057: 6046: 5984: 5934: 5832: 5809: 5793:Re-order buffer 5764: 5745:Data dependency 5731: 5690: 5520: 5514: 5413: 5412:Instruction set 5406: 5392:Multiprocessing 5360:Cache hierarchy 5353:Register/memory 5277: 5177:Queue automaton 5133: 5128: 5092: 5090:"Gilbert Hyatt" 5087: 5078: 5076: 5070: 5061: 5059: 5049: 5040: 5038: 5034:William Blair. 5033: 5024: 5022: 5017: 5008: 5006: 5002:Jérôme Cremet. 5001: 4992: 4990: 4985: 4976: 4974: 4969: 4965:Patent problems 4961: 4956: 4942: 4929: 4925: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4893: 4892: 4888: 4875: 4873: 4863: 4862: 4858: 4840: 4839: 4835: 4825: 4823: 4809: 4808: 4801: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4772: 4770: 4756: 4755: 4751: 4741: 4739: 4724: 4723: 4719: 4709: 4707: 4698: 4697: 4693: 4680: 4678: 4656:Research Policy 4651: 4646: 4645: 4641: 4631: 4629: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4600: 4598: 4585: 4584: 4580: 4570: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4544: 4542: 4533: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4491: 4489: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4425: 4423: 4409: 4408: 4399: 4392: 4373: 4372: 4368: 4358: 4356: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4328: 4326: 4318: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4284: 4283: 4279: 4265: 4264: 4260: 4246: 4236: 4229: 4227: 4226:on 19 July 2011 4223: 4216: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4197: 4195: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4176:(0-07-931043-5) 4167: 4163: 4153: 4151: 4137: 4136: 4132: 4122: 4120: 4119:on 20 July 2011 4106: 4105: 4101: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4070: 4068: 4034: 4033: 4026: 4016: 4014: 4007: 3990: 3989: 3982: 3973: 3972: 3965: 3955: 3953: 3944: 3943: 3939: 3929: 3927: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3897: 3895: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3871: 3869: 3855: 3854: 3850: 3840: 3838: 3823: 3822: 3811: 3806:Wayback Machine 3797: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3774: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3734: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3711: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3682: 3675: 3673: 3661: 3660: 3656: 3646: 3644: 3623:Fallon, Sarah. 3622: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3505: 3504: 3500: 3490: 3488: 3475: 3474: 3470: 3459: 3442: 3441: 3437: 3423: 3413: 3406: 3404: 3400: 3393: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3353: 3348: 3347: 3343: 3337:Wayback Machine 3328: 3324: 3314: 3312: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3284: 3282: 3269: 3268: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3217: 3215: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3186: 3184: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3125: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3075: 3074: 3070: 3064:Wayback Machine 3055:Wayne Freeman. 3054: 3050: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3027:Rice University 3021: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3006:Wayback Machine 2996: 2992: 2982: 2980: 2971: 2970: 2966: 2955: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2896: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2851: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2814: 2793: 2792: 2788: 2778: 2776: 2767: 2766: 2755: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2687: 2667: 2648: 2636:Multiprocessing 2604:CPU's from the 2511: 2437:Acorn computers 2403: 2397: 2327: 2154:object-oriented 2053: 1856: 1804:Intel Pentium 4 1705: 1674: 1654:clock frequency 1517: 1461: 1450:instruction set 1422: 1411: 1405: 1402: 1359: 1357: 1347: 1335: 1324: 1297:Federico Faggin 1293:Masatoshi Shima 1254:Masatoshi Shima 1242:Federico Faggin 1237:Electronic News 1231: 1212: 1206: 1179:Marconi-Elliott 1140: 1127: 1110: 1062: 1046:microcontroller 1013:graduated from 962: 952: 941: 935: 932: 889: 887: 881: 877:primary sources 865: 854: 830: 804:(CADC) (1970), 794: 729:Masatoshi Shima 702:Federico Faggin 610:process control 608:and industrial 606:cellular phones 574: 568: 524: 471: 462:Systems on chip 405: 386:clock frequency 320:status register 260: 240:microcontroller 227:to the largest 210:Federico Faggin 196:, typically of 28: 23: 22: 18:Micro processor 15: 12: 11: 5: 7096: 7094: 7086: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7073:Microcomputers 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7045: 7044: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7027:Pin grid array 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6988: 6986: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6978: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6941: 6939: 6931: 6930: 6927: 6926: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6897: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6875: 6873: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6863: 6861:Barrel shifter 6858: 6857: 6856: 6851: 6844:Binary decoder 6841: 6840: 6839: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6813: 6811: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6801: 6796: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6767: 6765: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6733:Stack register 6730: 6725: 6719: 6717: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6707: 6706: 6705: 6700: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6674: 6672: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6662: 6657: 6656: 6655: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6633: 6632: 6626: 6615: 6609: 6603: 6596: 6594: 6583: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6561: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6525: 6519: 6517: 6513: 6512: 6510: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6488: 6486: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6395: 6393: 6387: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6358: 6352: 6346: 6340: 6335: 6329: 6327:AI accelerator 6324: 6318: 6316: 6308: 6307: 6305: 6304: 6298: 6293: 6290:Multiprocessor 6287: 6280: 6278: 6272: 6271: 6269: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6241:Microprocessor 6238: 6232: 6230: 6229:By application 6223: 6222: 6216: 6210: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6172:Tile processor 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6153: 6152: 6141: 6134: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6106: 6100: 6094: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6068: 6062: 6060: 6052: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6042: 6032: 6027: 6026: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6000: 5994: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5960: 5958:Hyperthreading 5950: 5944: 5942: 5940:Multithreading 5936: 5935: 5933: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5921: 5920: 5910: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5876: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5853: 5851: 5844: 5838: 5837: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5830: 5825: 5819: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5790: 5780: 5774: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5741: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5717:Pipeline stall 5713: 5711: 5702: 5696: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5668: 5666:z/Architecture 5663: 5658: 5653: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5524: 5522: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5469: 5468: 5458: 5457: 5456: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5425: 5423: 5416: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5378: 5377: 5372: 5370:Virtual memory 5362: 5357: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5298: 5293: 5287: 5285: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5194:Turing machine 5191: 5190: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5154: 5149: 5143: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5129: 5127: 5126: 5119: 5112: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5085: 5068: 5047: 5031: 5015: 4999: 4983: 4967: 4960: 4959:External links 4957: 4955: 4954: 4940: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4886: 4856: 4833: 4799: 4780: 4749: 4717: 4691: 4662:(2): 210–224. 4639: 4628:on 2 July 1998 4608: 4597:on 14 May 2011 4578: 4552: 4526: 4517: 4508: 4499: 4468: 4442: 4433: 4422:on 6 June 2022 4397: 4390: 4366: 4336: 4304: 4277: 4258: 4249:|journal= 4205: 4178: 4161: 4130: 4099: 4087: 4078: 4024: 4005: 3980: 3963: 3937: 3905: 3879: 3848: 3809: 3783: 3772: 3742: 3720: 3697: 3654: 3615: 3588: 3566: 3557: 3531: 3498: 3468: 3457: 3435: 3426:|journal= 3382: 3341: 3322: 3292: 3259: 3225: 3194: 3135: 3109: 3088:(3): 139–145. 3068: 3048: 3010: 2990: 2964: 2954:978-0849310812 2953: 2933: 2895:978-0120121373 2894: 2878:Academic Press 2860: 2849: 2823: 2812: 2786: 2753: 2733: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2647: 2644: 2590:codename Yonah 2510: 2507: 2488:Motorola 88000 2472:AT&T CRISP 2399:Main article: 2396: 2393: 2357:Windows XP x64 2338:gaming console 2326: 2323: 2173:virtual memory 2171:, which added 2052: 2051:32-bit designs 2049: 1964:and later the 1858: 1857: 1855: 1854: 1847: 1840: 1832: 1829: 1828: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1821: 1811: 1797: 1787: 1777: 1767: 1757: 1750:Protected mode 1747: 1737: 1724: 1723: 1718:modes for the 1716:Microprocessor 1712: 1711: 1704: 1703:16-bit designs 1701: 1697:Harris HM-6100 1673: 1672:12-bit designs 1670: 1598:Signetics 2650 1556:defibrillators 1506:memory refresh 1446:Datapoint 2200 1424: 1423: 1338: 1336: 1329: 1323: 1320: 1208:Main article: 1205: 1202: 1139: 1136: 1126: 1123: 1118:Datapoint 2200 1109: 1106: 1061: 1058: 954: 953: 868: 866: 859: 853: 850: 829: 826: 793: 792:First projects 790: 772:microcomputers 704:replaced with 630:Maurice Wilkes 622:Claude Shannon 616:, named after 586:modern society 567: 564: 523: 520: 495:user interface 470: 467: 466: 465: 459: 445: 438:machine vision 430: 420: 404: 401: 328:operation code 290:and data lines 259: 256: 233:supercomputers 208:, designed by 186:circuit boards 138:stored in its 101:microprocessor 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7095: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7048: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6983: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6932: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6868: 6862: 6859: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6845: 6842: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6822:Demultiplexer 6820: 6818: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6810: 6806: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6766: 6764: 6760: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6743:Memory buffer 6741: 6739: 6738:Register file 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6718: 6716: 6712: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6678:Combinational 6676: 6675: 6673: 6671: 6667: 6661: 6658: 6654: 6651: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6613: 6610: 6607: 6604: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6514: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6483: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6396: 6394: 6392: 6388: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6362: 6359: 6356: 6353: 6350: 6347: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6309: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6291: 6288: 6285: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6273: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6220: 6217: 6214: 6211: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6139: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6131: 6127: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6110: 6107: 6104: 6101: 6098: 6095: 6092: 6089: 6086: 6083: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6059: 6053: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5987: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5914: 5911: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5839: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5778:Scoreboarding 5776: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5767: 5761: 5760:False sharing 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5671: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5553:Stanford MIPS 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5517: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5414:architectures 5409: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5382:Heterogeneous 5380: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5334: 5333:Memory access 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5266:Random-access 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5246:Stack machine 5244: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5162:with datapath 5160: 5159: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5125: 5120: 5118: 5113: 5111: 5106: 5105: 5102: 5091: 5086: 5074: 5069: 5057: 5053: 5048: 5037: 5032: 5020: 5016: 5005: 5000: 4989: 4984: 4973: 4970:Dirk Oppelt. 4968: 4966: 4963: 4962: 4958: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4937: 4933: 4928: 4927: 4922: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4871: 4867: 4860: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4834: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4806: 4804: 4800: 4795: 4791: 4784: 4781: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4753: 4750: 4737: 4733: 4732: 4727: 4721: 4718: 4705: 4701: 4695: 4692: 4688: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4650: 4643: 4640: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4612: 4609: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4566: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4540: 4536: 4530: 4527: 4521: 4518: 4512: 4509: 4503: 4500: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4469: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4443: 4437: 4434: 4421: 4417: 4416:Computerworld 4413: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4398: 4393: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4378: 4370: 4367: 4354: 4350: 4349:www.intel.com 4346: 4340: 4337: 4324: 4317: 4316: 4308: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4278: 4273: 4269: 4262: 4259: 4254: 4241: 4222: 4215: 4209: 4206: 4193: 4189: 4182: 4179: 4175: 4174:0-07-931043-5 4171: 4165: 4162: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4138:Tout, Nigel. 4134: 4131: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4088: 4082: 4079: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4041:IEEE Spectrum 4038: 4031: 4029: 4025: 4012: 4008: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3951: 3947: 3941: 3938: 3925: 3921: 3920: 3915: 3909: 3906: 3893: 3889: 3883: 3880: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3849: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3826: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3787: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3773:9780120121373 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3743: 3727: 3723: 3717: 3710: 3709: 3701: 3698: 3693: 3687: 3671: 3667: 3666: 3658: 3655: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3616: 3603: 3599: 3596:Holt, Ray M. 3592: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3570: 3567: 3561: 3558: 3553: 3549: 3547: 3542: 3535: 3532: 3516: 3509: 3502: 3499: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3436: 3431: 3418: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3383: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3326: 3323: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3226: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3195: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3153: 3152:IEEE Spectrum 3147: 3139: 3136: 3123: 3119: 3113: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3058: 3052: 3049: 3033: 3029: 3028: 3020: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2978: 2974: 2968: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2946: 2945: 2937: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2790: 2787: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2738: 2735: 2728: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2689: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2671: 2666:is just over 2665: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2626: 2621: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2584: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2536: 2527: 2523: 2515: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2427:, the 32-bit 2426: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2402: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2386: 2381: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2361:Windows Vista 2358: 2354: 2350: 2347:(also called 2346: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2253: 2249: 2244: 2243:laser printer 2238: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2175:support. The 2174: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2143: 2141: 2136: 2134: 2133:UNIX System V 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2062: 2057: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1921: 1920:Intellivision 1917: 1912: 1910: 1907:version, the 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1865: 1853: 1848: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1834: 1833: 1831: 1830: 1826: 1825: 1819: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1808:AMD Athlon 64 1805: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1794:AMD Athlon 64 1791: 1788: 1785: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1708: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1678:Intersil 6100 1671: 1669: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1650:static design 1646: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1531: 1530:Commodore 128 1527: 1523: 1515: 1511: 1510:home computer 1507: 1503: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1420: 1417: 1409: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1367: – 1366: 1362: 1361:Find sources: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1327: 1322:8-bit designs 1321: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1289:Stanley Mazor 1281: 1277: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1250:Stanley Mazor 1247: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1229: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1203: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1144: 1137: 1135: 1134:bits of RAM. 1132: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1107: 1105: 1103: 1102: 1097: 1092: 1088: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 961: 950: 947: 939: 928: 925: 921: 918: 914: 911: 907: 904: 900: 897: – 896: 892: 891:Find sources: 885: 879: 878: 874: 869:This section 867: 863: 858: 857: 851: 849: 847: 843: 839: 836:was an 8-bit 835: 827: 825: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 791: 789: 787: 782: 780: 775: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 725:Stanley Mazor 722: 718: 714: 710: 707: 703: 699: 696: 692: 688: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 662:, leading to 661: 657: 654: 650: 646: 641: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 614:Boolean logic 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 573: 565: 563: 559: 557: 552: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 521: 519: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 480: 475: 468: 463: 460: 457: 453: 449: 446: 443: 439: 435: 431: 428: 424: 421: 418: 414: 410: 409: 408: 402: 400: 398: 393: 391: 387: 383: 378: 376: 372: 368: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 312:control logic 310:(ALU), and a 309: 304: 302: 297: 289: 285: 282:section, and 281: 280:control logic 277: 273: 269: 264: 257: 255: 253: 249: 245: 241: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 213: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 182: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 155: 153: 152:binary number 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 130:that accepts 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 106: 102: 94: 90: 85: 78: 74: 71: 66: 59: 58:Motorola 6800 55: 49: 45: 39: 34: 30: 19: 7032:Chip carrier 6970:Clock gating 6889:Mixed-signal 6786:Write buffer 6763:Control unit 6575:Clock signal 6314:accelerators 6296:Cypress PSoC 6240: 5953:Simultaneous 5770:Out-of-order 5402:Neuromorphic 5283:Architecture 5241:Belt machine 5234:Zeno machine 5167:Hierarchical 5077:. Retrieved 5060:. Retrieved 5056:the original 5039:. Retrieved 5023:. Retrieved 5021:. April 2000 5007:. Retrieved 4991:. Retrieved 4975:. Retrieved 4931: 4908:. Retrieved 4899: 4889: 4881: 4874:. Retrieved 4859: 4851:the original 4846: 4836: 4824:. Retrieved 4815: 4794:the original 4783: 4771:. Retrieved 4762: 4752: 4740:. Retrieved 4729: 4720: 4708:. Retrieved 4694: 4686: 4679:. Retrieved 4659: 4655: 4642: 4630:. Retrieved 4626:the original 4621: 4611: 4599:. Retrieved 4595:the original 4590: 4581: 4569:. Retrieved 4565:the original 4555: 4543:. Retrieved 4529: 4520: 4511: 4502: 4490:. Retrieved 4481: 4471: 4459:. Retrieved 4445: 4436: 4424:. Retrieved 4420:the original 4415: 4376: 4369: 4359:21 September 4357:. Retrieved 4348: 4339: 4327:. Retrieved 4319:(JPEG image) 4314: 4307: 4293:(6): 10–20. 4290: 4286: 4280: 4261: 4240:cite journal 4228:. Retrieved 4221:the original 4208: 4196:. Retrieved 4181: 4164: 4152:. Retrieved 4143: 4133: 4121:. Retrieved 4117:the original 4112: 4102: 4090: 4081: 4069:. Retrieved 4047:(9): 48–54. 4044: 4040: 4015:. Retrieved 3996: 3954:. Retrieved 3940: 3928:. Retrieved 3917: 3908: 3896:. Retrieved 3882: 3870:. Retrieved 3861: 3851: 3839:. Retrieved 3828: 3786: 3755: 3745: 3733:. Retrieved 3707: 3700: 3674:. Retrieved 3664: 3657: 3645:. Retrieved 3628: 3618: 3606:. Retrieved 3591: 3583:the original 3578: 3569: 3560: 3544: 3534: 3522:. Retrieved 3501: 3489:. Retrieved 3480: 3471: 3448: 3438: 3417:cite journal 3405:. Retrieved 3398:the original 3385: 3373:. Retrieved 3366:the original 3361: 3357: 3344: 3325: 3313:. Retrieved 3304: 3295: 3283:. Retrieved 3274: 3250:. Retrieved 3237: 3228: 3216:. Retrieved 3207: 3197: 3185:. Retrieved 3156: 3150: 3138: 3126:. Retrieved 3121: 3112: 3085: 3081: 3071: 3051: 3039:. Retrieved 3025: 3013: 2993: 2981:. Retrieved 2967: 2959:Google Books 2957:– via 2943: 2936: 2873: 2863: 2854: 2832: 2826: 2817: 2795: 2789: 2777:. Retrieved 2747: 2737: 2680: 2672: 2660: 2649: 2640:Amdahl's law 2634: 2630: 2624: 2622: 2587: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2544: 2533: 2531: 2525: 2496: 2422: 2418:workstations 2404: 2390: 2382: 2352: 2348: 2342: 2328: 2299: 2271: 2267:Zilog Z80000 2239: 2224: 2213: 2166: 2144: 2137: 2108: 2073: 2066: 2025: 1970: 1947: 1924: 1913: 1893:minicomputer 1884:used in the 1875: 1861: 1722:architecture 1715: 1696: 1692: 1689:minicomputer 1675: 1666:static cores 1658: 1647: 1616: 1606: 1595: 1568: 1534: 1526:Commodore 64 1502:computer bus 1499: 1476: 1469: 1427: 1412: 1403: 1393: 1386: 1379: 1372: 1360: 1348:Please help 1343:verification 1340: 1311:random logic 1302:silicon gate 1286: 1258: 1246:Marcian Hoff 1235: 1225: 1191: 1176: 1149: 1128: 1111: 1099: 1086: 1081: 1078:Philips N.V. 1063: 1051: 1021: 1009: 963: 942: 933: 923: 916: 909: 902: 890: 870: 831: 795: 783: 776: 749: 721:Marcian Hoff 691:silicon-gate 684: 642: 618:George Boole 575: 560: 553: 525: 484: 406: 394: 390:cache memory 379: 364: 332: 305: 293: 286:to external 242:including a 237: 214: 183: 156: 136:instructions 100: 98: 29: 6817:Multiplexer 6781:Data buffer 6492:Single-core 6464:bit slicing 6322:Coprocessor 6177:Coprocessor 6058:performance 5980:Cooperative 5970:Speculative 5930:Distributed 5889:Superscalar 5874:Instruction 5842:Parallelism 5815:Speculative 5647:System/3x0 5519:Instruction 5296:Von Neumann 5209:Post–Turing 5062:23 December 5041:23 December 5025:23 December 5009:23 December 4993:23 December 4988:"CPU-World" 4977:23 December 4910:23 December 4826:23 December 4632:23 December 4601:23 December 4571:23 December 4461:25 November 4329:23 December 4230:23 December 4198:23 December 4123:23 December 3686:cite speech 3407:23 December 3375:23 December 3358:Electronics 3128:28 November 2997:CMicrotek. 2983:13 February 2335:Nintendo 64 2291:cell phones 2257:(1984) and 2117:BELLMAC-32A 2061:Intel 80486 1939:DIP package 1784:Intel 386SL 1774:Intel 80386 1764:Intel 80286 1760:Unreal mode 1754:Intel 80286 1744:NEC V20/V30 1040:converging 982:F-14 Tomcat 786:Moore's law 698:metal gates 668:transistors 660:Moore's law 546:system and 536:DVD players 487:clock cycle 479:Coffee Lake 371:in parallel 296:transistors 202:large-scale 7047:Categories 6937:management 6832:Multiplier 6693:Logic gate 6683:Sequential 6590:Functional 6570:Clock rate 6543:Data cache 6516:Components 6497:Multi-core 6485:Core count 5975:Preemptive 5879:Pipelining 5862:Bit-serial 5805:Wide-issue 5750:Structural 5672:Tilera ISA 5638:MicroBlaze 5608:ETRAX CRIS 5503:Comparison 5348:Load–store 5328:Endianness 4923:References 4876:7 November 4287:IEEE Micro 4006:0252023838 3792:US 4942516 3647:21 January 3315:24 October 3285:24 October 3218:19 January 3187:13 October 3122:Silicon UK 2484:Intel i960 2480:Intel i860 2092:Apple Lisa 2088:CPU design 1973:Intel 8086 1962:Apple IIGS 1734:Intel 8086 1661:spacecraft 1583:hard-wired 1552:pacemakers 1479:Intel 8080 1462:US$ 50,000 1434:Intel 8008 1430:Intel 4004 1376:newspapers 1228:Intel 4004 1210:Intel 4004 1200:business. 1187:Glenrothes 1003:, and the 936:March 2010 906:newspapers 873:references 842:Lee Boysel 764:automation 741:Intel 8008 687:Intel 4004 570:See also: 528:appliances 429:of images. 229:mainframes 206:Intel 4004 188:with many 179:Rock's law 171:unit price 48:Intel 4004 6871:Circuitry 6791:Microcode 6715:Registers 6558:coherence 6533:CPU cache 6391:Word size 6056:Processor 5700:Execution 5603:DEC Alpha 5581:Power ISA 5397:Cognitive 5204:Universal 4950:878079623 4492:1 January 4426:7 January 4071:14 August 4017:14 August 3956:4 October 3930:4 October 3898:4 October 3872:4 October 3841:4 October 3637:1059-1028 3163:: 48–54. 3041:1 October 2928:10070096M 2920:858439915 2904:0065-2458 2779:4 October 2618:Athlon X2 2614:Niagara 2 2602:Athlon MP 2503:Power ISA 2492:DEC Alpha 2476:AMD 29000 2365:Windows 7 2114:Bell Labs 2096:Macintosh 2084:megabytes 1922:console. 1895:—and the 1890:PDP-11/03 1790:Long mode 1730:Real mode 1693:CMOS-PDP8 1627:low power 1587:microcode 1577:with the 1544:Apple IIe 1540:WDC 65C02 1483:Zilog Z80 1406:June 2011 1195:Microchip 1091:T.R. Reid 1033:P-channel 990:pipelined 964:In 1968, 960:F-14 CADC 838:bit slice 756:terminals 695:aluminium 672:computing 578:computers 544:DVD video 382:CPU cache 367:bit slice 301:dissipate 258:Structure 122:-driven, 108:processor 68:A modern 6809:Datapath 6502:Manycore 6474:variable 6312:Hardware 5948:Temporal 5628:OpenRISC 5323:Cellular 5313:Dataflow 5306:modified 4904:Archived 4870:Archived 4820:Archived 4767:Archived 4736:Archived 4704:Archived 4676:73520408 4539:Archived 4486:Archived 4455:Archived 4353:Archived 4323:Archived 4272:Archived 4192:Archived 4148:Archived 4065:Archived 4061:32003640 4011:Archived 3950:Archived 3924:Archived 3892:Archived 3866:Archived 3835:Archived 3802:Archived 3778:Archived 3726:Archived 3670:Archived 3641:Archived 3602:Archived 3552:Archived 3515:Archived 3485:Archived 3463:Archived 3333:Archived 3309:Archived 3279:Archived 3246:Archived 3212:Archived 3181:Archived 3177:32003640 3104:10673679 3060:Archived 3032:Archived 3002:Archived 2977:Archived 2912:59015761 2773:Archived 2685:See also 2623:By 2012 2606:AthlonXP 2588:Intel's 2556:Celerons 2526:Abit BP6 2353:Intel 64 2235:NS 32132 2231:NS 32032 2220:ColdFire 2193:Cromemco 2162:compiler 2147:iAPX 432 2140:HP FOCUS 2111:AT&T 2100:Atari ST 1935:TI-99/4A 1927:TMS 9900 1878:MCP-1600 1613:RCA 1802 1487:Motorola 1269:Ted Hoff 1131:TMS 1000 1087:The Chip 1070:Teledyne 1011:Ray Holt 994:parallel 970:Ray Holt 760:printers 752:embedded 598:Internet 440:. (See: 356:software 324:overflow 276:register 154:system. 126:-based, 124:register 105:computer 60:(MC6800) 6985:Related 6916:Quantum 6906:Digital 6901:Boolean 6799:Counter 6698:Quantum 6459:512-bit 6454:256-bit 6449:128-bit 6292:(MPSoC) 6277:on chip 6275:Systems 6093:(FLOPS) 5906:Process 5755:Control 5737:Hazards 5623:Itanium 5618:Unicore 5576:PowerPC 5301:Harvard 5261:Pointer 5256:Counter 5214:Quantum 5079:7 March 4742:19 July 4710:18 July 4545:23 July 4382:220–221 4154:25 July 3735:25 July 3676:25 July 3608:25 July 3524:25 July 3491:25 July 3252:22 July 2856:stored. 2610:Niagara 2571:wrote: 2443:-based 2433:PA-RISC 2411:IBM 801 2385:PowerPC 2306:desktop 2248:Sequent 2209:MC68060 2201:MC68040 2197:MC68030 2177:MC68020 2169:MC68010 2063:DX2 die 1909:INS8900 1659:Galileo 1618:Galileo 1390:scholar 1261:Busicom 1089:author 980:'s new 978:US Navy 920:scholar 818:Busicom 733:Busicom 706:silicon 653:bipolar 632:at the 566:History 288:address 284:buffers 190:medium- 79:, 2023) 38:TMS1000 6921:Switch 6911:Analog 6649:(IMC) 6620:(MMU) 6469:others 6444:64-bit 6439:48-bit 6434:32-bit 6429:24-bit 6424:16-bit 6419:15-bit 6414:12-bit 6251:Mobile 6167:Stream 6162:Barrel 6157:Vector 6146:(GPU) 6105:(SUPS) 6073:(IPC) 5925:Memory 5918:Vector 5901:Thread 5884:Scalar 5686:Others 5633:RISC-V 5598:SuperH 5567:Power 5563:MIPS-X 5538:PDP-11 5387:Fabric 5139:Models 4948: 4938: 4773:17 May 4681:2 June 4674: 4388: 4172: 4059: 4003: 3798: 3770: 3718: 3635: 3455: 3339:(PDF). 3175: 3102: 2951: 2926: 2918: 2910: 2902: 2892: 2847: 2810: 2564:POWER4 2375:, and 2345:x86-64 2331:64-bit 2329:While 2310:laptop 2129:laptop 2069:32-bit 2003:, the 1993:IBM PC 1931:TI-990 1886:LSI-11 1871:IMP-16 1864:16-bit 1818:VIA C3 1816:mode ( 1682:12-bit 1571:MC6809 1518:US$ 99 1466:Mark-8 1392: 1385: 1378: 1371: 1363: 1232:US$ 60 1166:and a 1156:Litton 922: 915: 908: 901: 893: 768:16-bit 750:Other 499:16-bit 375:32-bit 348:64-bit 278:file, 165:(MOS) 140:memory 132:binary 73:x86-64 70:64-bit 6977:(PPW) 6935:Power 6827:Adder 6703:Array 6670:Logic 6631:(TLB) 6614:(FPU) 6608:(AGU) 6602:(ALU) 6592:units 6528:Cache 6409:8-bit 6404:4-bit 6399:1-bit 6363:(TPU) 6357:(DSP) 6351:(PPU) 6345:(VPU) 6334:(GPU) 6303:(NoC) 6286:(SoC) 6221:(PoP) 6215:(SiP) 6209:(MCM) 6150:GPGPU 6140:(CPU) 6130:Types 6111:(PPW) 6099:(TPS) 6087:(IPS) 6079:(CPI) 5850:Level 5661:S/390 5656:S/370 5651:S/360 5593:SPARC 5571:POWER 5454:TRIPS 5422:Types 5093:(PDF) 5075:. IBM 4672:S2CID 4652:(PDF) 4224:(PDF) 4217:(PDF) 4057:S2CID 3729:(PDF) 3712:(PDF) 3629:Wired 3518:(PDF) 3511:(PDF) 3401:(PDF) 3394:(PDF) 3369:(PDF) 3354:(PDF) 3173:S2CID 3159:(9). 3100:S2CID 3035:(PDF) 3022:(PDF) 2819:chip. 2729:Notes 2668:US$ 6 2569:eWeek 2499:SPARC 2468:SPARC 2461:POWER 2457:R4000 2429:R2000 2377:macOS 2369:Linux 2367:x64, 2363:x64, 2349:AMD64 2318:Cyrix 2259:R3000 2255:R2000 2216:Intel 2185:Altos 2104:Amiga 2044:80387 2040:80287 2036:80187 2009:80386 2005:80286 2001:80188 1997:80186 1985:Intel 1958:65C02 1954:65816 1880:that 1820:only) 1746:only) 1686:PDP-8 1664:have 1454:Intel 1438:8-bit 1397:JSTOR 1383:books 1005:MP944 927:JSTOR 913:books 810:Intel 737:4-bit 717:Intel 344:8-bit 318:in a 316:flags 120:clock 103:is a 77:Zen 4 6955:ACPI 6688:Glue 6580:FIFO 6523:Core 6261:ASIP 6202:CPLD 6197:FPOA 6192:FPGA 6187:ASIC 6040:SPMD 6035:MIMD 6030:MISD 6023:SWAR 6003:SIMD 5998:SISD 5913:Data 5896:Task 5867:Word 5613:M32R 5558:MIPS 5521:sets 5488:ZISC 5483:NISC 5478:OISC 5473:MISC 5466:EPIC 5461:VLIW 5449:EDGE 5439:RISC 5434:CISC 5343:HUMA 5338:NUMA 5081:2013 5064:2009 5043:2009 5027:2009 5011:2009 4995:2009 4979:2009 4946:OCLC 4936:ISBN 4912:2009 4878:2014 4828:2009 4775:2023 4763:CNBC 4744:2021 4712:2021 4683:2011 4634:2009 4603:2009 4573:2009 4547:2020 4494:2023 4463:2022 4428:2011 4386:ISBN 4361:2021 4331:2009 4253:help 4232:2009 4200:2009 4170:ISBN 4156:2010 4125:2009 4073:2022 4019:2022 4001:ISBN 3958:2022 3932:2022 3900:2022 3874:2022 3843:2022 3768:ISBN 3737:2010 3716:ISBN 3692:link 3678:2010 3649:2024 3633:ISSN 3610:2010 3546:LAIR 3526:2010 3493:2010 3453:ISBN 3430:help 3409:2009 3377:2009 3317:2019 3287:2019 3254:2019 3220:2024 3189:2019 3130:2023 3043:2015 2985:2024 2949:ISBN 2916:OCLC 2908:LCCN 2900:ISSN 2890:ISBN 2845:ISBN 2808:ISBN 2781:2022 2652:CPUs 2612:and 2547:Abit 2532:SMP 2501:and 2482:and 2463:and 2453:ARM1 2441:ARM2 2415:Unix 2407:RISC 2395:RISC 2316:and 2278:RISC 2272:The 2252:MIPS 2181:Unix 2102:and 2094:and 2042:and 2032:8087 1999:and 1989:8088 1948:The 1905:NMOS 1740:8080 1676:The 1637:and 1623:CMOS 1591:CISC 1579:6800 1554:and 1546:and 1514:ZX81 1491:6800 1456:and 1428:The 1369:news 1248:and 1226:The 1220:4004 1218:The 1172:PMOS 1168:RISC 1114:8008 1001:CADC 899:news 832:The 814:4004 727:and 548:HDTV 454:and 436:and 397:test 342:and 336:word 231:and 223:and 192:and 146:and 6950:APM 6945:PMU 6837:CPU 6794:ROM 6565:Bus 6182:PAL 5857:Bit 5643:LMC 5548:ARM 5543:x86 5533:VAX 4731:IBM 4664:doi 4482:EDN 4295:doi 4049:doi 3760:doi 3165:doi 3090:doi 2882:doi 2837:doi 2800:doi 2664:DSP 2598:AMD 2465:Sun 2373:BSD 2314:AMD 2302:x86 2274:ARM 2263:SGI 2205:FPU 2159:Ada 2013:V20 1977:x86 1814:AIS 1720:x86 1611:'s 1609:RCA 1560:ARM 1548:IIc 1352:by 1273:I/O 1164:RAM 1160:ROM 1098:in 1042:DSP 1029:ROM 1025:RAM 986:MOS 875:to 812:'s 800:'s 638:ROM 580:on 538:to 450:in 268:Z80 198:TTL 93:AM4 89:Zen 7049:: 6884:3D 4944:. 4898:. 4880:. 4845:. 4814:. 4802:^ 4765:. 4761:. 4728:. 4685:. 4670:. 4660:37 4658:. 4654:. 4620:. 4589:. 4484:. 4480:. 4453:. 4414:. 4400:^ 4384:. 4351:. 4347:. 4291:16 4289:. 4244:: 4242:}} 4238:{{ 4190:. 4146:. 4142:. 4111:. 4063:. 4055:. 4045:53 4043:. 4039:. 4027:^ 4009:. 3995:. 3983:^ 3966:^ 3916:. 3890:. 3864:. 3860:. 3827:. 3812:^ 3776:. 3766:. 3724:. 3688:}} 3684:{{ 3639:. 3631:. 3627:. 3577:. 3543:. 3479:. 3461:. 3421:: 3419:}} 3415:{{ 3362:38 3360:. 3356:. 3307:. 3303:. 3277:. 3273:. 3262:^ 3244:. 3240:. 3236:. 3210:. 3206:. 3179:. 3171:. 3157:53 3155:. 3149:. 3120:. 3098:. 3084:. 3080:. 3030:. 3024:. 2975:. 2924:OL 2922:. 2914:. 2906:. 2898:. 2888:. 2853:. 2843:. 2816:. 2806:. 2756:^ 2746:. 2642:. 2494:. 2490:, 2486:, 2478:, 2474:, 2371:, 2359:, 2308:, 2191:, 2187:, 2164:. 2142:. 2106:. 2038:, 2034:, 1981:PC 1943:KB 1911:. 1806:, 1604:. 1532:. 1256:. 1162:, 1104:. 1056:. 1027:, 992:, 886:. 758:, 723:, 444:.) 411:A 340:4- 274:, 254:. 235:. 181:. 99:A 5123:e 5116:t 5109:v 5083:. 5066:. 5045:. 5029:. 5013:. 4997:. 4981:. 4952:. 4914:. 4830:. 4777:. 4746:. 4714:. 4666:: 4636:. 4605:. 4575:. 4549:. 4496:. 4465:. 4430:. 4394:. 4363:. 4333:. 4301:. 4297:: 4255:) 4251:( 4234:. 4202:. 4158:. 4127:. 4075:. 4051:: 4021:. 3977:. 3960:. 3934:. 3902:. 3876:. 3845:. 3762:: 3739:. 3694:) 3680:. 3651:. 3612:. 3528:. 3495:. 3432:) 3428:( 3411:. 3379:. 3319:. 3289:. 3256:. 3222:. 3191:. 3167:: 3132:. 3106:. 3092:: 3086:1 3045:. 3008:. 2987:. 2961:. 2930:. 2884:: 2839:: 2802:: 2783:. 1851:e 1844:t 1837:v 1810:) 1802:( 1796:) 1792:( 1786:) 1782:( 1776:) 1772:( 1766:) 1762:( 1756:) 1752:( 1736:) 1732:( 1419:) 1413:( 1408:) 1404:( 1394:· 1387:· 1380:· 1373:· 1346:. 1044:- 949:) 943:( 938:) 934:( 924:· 917:· 910:· 903:· 880:. 481:) 458:. 419:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.