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regulations, all for the purpose of seemingly improving state response to human trafficking risks that may accompany open borders. However, the effects of these new regulations have been mixed when it comes to the actual well-being of migrant sex workers. For example, South Korea, after their Tier 3 ranking in the 2001 TIP, launched an in-depth national survey to examine the conditions of their foreign sex workers. At the head of this new effort, however, was a government minister who had previously sought to abolish prostitution. The result was a national law that outlawed the role of third-party migration intermediaries who played an important role in facilitating the migration process of women into South Korea.
693:, a highly diverse and stratified commercial sex industry also exists to cater to these diversities in background, income, and class. For example, the spectrum of sex worker diversity ranges from migrants from Nigeria, Iran, Philippines, and Russia, with their skin tone corresponding to the price they command and the male clientele they see: the lighter the sex worker's skin color, the more Western the clientele and the higher the price. As a result, the UAE's migrant sex worker population is highly diverse and burgeoning. However, because the UAE has banned prostitution, these sex workers remain largely underground, illegal, and in constant fear of law enforcement intervention and the possibility of deportation.
609:, a pledge NGOs and governments, with few exceptions, must sign declaring their opposition to prostitution or service provision to prostitutes. This pledge has been heavily criticized by NGOs working to fight HIV/AIDS, sex worker rights activists and organizations, and even national governments who understand that a declaration of opposition towards prostitution would be counterproductive to eliminating HIV/AIDS among a vulnerable population. This pledge and its requirement of opposition to prostitution has affected the funding of many organizations working explicitly with migrant sex workers by eliminating many of their social services and increasing their risk of abuse and limited mobility.
64:
196:, or both components of migrant sex work make it difficult to obtain reliable and conclusive estimates of migrant sex workers. Scholars Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovski call sex workers "hidden populations" which they define as "A group of individuals for whom the size and boundaries are unknown, and for whom no sampling frame exists." The reasons why a sampling frame does not exist lies in the illegal and stigmatized nature of sex work. In order to protect their identity from law enforcement and family members, sex workers are often unwilling to participate in studies and surveys that may compromise their privacy and identity.
251:, do not adequately account for the variety of sex worker conditions and contexts, voluntary or involuntary. For instance, Filipina hostesses who migrate to Japan to work as entertainers must give up their legal documents to their recruiters during the migration process. While the law considers the process of giving up a passport to a third party intermediary as a condition of human trafficking, several scholars, activists, and the sex workers themselves do not regard this to be human trafficking, particularly when individuals consent to this component of the migration process.
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is very diverse in terms of nation of origin, the population is divided into mainly two key demographics: poor, vulnerable laborers who come to Dubai through restrictive labor contracts; and rich, Western businessmen and financiers. Both populations contribute to Dubai and the greater UAE in very different yet very important ways. While the more privileged
Western migrants contribute financial capital to the development of the city, the poor migrants contribute much of the physical labor necessary to build the city's physical structures.
423:
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trafficking or as women who are acting on their own free will. According to Leslie
Jeffrey, the Canadian government does an inadequate job of regulating prostitution. The blame for the issue falls on women rather than men who are buying the services. Jeffrey also points to studies done about Thai and Chinese women indicating they are not being coerced to work in Canada. The Canadian government over time has initiated different preventive legislation to make migrant sex work more difficult to find. Acts such as
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disadvantaged migrant workers. Criminalization of buyers of sex work has created more dangerous situations for individuals who continue to engage in commercial sex. Often, they can no longer conduct transactions in public spaces because their clients fear arrest and legal action. As a result, sex work is less susceptible to outreach, and migrants who fear legal repercussions themselves for their legal statuses are unwilling to be involved in situations that may involve law enforcement or service provision.
225:
involuntary sex trafficking. However, many scholars caution against categorizing sex workers as either completely voluntary or completely involuntary. They often argue that sex work, like other forms of labor, can span a spectrum between the two extremes, with most circumstances falling in the middle through various labor rights violations. Nevertheless, the vulnerability of migrant sex workers can make them susceptible to exploitative or coercive labor practices that can resemble or be human trafficking.
301:
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the debate are pro-sex worker rights academics and activists who argue for the separation of voluntary migrant sex work from involuntary human trafficking and a greater focus on labor and migration rights instead of trafficking. This group works for the recognition of the right of women to pursue sex work as a legitimate form of work, more flexible and open borders for migrants, and a greater focus on the spectrum of coercive labor conditions.
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contraceptives. Sex worker outreach organizations also exist in the areas of public and global health. NGOs also largely target migrant sex workers for their high risk of attracting and passing on sexually transmitted diseases. They offer services such as providing contraception in the form of condoms, engaging sex workers in educational classes concerning sexual and other forms of physical health, and providing HIV and other STD testing.
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138:. Some migrants may have originally intended to work in commercial sex while others found themselves turning to commercial sex after alternate labor means failed or proved to be less lucrative. Others may engage in sex work as a result of situations involving the need to pay off debts incurred during migration or fees to a wide variety of middlemen who may help secure papers, travel passage, and places of work.
392:, where sex work is legalized, the legal benefits are largely accrued only by sex workers who have legal status or Dutch citizenship. As a result, the illegal migrant sex worker population that comprises 50%-60% of the overall sex worker population does not have access to licensed and regulated establishments and find themselves pushed into illegal and potentially dangerous sectors of sex work.
175:. As a result, depending on the definition of human trafficking by the organization or data collector, the number of either migrant sex workers or victims of sex trafficking can dramatically change depending on whether or not these two categories of individuals are conflated. Scholars, service providers, and practitioners who attempt to remain apolitical and outside the
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third party intermediaries. Studies are unlikely to capture the sheer diversity in migrant sex worker experiences, especially when many of them come from selective samples, such as from a sex worker service provider or even shelter for human trafficking victims. As a result, many scholars caution against accepting any survey or study of sex workers as generalizable.
410:. Along with these negative sentiments are negative attitudes directed at migrants who engage in sex work, with concerns over sex work's relationship with transnational organized crime, sexually transmitted diseases, and lower moral standards. States have responded by tightening their borders and deporting migrant sex workers.
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exploitative labor conditions. Proponents for partial criminalization argue that making the act of buying sex, as opposed to selling sex, illegal will eliminate unequal penalties that are traditionally felt by the sex worker, especially when the sex worker is not voluntarily participating in commercial sex.
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Because prostitution can be an extremely political topic that represents differing political interests, the method of data collection and the use of collected data can vary in reliability. While more pro-sex work academics, organizations, and activists make an explicit demarcation between sex workers
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Several scholars have noted the growing number of academic studies, news media coverage, and government and NGO reports on migrant sex workers, victims of sex trafficking, and the overlap between these two groups. As the perception of an international sex trafficking pandemic grows, there have been a
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Low economic status and harsh living conditions in migrant sex workers' home country often serve as push factors for migration to more economically advantaged nations. Vast migration between third and first world countries in response to diminishing economic prospects at home has been prevalent since
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The illegal nature of migrant sex work makes it difficult to obtain reliable and conclusive estimates of migrant sex workers. However, social scientists have discovered significant trends regarding the identity of migrant sex workers. While migrants who work in agriculture or construction are largely
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who wish to eventually work in Europe or the United States. The UAE's economic boom and aggressive development in the early to mid 2000s made it not only attractive to foreign migrants, but also dependent on them. In Dubai, migrants make up almost 90% of the population. While this migrant population
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Under the Dutch Model, these legal benefits and reduction of risk are not available to migrant sex workers who are largely illegal. Regulated and legalized sex work requires the registration of brothels, mandated health testing for sex workers, and various other regulations for indoor working spaces
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and eventually permanent residency or citizenship. However, these legal benefits are often only available for individuals who can prove their involvement in commercial sex work was involuntary and a form of human trafficking victimhood. On the other hand, some NGO-run campaigns encourage migrant sex
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because they do not believe in voluntary prostitution or because they view any migration for the purpose of sex work as human trafficking. This perspective has largely dominated mainstream governmental and NGO perspectives toward human trafficking across international contexts. On the other side of
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Different parts of Canada have different problems which cause women to deal with acts of violence. In particular, many women experience violence with this career which often does not get reported. In
Toronto, many women did not report violence, but in Vancouver women were more likely to report acts
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make it harder for women to be directly soliciting for sex. Additionally, with the passage of C-36 there would be $ 20 million allocated to assist individuals trying to leave prostitution. This statute made it harder for women to get clients and jobs had to be done in secrecy. McIntyre asserts that
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Canada has emerged as an important country for migrant sex work. Canada has seen a significant influx of migrant sex workers because of the notion that the West is seen as a mecca of opportunity. Furthermore, Canada is a rich nation and some women envision themselves becoming citizens one day. Many
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have largely been centered on anti-trafficking activism and service provision that may also include migrant sex workers. Much of NGO response to migrant sex work has been on increasing awareness of human trafficking problems. Anti-trafficking NGOs have played a role in providing health services and
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In the 90s, Canada started to become more cognizant of migrant sex workers. During this time there was national debate over whether the work should be viewed as prostitution or as a labor force. There are two perspectives taken when dealing with prostitution, which are treating women as victims of
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Migrant sex workers who have legal status largely do not exist for two reasons. First, governments with legal sex industries typically do not allow foreign nationals to participate legally. New
Zealand and Australia are two examples that prohibit foreign individuals with various visa statuses from
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Many migrant sex workers migrate illegally or become illegal migrants after leaving previously legal statuses and jobs for sex work. Illegal migrant status can heavily restrict sex worker access to legal alternatives to sex work, legal sex work venues, and government-provided social services. The
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Because of their illegal and vulnerable economic status, some migrant sex workers may find themselves in situations where coercion and forced sex work may be present. Under international legal definitions of human trafficking, forced and coercive forms of sex work are considered to be instances of
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Migrant sex work is also incredibly diverse due to the large number of countries and migration contexts that are involved. There is no statistically generalizable portrait of migrant sex workers' day-to-day lives, living and working conditions, and relationships with other sex workers, clients, or
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Migrant sex workers are diverse in terms of nationality of origin. In certain national contexts, such as in the United Arab
Emirates, sex workers come from a diverse range of nations of origin, such as Russia, Nigeria, and Thailand. About 60% of sex workers in large Dutch cities, for instance, are
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State response may differ based on anti-human trafficking attitudes that often prevail. Some states treat migrant sex workers differently if they are considered to be victims of human trafficking and not voluntary sex workers. Some governments, such as that of the United States, provide legal and
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and migrant sex work should be considered the same concept has been a contentious debate among feminist activists, government officials, scholars, and religious organizations for the past 20 years. This debate currently dominates much of the public discussion surrounding human trafficking and sex
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National governments respond to Tier 3 and Tier 2 Watchlist rankings and the potential consequence of sanctions in a variety of ways. These responses also differ in their effects on migrant sex workers. Many countries respond by placing more restrictive immigration standards or greater migration
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Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so. A Tier 3 ranking can result in significant sanctions from the U.S. government, such as opposition to assistance from international financial assistance institutions and the
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model of legalizing and regulating sex work. Some pro-sex worker rights advocates argue that the Dutch model of legalization and regulation is the most beneficial for the labor standards and working conditions of sex workers, while many anti-sex work activists argue that the
Swedish Model helps
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releases an annual
Trafficking In Persons Report that rates all countries based on their response and action regarding human trafficking within and between their borders. Their ratings are based on whether or not a government is deemed compliant with U.S. minimum standards for response to human
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understanding and discussion of human trafficking involves the international flow of migration, as well as its
Christian-conservative position on sex work. According to the Department of State, "Although not all trafficking involves migration, and not all migration is human trafficking, the
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Tyldum, Guri and Anette
Brunovskis. JH. 2005. "Human Trafficking in East Asia: Current Trends, Data Collection, and Knowledge Gaps." Pp. 165-202 in Data and research on human trafficking: A global survey edited by Laczko, Frank and Gozdziak, Elzbieta. Geneva: International Organization for
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Proponents of legalizing prostitution often argue that legalization will provide regulation and benefits to an industry that suffers from negative externalities as a direct result of its illegal status, such as the inability of sex workers to seek legal action towards violent customers or
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However, many scholars argue that neither of these models have had dramatically different results in the status of sex workers or trafficking victims. Rather, both models have only deepened the dangers of sex work for vulnerable groups that engage in sex work, primarily socioeconomically
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participating in sex work, making individuals who choose to do so anyway illegal under immigration law. Second, governments that do not have legal sex industries typically allow the entrance of foreign nationals who are currently working as prostitutes or have a history of prostitution.
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male, migrants who engage in commercial sex work are largely female with ages ranging from the early teens to middle age. Migrant sex workers make up significant proportions of the sex worker population in many countries, with estimates ranging from 37% in the UK to 90% in Spain.
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regarding prostitution still often remark how the legal definitions of human trafficking are still too vague for them to efficiently and neutrally define and count victims. As a result, who is considered to be a migrant sex worker or victim of sex trafficking can widely vary.
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There have also been organizations that explicitly support the rights of migrant sex workers, many of which are sex worker rights groups, as well as human rights, migrant rights, LGBT rights organisations, UN agencies and academics. These groups primarily argue for the
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National governments have responded to migrant sex work similarly to the way they have responded to mass migration. Anti-immigration sentiments have flared in many receiving countries of mass migration, such as the United States. and various
European countries, such as
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large number of attempts to count the number of individuals who engage in some sort of migration and sex work, either voluntarily or coerced. However, scholars and activists have often criticized the methodologies of these studies and the motivations behind them.
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and the procurement of clients. As a result, illegal migrant workers who fear deportment over their legal status cannot participate in the formal paperwork associated with legal sex work. They continue to become marginalized from more privileged sex workers.
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and migration situations have contributed to a highly contentious debate and has played a prominent role in structuring how governments have responded to migrant sex workers in terms of viewing them as unwilling victims of a crime or as criminals themselves.
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from rural to urban areas and from developing to industrialized nations, and the economic factors that help to determine migrant status. Migrant sex workers have also been the subject of discussions concerning the legality of sex work, its connection to
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women from different parts of Asia, especially Thai women, started migrating to Canada because of the labor flow and migration policies. Also, migration reforms in parts of Europe have made it harder for people to stay for an extended period of time.
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Sex work and sex trafficking conflation is also a heavily debated legal topic. Several scholars argue that existing legal provisions aimed at combating human trafficking, such as the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act and the 2000 United Nations
466:' Trafficking In Persons Report. A prominent component of the TIP Report ranking of countries's response to human trafficking is their involvement and encouragement of civil society and non-governmental efforts at combating human trafficking.
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eliminate unfair criminalization of prostitutes instead of the janes, johns and pimps who exploit them. Criminalizing clients and pimps additionally avoids prosecuting prostitutes who are, to them, victims of human trafficking.
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and for the rights and legal status of migrant workers. Many of these NGOs advocate for more humane migration policies that would not harm migrant sex workers and the risks that accompany illegal status. Such groups include the
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vulnerabilities of migrants make them a tempting target for traffickers." Countries' responses towards migrant workers' conditions of vulnerability therefore play a pivotal role in their Trafficking in Persons Report ranking.
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and victims of sex trafficking, many other groups consider prostitution to inherently lack a voluntary component. Many anti-sex work activists consider any form of migration for the purpose of commercial sex to be a form of
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Countries within the European Union have varied legal statuses for prostitution and sex work. Two European nations have served as representative examples of the two popularly debated legal responses to prostitution:
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gave UAE a series of Tier 3 and Tier 2 Watchlist rankings. As a result, the UAE allowed more local and international NGO presence to develop, including those working to end human trafficking and sex trafficking.
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are critical ways in which migrant sex workers are marginalized. Migrant workers who initially migrate under legal means can become illegal migrants in violation of their visas if they decide to enter sex work.
591:. In an effort to combat human trafficking and the supposed role of sex trafficking in spreading HIV/AIDS, the legislation explicitly opposes any efforts that do not conflate prostitution and sex trafficking:
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subcontracting to foreign corporations. Women can choose to engage in commercial sex over these forms of labor, or use sex work to supplement other labor activities, such as domestic work.
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The legal status of sex work varies in various different national contexts around the world. Scholar Janie Chuang identifies the following four regulatory models for prostitution:
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Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA's minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards.
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Because of the UAE's large migrant worker population, restrictive labor contracts, and lack of anti-trafficking partnerships with NGOs, the United States Department of State
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Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA's minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards
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health services to individuals who engage in commercial sex if these individuals are proven and officially certified by law enforcement to be victims of human trafficking.
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The Toronto Network Against Trafficking in Women; The Multicultural History Society of Ontario; The Metro Toronto Chinese and Southeast Asian Legal Clinic (June 2000).
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trafficking, which are articulated in the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. According to the U.S. Department of State, countries are rated on the following standards
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during sexual assaults and rapes or access services available to sex workers with appropriate legal status and citizenship. The possibility of facing deportation and
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Along with demand for migrant laborers was also the demand for migrant sex workers. Because of the diversity in the demographics of individuals who live and work in
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nothing in the anti-prostitution clause "shall be construed to preclude" services to prostitutes, including testing, care and prevention services, including condoms.
1940:
76:, primarily illegal immigration status, and poor language skills. This results in their frequent marginalization in the unregulated and dangerous sectors of the
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598:"No funds may be used to provide assistance to any group or organization that does not have a policy explicitly opposing prostitution and sex trafficking."
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However, legalization of sex work does not mean all sex workers benefit. Even in situations where sex work is decriminalized and legalized, such as in
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widened the income gap between developed and developing nations. As a result, the number of international migrants doubled between 1960 and 2005. This
38:. It is significant because of its role as a dominant demographic of sex work internationally. It has common features across various contexts, such as
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The United States Department of State exerts significant influence on the migration and human trafficking policies of foreign government through the
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TAMPEP international Foundation. 2009. “Sex Work in Europe.” European Network for HIV/STI Prevention and Health Promotion among Migrant Sex Workers.
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Brennan, Denise. 2005. “Methodological Challenges in Research with Trafficked Persons: Tales from the Field.” International Migration 43:35-54.
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because of these types of laws migrant workers who are deported put women more at risk to encounter poverty and abuse in their home country.
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women of color from developing nations. As a result, what distinguishes migrant sex workers from local sex workers are primarily their low
63:
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UK Network of Sex Work Projects. 2008. "Working with Migrant Sex Workers." Manchester, United Kingdom: UK Network of Sex Work Projects
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Ehrenreich, Barbara and Hochschild, Arlie. 2004. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. New York, NY: Holt
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Bernstein, Elizabeth. 2007. Temporarily Yours: Intimacy, Authenticity, and the Commerce of Sex. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Busza, Joanna. 2006. "Having the rug pulled from under your feet: one project’s experience of the US policy reversal on sex work."
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Chuang, Janie. 2010. "Rescuing Trafficking from Ideological Capture: Prostitution Reform and Anti-Trafficking Law and Policy.” 158
1442:""We have the right not to be 'rescued'..."*: When Anti-Trafficking Programmes Undermine the Health and Well-Being of Sex Workers"
1848:
1525:
1215:"'The Problem of Prostitution': Repressive policies in the name of migration control, public order, and women's rights in France"
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Doezema, Jo. 2002. “Who Gets to Choose?: Coercion, Consent, and the UN Trafficking Protocol.” Gender and Development 10(1):20-27.
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320: Abolitionism - prostitution is legal, but organized activities such as brothels and pimping are illegal; prostitution is
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Lee, June JH. 2005. "Human Trafficking in East Asia: Current Trends, Data Collection, and Knowledge Gaps." Pp 165–202 in
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Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. 2012. "Trafficking in Persons Report." U.S. Department of State.
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Semple, Kirk. 2012. "Young Immigrants, Seeking Deferred Action Help, Find Unexpected Path." New York Times, March 22.
587:(PEPFAR), a commitment of $ 15 billion over five years (2003–2008) from United States to internationally fight the
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Countries whose governments fully comply with the Trafficking Victims Protection Act's (TVPA) minimum standards.
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Jeffrey, Leslie Ann (Spring 2005). "Canada and Migrant Sex Work: Challenging the 'Foreign' in Foreign Policy".
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595:"No funds may be used to promote or advocate the legalization or practice of prostitution or sex trafficking."
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370:: Does not consider prostitution a crime. Law enforcement is only involved when acts under criminal law occur.
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1638:"Butterfly: Resisting the harms of anti-trafficking policies and fostering peer-based organising in Canada"
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Morrison, Andrew R., Maurice Schiff, and Mirja Sjoblom, eds. 2008. The International Migration of Women.
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1743:"Prostitution Criminal Law Reform: Bill C-36, the Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act"
360:: Prohibition of prostitution for all parties, except for prostitutes. This is popularly known as the
2018:
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World Economic Forum. 2012. "What If Rich Countries Shut the Door on Immigration?" Time, September 20
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1795:"Migrant sex workers caught up in Ottawa sting facing deportation, further exploitation: activists"
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Migrants enter sex work for a variety of reasons. Female migrants largely migrate for jobs in the
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edited by Laczko, Frank and Gozdziak, Elzbieta. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.
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about the regulation of sex work and the provision of services for victims of sex trafficking.
1945:
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Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children
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376:: Active regulation of prostitution through licensing, zoning, and mandatory health measures.
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330: Neo-abolitionism illegal to buy sex and for 3rd party involvement, legal to sell sex
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Bell, Eleanor, 2011, "Industry calls for migrant sex worker visas", ABC News, November 18
1526:"Prostitution is legal in countries across Europe, but it's nothing like what you think"
883:. 2001. “Women of Color and the Global Sex Trade: Transnational Feminist Perspectives.”
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The existence of anti-human trafficking NGOs has also been spurred by the United States
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2012:
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which does not criminalize the prostitute, but rather targets the clients and pimps.
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For women who engage in rural to urban migration in developing nations with growing
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Brothel price sign for sex workers of various nationalities on Soy Street, Hong Kong
17:
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Phillips, Michael M. 2005. "Brazil Refuses U.S. AIDS Funds, Rejects Conditions" in
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model of criminalizing the purchase of sex, but not the act of selling it; and the
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Parrenas, Rhacel. 2011. Illicit Flirtations. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
669:'s geographic location makes it an important stepping stone for migrants from the
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1702:
1286:"Editorial: Gains and Challenges in the Global Movement for Sex Workers' Rights"
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Augustin, Laura. 2006. “The Disappearing of a Category: Migrants Who Sell Sex.”
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135:
1322:"Safeguarding the human rights and dignity of undocumented migrant sex workers"
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354:: Prohibition of prostitution for all parties (prostitute, clients, and pimps)
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1236:
1043:"Purity, Victimhood and Agency: Fifteen years of the UN Trafficking Protocol"
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130:, as opposed to males who engage in more physically demanding labor, such as
1973:
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US Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria Act of 2003 HR 1298
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149:, sex work is often more lucrative than alternative forms of labor, such as
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962:"The Philippine Sex Workers Collective: Struggling to be heard, not saved"
1990:
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388:, the migrant sex worker population is often negatively affected. In the
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In some contexts, such as the United States, NGOs have played a role in
1978:
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1552:"Health and safety in the sex industry - Prostitution - Government.nl"
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Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry.
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work. On one side of the debate are anti-prostitution activists who
1718:"Trafficking in Women Including Thai Migrant Sex Workers in Canada"
1966:
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The International Committee on the Rights of Sex Workers in Europe
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1417:. 22 U.S.C. §§ 7601-7682. 108th Congress. Retrieved 21 April 2012
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308: Decriminalization - No criminal penalties for prostitution
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consequences are that migrant sex workers are unable to turn to
1837:
1378:"Tiers: Placement, Guide, and Penalties for Tier 3 Countries"
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442:. Inscription says "Respect sex workers all over the world."
106:, with females making up 50% of all international migrants.
1576:"The Netherlands Vs. Sweden: Should Buying Sex Be Illegal?"
1495:"New Nordic sex laws are making prostitutes feel less safe"
1270:
Kempadoo, Kamala. 1998. "Globalizing Sex Workers' Rights."
864:
Gridlock: Labor, Migration, and Human Trafficking in Dubai
1602:
Brock, Deborah; Gillies, Kara; Oliver, Chantelle; Mook.
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United States influence on responses to migrant sex work
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Data and research on human trafficking: A global survey
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487:
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facilitating irregular migrants' access to legal status
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Calderaro, Charlène; Giametta, Calogero (2019-04-02).
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recognition of sex work as a legitimate form of work
314: Legalization -prostitution legal and regulated
1954:
1928:
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523:
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
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Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
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Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
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Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
1493:
1284:Lepp, Annalee; Gerasimov, Borislav (2019-04-29).
145:and importation of foreign financial capital and
930:
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1941:Women migrant workers from developing countries
470:Advocates for the rights of migrant sex workers
240:conflate migrant sex work and human trafficking
1769:"Migrant sex workers rights are human rights!"
459:workers to return to their nations of origin.
177:feminist views on sex trafficking and sex work
1849:
1821:"17 Facts About Sexual Violence and Sex Work"
1550:Zaken, Ministerie van Algemene (2015-10-12).
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8:
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490:, Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women,
47:, and the views of national governments and
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336: Prohibitionism - prostitution illegal
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1194:. University of California Press: Berkeley
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872:
858:
585:President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief
166:Conflation of sex work and sex trafficking
1649:
1463:
1453:
1440:Ahmed, Aziza; Seshu, Meena (2015-04-30).
1297:
1226:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1054:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
993:
973:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
844:
842:
840:
838:
256:human trafficking in relation to sex work
1636:Lam, Elene; Lepp, Annalee (2019-04-02).
661:Prostitution in the United Arab Emirates
151:working in manufacturing or in factories
1597:
1595:
788:Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies
770:
1257:
1255:
866:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
1819:Koster, Katherine (4 December 2015).
1118:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
342: Legality varies with local laws
254:Issues surrounding the definition of
7:
1793:McIntyre, Catherine (13 May 2015).
1147:Chicago: The University of Chicago.
579:In 2003, the US Congress under the
552:withdrawal of non-humanitarian aid.
488:Global Network of Sex Work Projects
396:Responses to migration and sex work
209:Relationship with human trafficking
960:Parmanand, Sharmila (2019-04-29).
492:International Union of Sex Workers
84:Reasons for migration and sex work
25:
1492:Fouche, Gwladys (27 April 2014).
920:Children in the Global Sex Trade.
918:Davidson, Julia O'Connell. 2005.
229:Conflation with human trafficking
188:The illegal nature of either the
1675:Canadian Foreign Policy Journal
1506:from the original on 2022-05-14
448:non-governmental organizations
49:non-governmental organizations
1:
1687:10.1080/11926422.2005.9673387
1041:Wijers, Marjan (2015-04-30).
698:Trafficking In Persons Report
507:Trafficking in Persons Report
434:, the largest and best known
200:Diversity in migrant sex work
157:Problems in data and research
626:Prostitution Info Center in
1773:Migrant Sex Workers Project
655:Dubai, United Arab Emirates
279:anti-immigration sentiments
55:Demographics and background
2055:
658:
618:The Netherlands and Sweden
572:
510:
473:
293:
268:Migration and legal status
212:
1936:Feminization of migration
1747:Canada Justice Department
739:Feminization of migration
220:Risk of human trafficking
607:anti-prostitution pledge
575:Anti-prostitution pledge
569:Anti-prostitution pledge
558:U.S. Department of State
352:Complete criminalization
102:has increasingly become
1642:Anti-Trafficking Review
1446:Anti-Trafficking Review
1428:The Wall Street Journal
1290:Anti-Trafficking Review
1228:10.14197/atr.2012191210
1219:Anti-Trafficking Review
1192:Not Fit For Our Society
1047:Anti-Trafficking Review
966:Anti-Trafficking Review
862:Mahdavi, Pardis. 2011.
605:Within PEPFAR lies the
358:Partial criminalization
100:international migration
1651:10.14197/atr.201219126
1611:Canadian Woman Studies
1299:10.14197/atr.201219121
1272:Canadian Woman Studies
1143:Altman, Dennis. 2001.
975:10.14197/atr.201219124
810:AgustĂn, Laura. 2007.
630:
443:
344:
184:Illegality of sex work
96:economic globalization
68:
1190:Schrag, Peter. 2010.
1056:10.14197/atr.20121544
922:London: Polity Press.
625:
425:
303:
89:Reasons for migration
66:
667:United Arab Emirates
290:Legality of sex work
110:Reasons for sex work
74:socioeconomic status
18:Migrant prostitution
1455:10.14197/atr.201219
1162:immigration.govt.nz
1158:"New Zealand Visas"
759:Laura MarĂa AgustĂn
723:of sexual assault.
581:Bush Administration
476:Sex workers' rights
401:Government response
1913:Reproductive labor
1865:Reproductive labor
1604:"Migrant Sex Work"
1530:businessinsider.nl
1480:Health Policy Plan
814:London: Zed Books.
631:
444:
436:red-light district
430:by Els Rijerse in
345:
69:
2006:
2005:
1946:Global care chain
1556:www.government.nl
1353:"Tier Placements"
368:Decriminalization
235:human trafficking
215:human trafficking
173:human trafficking
16:(Redirected from
2046:
1955:Industry sectors
1858:
1851:
1844:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1730:
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1722:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1653:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1608:
1599:
1590:
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1572:
1566:
1565:
1563:
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1547:
1541:
1540:
1538:
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1522:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1497:
1489:
1483:
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1457:
1437:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1399:
1393:
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1390:
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1374:
1368:
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1365:
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1349:
1340:
1339:
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1326:
1318:
1312:
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1301:
1281:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1240:
1230:
1210:
1204:
1201:
1195:
1188:
1182:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1154:
1148:
1141:
1130:
1127:
1121:
1114:
1077:
1074:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1038:
1029:
1026:
1011:
1007:
988:
987:
977:
957:
951:
944:
935:
932:
923:
916:
910:
907:
888:
881:Kempadoo, Kamala
878:
867:
860:
833:
830:
824:
821:
815:
808:
791:
784:
543:Tier 2 Watchlist
341:
335:
329:
319:
313:
307:
296:Prostitution law
143:free-trade zones
28:Migrant sex work
21:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2029:Human migration
2024:Migrant workers
2009:
2008:
2007:
2002:
1962:Domestic worker
1950:
1929:Global patterns
1924:
1908:Invisible labor
1901:Affective labor
1896:Emotional labor
1891:Cognitive labor
1867:
1862:
1832:
1825:Huffington Post
1818:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1775:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1726:
1724:
1723:. pp. 2–79
1720:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1618:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1584:
1582:
1580:Pulitzer Center
1574:
1573:
1569:
1560:
1558:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1535:
1533:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1509:
1507:
1500:The Independent
1491:
1490:
1486:
1482:21(4): 329-332.
1477:
1473:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1400:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1361:
1359:
1351:
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1343:
1333:
1331:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1221:(12): 155–171.
1212:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1166:
1164:
1156:
1155:
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1142:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1115:
1080:
1075:
1064:
1040:
1039:
1032:
1027:
1014:
1008:
991:
959:
958:
954:
945:
938:
933:
926:
917:
913:
908:
891:
879:
870:
861:
836:
831:
827:
822:
818:
809:
794:
785:
772:
768:
763:
734:Human migration
729:
707:
663:
657:
620:
615:
577:
571:
556:Central to the
515:
509:
504:
478:
472:
420:
403:
398:
343:
339:
337:
333:
331:
327:
325:
317:
315:
311:
309:
305:
298:
292:
275:law enforcement
270:
265:
233:Whether or not
231:
222:
217:
211:
202:
186:
168:
159:
112:
91:
86:
57:
45:sex trafficking
36:migrant workers
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2052:
2050:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2011:
2010:
2004:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1905:
1904:
1903:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1875:
1873:
1872:Types of labor
1869:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1853:
1846:
1838:
1831:
1830:
1811:
1785:
1760:
1734:
1708:
1665:
1644:(12): 91–107.
1628:
1591:
1567:
1542:
1517:
1484:
1471:
1465:2047/d20002549
1432:
1419:
1407:
1394:
1369:
1341:
1313:
1276:
1263:
1251:
1242:
1205:
1196:
1183:
1174:
1149:
1131:
1122:
1078:
1062:
1030:
1012:
989:
952:
948:The World Bank
936:
924:
911:
889:
868:
834:
825:
816:
792:
769:
767:
764:
762:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
730:
728:
725:
706:
703:
683:Southeast Asia
679:Eastern Europe
656:
653:
619:
616:
614:
611:
603:
602:
599:
596:
583:announced the
570:
567:
554:
553:
546:
540:
534:
508:
505:
503:
500:
471:
468:
446:Response from
426:Bronze statue
419:
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378:
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371:
365:
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326:
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185:
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167:
164:
158:
155:
111:
108:
90:
87:
85:
82:
56:
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24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2051:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2014:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1918:Double burden
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1877:
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1874:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1854:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1836:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1800:
1799:National Post
1796:
1789:
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1643:
1639:
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1598:
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1571:
1568:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1543:
1531:
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1518:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1475:
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1447:
1443:
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1429:
1423:
1420:
1416:
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1398:
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1383:
1379:
1373:
1370:
1358:
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1330:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1295:
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1287:
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1273:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1243:
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1234:
1229:
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1209:
1206:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1184:
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1175:
1163:
1159:
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1146:
1140:
1138:
1136:
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1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
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1067:
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1025:
1023:
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1013:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
990:
985:
981:
976:
971:
968:(12): 57–73.
967:
963:
956:
953:
949:
943:
941:
937:
931:
929:
925:
921:
915:
912:
906:
904:
902:
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890:
886:
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877:
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869:
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859:
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849:
847:
845:
843:
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805:
803:
801:
799:
797:
793:
789:
783:
781:
779:
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771:
765:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
749:Globalization
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
731:
726:
724:
720:
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711:
704:
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662:
654:
652:
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629:
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612:
610:
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600:
597:
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586:
582:
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568:
566:
562:
559:
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541:
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493:
489:
484:
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417:
415:
411:
409:
400:
395:
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391:
387:
382:
375:
372:
369:
366:
363:
362:Swedish Model
359:
356:
353:
350:
349:
348:
323:
302:
297:
289:
287:
283:
280:
276:
267:
262:
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208:
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199:
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174:
165:
163:
156:
154:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
120:domestic work
117:
109:
107:
105:
101:
97:
88:
83:
81:
79:
75:
65:
61:
54:
52:
50:
46:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
2039:Sex industry
2034:Prostitution
1995:
1879:Women's work
1824:
1814:
1802:. Retrieved
1798:
1788:
1776:. Retrieved
1772:
1763:
1751:. Retrieved
1749:. 2015-03-11
1746:
1737:
1725:. Retrieved
1711:
1681:(1): 33–48.
1678:
1674:
1668:
1641:
1631:
1619:. Retrieved
1614:
1610:
1583:. Retrieved
1579:
1570:
1559:. Retrieved
1555:
1545:
1534:. Retrieved
1532:. 2019-03-13
1529:
1520:
1508:. Retrieved
1499:
1487:
1479:
1474:
1445:
1435:
1427:
1422:
1410:
1402:
1397:
1385:. Retrieved
1381:
1372:
1360:. Retrieved
1356:
1332:. Retrieved
1328:
1316:
1292:(12): 1–13.
1289:
1279:
1271:
1266:
1245:
1218:
1208:
1199:
1191:
1186:
1177:
1165:. Retrieved
1161:
1152:
1144:
1125:
1117:
1046:
965:
955:
947:
919:
914:
884:
863:
828:
819:
811:
790:32(1):29-47.
787:
754:Prostitution
744:Karayuki-san
721:
712:
708:
695:
688:
664:
649:
645:
640:Netherlands'
632:
613:Case studies
604:
578:
563:
555:
548:
542:
536:
530:
516:
479:
461:
453:
445:
427:
418:NGO response
412:
404:
383:
379:
374:Legalization
373:
367:
357:
351:
346:
321:
284:
271:
263:Legal issues
253:
245:
232:
223:
203:
187:
169:
160:
140:
132:construction
113:
92:
78:sex industry
70:
58:
27:
26:
2019:Immigration
1778:29 November
1753:29 November
1727:11 December
1621:12 December
1334:21 November
1274:22:143-150.
1145:Global Sex.
887:1(2):28-51.
671:Middle East
390:Netherlands
136:agriculture
116:care sector
2013:Categories
1804:6 December
1617:(2): 84–91
1585:2022-11-21
1561:2022-11-21
1536:2022-11-22
1010:Migration.
766:References
659:See also:
573:See also:
511:See also:
474:See also:
294:See also:
213:See also:
118:, such as
1974:Housewife
1884:Care work
1703:206499328
1695:154125116
1660:2287-0113
1382:state.gov
1357:state.gov
1329:picum.org
1308:2287-0113
1237:2287-0113
984:2287-0113
885:Meridians
628:Amsterdam
440:Amsterdam
432:De Wallen
324:regulated
190:migration
124:childcare
104:feminized
40:migration
1991:Sex work
1699:ProQuest
1504:Archived
727:See also
636:Sweden's
589:HIV/AIDS
194:sex work
128:sex work
34:done by
32:sex work
1996:migrant
1979:Nursing
1510:9 March
1387:28 June
1362:28 June
1167:28 June
386:Denmark
147:tourism
1701:
1693:
1658:
1430:May 2.
1306:
1235:
982:
705:Canada
681:, and
675:Africa
549:Tier 3
537:Tier 2
531:Tier 1
521:. The
494:, and
408:France
340:
334:
328:
318:
312:
306:
126:, and
1984:women
1967:Nanny
1721:(PDF)
1691:S2CID
1607:(PDF)
1448:(4).
1325:(PDF)
1120:1655.
1049:(4).
716:PCEPA
691:Dubai
428:Belle
1806:2018
1780:2018
1755:2018
1729:2018
1656:ISSN
1623:2018
1512:2020
1389:2016
1364:2016
1336:2022
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