584:) and the level of the middle of the stapes. The eardrum is actually attached to the malleus handle over about a 0.5 cm distance. In addition, the eardrum itself moves in a very chaotic fashion at frequencies >3 kHz. The linear attachment of the eardrum to the malleus actually smooths out this chaotic motion and allows the ear to respond linearly over a wider frequency range than a point attachment. The auditory ossicles can also reduce sound pressure (the inner ear is very sensitive to overstimulation), by uncoupling each other through particular muscles.
142:
580:. There is a steadily increasing body of evidence that shows that the lever arm ratio is actually variable, depending on frequency. Between 0.1 and 1 kHz it is approximately 2, it then rises to around 5 at 2 kHz and then falls off steadily above this frequency. The measurement of this lever arm ratio is also somewhat complicated by the fact that the ratio is generally given in relation to the tip of the malleus (also known as the
671:
286:
33:
576:), with a lever arm factor of 1.3. Since the effective vibratory area of the eardrum is about 14 fold larger than that of the oval window, the sound pressure is concentrated, leading to a pressure gain of at least 18.1. The eardrum is merged to the malleus, which connects to the incus, which in turn connects to the stapes. Vibrations of the stapes footplate introduce pressure waves in the
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to the side of the head in front of the main gill slits. In fish embryos, the spiracle forms as a pouch in the pharynx, which grows outward and breaches the skin to form an opening; in most tetrapods, this breach is never quite completed, and the final vestige of tissue separating it from the outside
938:
The middle ear is hollow in the tympanic cavity and
Eustachian tube. In a high-altitude environment or on diving into water, there will be a pressure difference between the middle ear and the outside environment. This pressure will pose a risk of bursting or otherwise damaging the tympanum (eardrum)
1073:
which is homologous with the stapes, or "stirrup" of mammals. This is connected indirectly with the eardrum via a mostly cartilaginous extracolumella and medially to the inner-ear spaces via a widened footplate in the fenestra ovalis. The columella is an evolutionary derivative of the bone known as
1118:
independently of the various single-ossicle middle ears of other land vertebrates, all during the
Triassic period of geological history. Functionally, the mammalian middle ear is very similar to the single-ossicle ear of non-mammals, except that it responds to sounds of higher frequency, because
1127:
bone in mammals led to the evolution of an entirely new jaw joint, freeing up the old joint to become part of the ear. For a period of time, both jaw joints existed together, one medially and one laterally. The evolutionary process leading to a three-ossicle middle ear was thus an "accidental"
927:. The collected pressure of sound vibration that strikes the tympanic membrane is therefore concentrated down to this much smaller area of the footplate, increasing the force but reducing the velocity and displacement, and thereby coupling the acoustic energy.
1013:, is a prevalent condition, especially among infants under six months old. This ailment occurs when the middle ear, typically filled with air, becomes infected or obstructed by fluid behind the eardrum. In certain cases, a surgical intervention called
892:
Area Ratio: The area of the tympanic membrane is about 20 times larger than that of the stapes footplate in the cochlea. The forces collected over the eardrum are concentrated over a smaller area, thus increasing the pressure over the oval
1005:
infection. Indeed, DNAs belonging to oncogenic HPVs, i.e., HPV16 and HPV18, have been detected in normal middle ear specimens, thereby indicating that the normal middle ear mucosa could potentially be a target tissue for HPV infection.
907:, using the principle of "mechanical advantage" in the form of the "hydraulic principle" and the "lever principle". The vibratory portion of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is many times the surface area of the footplate of the
1588:
1561:
1132:, not found in other vertebrates. A bulla evolved late in time and independently numerous times in different mammalian clades, and it can be surrounded by membranes, cartilage or bone. The bulla in humans is part of the
682:
of sound traveling in air to acoustic waves traveling in a system of fluids and membranes in the inner ear. This system should not be confused, however, with the propagation of sound as compression waves in liquid.
1615:
653:. Damage to the horizontal branch during ear surgery can lead to paralysis of the face (same side of the face as the ear). The chorda tympani is the branch of the facial nerve that carries taste from the
813:
1266:
1652:
1090:, it is similar to that of reptiles, but in other amphibians, the middle ear cavity is often absent. In these cases, the stapes either is also missing or, in the absence of an eardrum, connects to the
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1021:
may be necessary to alleviate the symptoms and complications associated with this condition. The risk of otitis media can be mitigated through various preventive measures, such as receiving
1836:
1393:
Malagutti N, Rotondo JC, Cerritelli L, Melchiorri C, De Mattei M, Selvatici R, Oton-Gonzalez L, Stomeo F, Mazzoli M, Borin M, Mores B, Ciorba A, Tognon M, Pelucchi S, Martini F (2020).
1678:
Lieberthal AS, Carroll AE, Chonmaitree T, Ganiats TG, Hoberman A, Jackson MA, Joffe MD, Miller DT, Rosenfeld RM, Sevilla XD, Schwartz RH, Thomas PA, Tunkel DE (March 2013).
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in the skull, although, it is presumed, it still has some ability to transmit vibrations to the inner ear. In many amphibians, there is also a second auditory ossicle, the
1829:
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The middle ear is able to dampen sound conduction substantially when faced with very loud sound, by noise-induced reflex contraction of the middle-ear muscles.
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these are better taken up by the inner ear (which also responds to higher frequencies than those of non-mammals). The malleus, or "hammer", evolved from the
1123:
bone of the lower jaw, and the incus, or "anvil", from the quadrate. In other vertebrates, these bones form the primary jaw joint, but the expansion of the
955:
is to help keep middle ear pressure the same as air pressure. The
Eustachian tubes are normally pinched off at the nose end, to prevent being clogged with
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byproduct of the simultaneous evolution of the new, secondary jaw joint. In many mammals, the middle ear also becomes protected within a cavity, the
1822:
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in fishes). This is a flat, plate-like bone, overlying the fenestra ovalis, and connecting it either to the stapes or, via a special muscle, to the
1033:
infants, and avoiding secondhand smoke. Furthermore, the use of analgesics plays a vital role in alleviating the pain caused by acute otitis media.
558:
1751:
Mao, Fangyuan; Zhang, Chi; Ren, Jicheng; Wang, Tao; Wang, Guofu; Zhang, Fakui; Rich, Thomas; Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Meng, Jin (2024-04-03).
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Ordinarily, when sound waves in air strike liquid, most of the energy is reflected off the surface of the liquid. The middle ear allows the
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911:(the third ossicular bone which attaches to the oval window); furthermore, the shape of the articulated ossicular chain is a complex
633:. These muscles contract in response to loud sounds, thereby reducing the transmission of sound to the inner ear. This is called the
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The middle ear is well protected from most minor external injuries by its internal location, but is vulnerable to pressure injury (
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Koike, Takuji; Wada, Hiroshi; Kobayashi, Toshimitsu (2002). "Modeling of the human middle ear using the finite-element method".
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The middle ear's impedance matching mechanism increases the efficiency of sound transmission. Two processes are involved:
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world becomes the eardrum. The inner part of the spiracle, still connected to the pharynx, forms the eustachian tube.
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Together, they amplify pressure by 26 times, or about 30 dB. The actual value is around 20 dB across 200 to 10000 Hz.
50:
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of the outer ear and middle ear gives humans a peak sensitivity to frequencies between 1 kHz and 3 kHz.
487:(also known as the Eustachian tube or the pharyngotympanic tube) joins the tympanic cavity with the nasal cavity (
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is attached to the upper end of the medial surface of the handle of malleus and is under the control of the
537:. The ossicles were given their Latin names for their distinctive shapes; they are also referred to as the
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that also pass through the middle ear space. These are the horizontal portion of the facial nerve and the
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Qureishi, Ali; Lee, Yan; Belfield, Katherine; Birchall, John P; Daniel, Matija (2014-01-10).
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Portion of the ear internal to the eardrum, and external to the oval window of the inner ear
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The primary function of the middle ear is to efficiently transfer acoustic energy from
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1985:
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1318:"What middle ear parameters tell about impedance matching and high frequency hearing"
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show intermediary steps of middle ear evolution. A new morganucodontan-like species,
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815:) is approximately equal to that of sea water. Because of this high impedance, only
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The ossicles are classically supposed to mechanically convert the vibrations of the
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the hyomandibula in fish ancestors, a bone that supported the skull and braincase.
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of incident energy could be directly transmitted from the air to cochlear fluids.
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or chewing helps relieve the pressure felt in the ears when on board an aircraft.
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The middle ear efficiency peaks at a frequency of around 1 kHz. The combined
549:, respectively. The ossicles directly couple sound energy from the eardrum to the
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1446:"Influenza vaccines for preventing acute otitis media in infants and children"
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1753:"Fossils document evolutionary changes of jaw joint to mammalian middle ear"
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obstruction may result in fluid build up in the middle ear, which causes a
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Recent findings indicate that the middle ear mucosa could be subjected to
17:
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2007:
1395:"High Human Papillomavirus DNA loads in Inflammatory Middle Ear Diseases"
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1042:
959:, but they may be opened by lowering and protruding the jaw; this is why
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1188: – Hole in the temporal bone of the skull carrying the facial nerve
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1069:, and early fossil tetrapods, there is a single auditory ossicle, the
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491:), allowing pressure to equalize between the middle ear and throat.
1730:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 480–488.
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The movement of the ossicles may be stiffened by two muscles. The
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187:
1810:
Promenade Around the
Cochlea - Middle ear at iurc.montp.inserm.fr
1590:
Beyond
Toddlerdom: Keeping five- to twelve-year-olds on the rails
1563:
Ear
Infection Essentials: Understanding, Treating, and Preventing
1444:
Norhayati, Mohd N; Ho, Jacqueline J; Azman, Mohd Y (2017-10-17).
1268:
Gray's
Anatomy E-Book: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice
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960:
1818:
1614:
Paparella, Michael M.; Costa, Sady
Saleaiman da; Fagan, Johan.
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if it is not relieved. If middle ear pressure remains low, the
808:{\displaystyle Z_{2}=1.5\times 10^{6}\;\mathrm {Pa\cdot s/m} }
449:
298:
293:
This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the
26:
1292:
903:
The middle ear couples sound from air to the fluid via the
475:. The hollow space of the middle ear is also known as the
1631:
674:
The middle ear matches mechanical impedance, like a lever.
559:
evolved from lower and upper jaw bones present in reptiles
1316:
Hemilä, Simo; Nummela, Sirpa; Reuter, Tom (1995-05-01).
923:, and the short arm being the lenticular process of the
1194: – Sensory perception of sound by living organisms
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Lever: The malleus is 1.3 times longer than the incus.
515:
The middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the
1086:
varies considerably and is often degenerate. In most
821:
752:
696:
1680:"The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media"
878:{\displaystyle {\frac {2Z_{1}}{Z_{1}+Z_{2}}}=0.05\%}
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of the cochlea. While the stapes is present in all
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2006:
1943:
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1726:Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977).
1503:"Update on otitis media – prevention and treatment"
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57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1620:. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. p. 108.
947:into the middle ear. One of the functions of the
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568:into amplified pressure waves in the fluid of the
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739:{\displaystyle Z_{1}=400\;\mathrm {Pa\cdot s/m} }
1224:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1651:Gradwell, David; Rainford, David (2016-01-20).
645:Of surgical importance are two branches of the
1009:Inflammation of the middle ear, also known as
1830:
915:, the long arm being the long process of the
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8:
1106:. It is not found in any other vertebrates.
1450:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
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1082:The structure of the middle ear in living
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746:, while the impedance of cochlear fluids (
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498:in air to fluid–membrane waves within the
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146:A diagram of the anatomy of the human ear:
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1654:Ernsting's Aviation and Space Medicine 5E
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117:Learn how and when to remove this message
467:The mammalian middle ear contains three
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975:is an inflammation of the middle ear.
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1717:
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7:
919:, the fulcrum being the body of the
55:adding citations to reliable sources
1366:Biomedical Engineering Fundamentals
1293:"Journey into the world of hearing"
951:that connect the middle ear to the
1116:evolved a three-ossicle middle-ear
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481:tympanic part of the temporal bone
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1593:. Ebury Publishing. p. 232.
1587:Green, Christopher (2011-08-31).
1560:Anderson, Ethan D. (2023-11-27).
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657:half (same side) of the tongue.
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31:
1265:Standring, Susan (2015-08-07).
1139:Recently found fossils such as
1053:of fishes, an opening from the
943:(tympanic membrane) may become
42:needs additional citations for
2233:Reissner's/vestibular membrane
1462:10.1002/14651858.CD010089.pub3
1:
1976:promontory of tympanic cavity
1507:Infection and Drug Resistance
1114:Mammals are unique in having
1098:(not to be confused with the
1334:10.1016/0378-5955(95)00031-X
1271:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
1966:secondary tympanic membrane
1363:Joseph D. Bronzino (2006).
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1971:prominence of facial canal
1777:10.1038/s41586-024-07235-0
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1100:structure of the same name
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625:which is a branch of the
479:and is surrounded by the
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1991:aditus to mastoid antrum
1412:10.3390/pathogens9030224
557:, the malleus and incus
1037:Diversity and evolution
969:conductive hearing loss
460:of the cochlea (of the
1697:10.1542/peds.2012-3488
1179:anatomical terminology
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809:
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623:medial pterygoid nerve
448:is the portion of the
265:Anatomical terminology
193:Glossopharyngeal nerve
1982:Posterior structures
1149:, shows parts of the
985:Middle ear barotrauma
983:Further information:
934:Clinical significance
880:
810:
741:
673:
619:tensor tympani muscle
2223:Cochlear duct /
2187:Perilymphatic space
2087:Auditory tube /
1003:human papillomavirus
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750:
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456:, and distal to the
51:improve this article
2489:Otorhinolaryngology
2405:Semicircular canals
2378:Vestibular aqueduct
1769:2024Natur.628..576M
1728:The Vertebrate Body
1236:2002ASAJ..111.1306K
1146:Dianoconodon youngi
404:Semicircular canals
2383:endolymphatic duct
2371:Otolithic membrane
2284:Tectorial membrane
2243:Reticular membrane
2048:posterior ligament
1996:pyramidal eminence
1952:Medial structures
1520:10.2147/IDR.S39637
1177:This article uses
1041:The middle ear of
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2043:superior ligament
2031:anterior ligament
2021:superior ligament
1909:Auricular muscles
1892:intertragic notch
1763:(8008): 576–581.
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1600:978-1-4464-8942-0
1573:978-1-991093-33-2
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1244:10.1121/1.1451073
1157:Additional images
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62:Find sources:
56:
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40:This article
38:
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1961:round window
1935:
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1635:. Retrieved
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1328:(1): 31–44.
1325:
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1300:. Retrieved
1296:
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1227:
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1198:External ear
1186:Facial canal
1144:
1141:Morganucodon
1138:
1113:
1095:
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1060:
1040:
1023:pneumococcal
1011:otitis media
1008:
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973:Otitis media
937:
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647:facial nerve
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615:facial nerve
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234:A15.3.02.001
209:
162:
113:
107:January 2023
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
66:"Middle ear"
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
2272:stereocilia
2225:scala media
2166:Helicotrema
1956:oval window
1845:Anatomy of
1015:myringotomy
953:nasopharynx
905:oval window
655:ipsilateral
551:oval window
489:nasopharynx
458:oval window
210:auris media
199:Identifiers
2499:Middle ear
2463:Categories
2423:Horizontal
2361:Kinocilium
2126:membranous
2119:Labyrinths
1936:Middle ear
1887:antitragus
1684:Pediatrics
1637:2024-07-15
1405:(3): 224.
1302:2024-06-15
1209:References
1084:amphibians
1078:Amphibians
997:Infections
991:barotrauma
446:middle ear
382:Vestibules
333:Middle ear
163:middle ear
135:Middle ear
77:newspapers
18:Middle Ear
2484:Audiology
2418:Posterior
2329:Vestibule
2277:tip links
2250:Endolymph
2211:Boettcher
2191:Perilymph
2111:Inner ear
2070:stapedius
1904:Ear canal
1877:antihelix
1859:Outer ear
1785:1476-4687
1529:1178-6973
1513:: 15–24.
1470:1469-493X
1399:Pathogens
1342:0378-5955
1203:Inner ear
1121:articular
1096:operculum
1071:columella
1049:with the
1047:analogous
1043:tetrapods
945:retracted
873:%
791:⋅
770:×
722:⋅
578:inner ear
574:inner ear
555:tetrapods
506:Structure
473:inner ear
462:inner ear
375:Inner ear
320:Ear canal
308:Outer ear
299:Human ear
173:inner ear
153:outer ear
2433:Ampullae
2413:Superior
2299:internus
2294:externus
2206:Claudius
2176:Modiolus
2066:Muscles
2008:Ossicles
1793:38570677
1706:23439909
1547:24453496
1488:29039160
1431:32197385
1252:11931308
1173:See also
1151:mandible
1063:reptiles
1051:spiracle
979:Injuries
661:Function
517:ossicles
511:Ossicles
469:ossicles
345:Ossicles
2479:Otology
2366:Otolith
2349:Saccule
2337:Utricle
2156:Cochlea
2149:General
2016:Malleus
1914:Eardrum
1897:earlobe
1867:Auricle
1851:balance
1847:hearing
1765:Bibcode
1538:3894142
1479:6485791
1422:7157545
1350:7559177
1232:Bibcode
1192:Hearing
1125:dentary
1110:Mammals
1104:scapula
1055:pharynx
961:yawning
941:eardrum
917:malleus
893:window.
629:of the
595:Muscles
570:cochlea
566:eardrum
547:stirrup
522:malleus
500:cochlea
454:eardrum
399:Cochlea
392:Saccule
387:Utricle
350:Malleus
315:Auricle
222:D004432
182:Details
91:scholar
2354:macula
2342:macula
2202:Cells
2055:Stapes
1882:tragus
1791:
1783:
1757:Nature
1734:
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1597:
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909:stapes
641:Nerves
617:; the
545:, and
539:hammer
534:stapes
531:, and
483:. The
360:Stapes
169:
159:
149:
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2038:Incus
1872:helix
1067:birds
957:mucus
925:incus
921:incus
913:lever
543:anvil
528:incus
464:).
355:Incus
269:[
258:56513
205:Latin
188:Nerve
98:JSTOR
84:books
2131:bony
1919:umbo
1849:and
1789:PMID
1781:ISSN
1732:ISBN
1702:PMID
1659:ISBN
1595:ISBN
1568:ISBN
1543:PMID
1525:ISSN
1484:PMID
1466:ISSN
1454:2017
1427:PMID
1371:ISBN
1346:PMID
1338:ISSN
1273:ISBN
1248:PMID
1025:and
1017:and
870:0.05
686:The
603:and
582:umbo
572:(or
444:The
246:6877
229:TA98
217:MeSH
70:news
2474:Ear
1773:doi
1761:628
1692:doi
1688:131
1533:PMC
1515:doi
1474:PMC
1458:doi
1417:PMC
1407:doi
1330:doi
1240:doi
1228:111
1061:In
1045:is
993:).
767:1.5
711:400
450:ear
253:FMA
241:TA2
53:by
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
