316:– the scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of common interest not specifically stated in the treaties. The article runs: "In order to consolidate the intimate tie which unites the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the High Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals, either under their own auspices or by their respective ministers, meetings consecrated to great common objects and to the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of the nations and the maintenance of the tranquility of Europe".
231:
impossible to find a clear case of entrapment actually occurring." Abandonment means that allies do not come to the rescue of a fellow ally. Strong commitments to an alliance can reduce the bargaining power of that ally vis-a-vis the other allies. However, an ally whose commitment to the alliance is in doubt has greater bargaining leverage. Weak alliance commitments can make it easier for the ally to realign the alliance if a fellow ally is considered unsatisfactory. Strong alliance commitments may strengthen the adversary's alliance, as the adversary may face a greater threat.
60:
227:'s classic study of alliances, small states frequently free-ride on the large state's contributions to an alliance. Small allies that are militarily vulnerable are less likely to free-ride, whereas strategically important small allies are most likely to free-ride. Alliances may also lead to moral hazard whereby allies behave more aggressively and recklessly if they believe that the alliance will aid them in any conflict. On the whole, alliances do deter aggression on net.
31:
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It was this article of the treaty of the 20 November 1815, rather than the Holy
Alliance, that formed the basis of the serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 and 1822, to govern Europe in concert. In general it proved that an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly defined as to its
207:
During peace-time, according to a 2019 study, almost all alliances from 1870 to 1916 may have been covert or implied. In other time periods, covert alliances have been rare. The study argues that from 1870 to 1916, the unusual amount of covert alliances was incentivized by other covert alliances. The
130:
explained the difference by noting that historically, alliances "were designed to advance the respective nationalistic interests of the parties, and provided for joint military action if one of the parties in pursuit of such objectives became involved in war." A collective security arrangement "is
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The failure of a strong ally to come to the rescue of a weaker ally (abandonment) may jeopardize the strong ally's other alliances. However, it may also strengthen the other alliances, as the other allies may sometimes prefer that the strong ally abandons a weak ally if it is likely to raise the
230:
Within alliances, actors may fear entrapment or abandonment. Entrapment means that allies get dragged into a conflict over one ally's interests that the other allies do not share. Scholars have disputed the prevalence of entrapment, with
Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth writing "it is nearly
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called it, though it failed to secure the permanent harmony of the powers, was an effective instrument for peace during the years immediately following the downfall of
Napoleon; and it set the precedent for those periodical meetings of the representatives of the powers, for the discussion and
105:
According to a 2002 dataset of military alliances, there have been 538 alliance treaties from 1815 to 2003. The vast majority of the alliances involve commitments to come to the military support of one ally involved in war. The vast majority are defensive in nature. Since the end of the
172:, neorealism is one of the two most influential contemporary approaches to the study of military alliances in international relations; the two perspectives dominated international relations theory from the 1960s to the 1990s. Neorealism emerged from the North American discipline of
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The obvious motivation in states engaging in military alliances is to protect themselves against threats from other countries. However, states have also entered into alliances to improve ties with a particular nation or to manage conflict with a particular nation.
697:
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In the
European historical context, a military alliance can be viewed as a league between independent states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action, defensive or offensive, or both. The oldest such alliance in the world today is the
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settlement of questions of international importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient for constructive work, contributed much to the preservation of the general peace during much of the nineteenth century.
292:
between
Germany, Austria and Italy was ostensibly directed to the preservation of European peace against any possible aggressive action of France or Russia; and this led in turn, some ten years later, to the
208:
creation of public alliances would signal to the covert ally that the public alliance was more valuable. According to Ronald Krebs, pre-WWII alliances were generally "relatively simple, short-lived affairs."
308:, to find in the "sacred precepts of the Gospel", a common basis for a general league of the European governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of peace. So, too, by Article VI of the
1078:
90:. In the event a nation is attacked, members of the alliance are often obligated to come to their defense regardless if attacked directly. Military alliances can be classified into
268:, and the two have never fought against each other in any military campaign. Alliances have often been directed to specific objects carefully defined in the treaties. Thus the
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The nature of alliances, including their formation and cohesiveness (or lack thereof), is a subject of much academic study past and present. Influential works include those by
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directed against no one; it is directed solely against aggression. It seeks not to influence any shifting 'balance of power' but to strengthen the 'balance of principle'."
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324:'s somewhat cynical dictum – "be reinforced by the interests" of the parties concerned. Yet the "moral alliance" of Europe, as Count
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and burden-sharing. Members of an alliance have incentives not to contribute to the alliance while simultaneously benefiting on the
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472:"Do Alliances Deter Aggression? The Influence of Military Alliances on the Initiation of Militarized Interstate Disputes"
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between the Holy Roman Empire, Holland, England, Spain and Saxony, were both directed against the power of
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1101:"Unpacking Alliances: Deterrent and Compellent Alliances and Their Relationship with Conflict, 1816–2000"
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signed at Paris on 20 November 1815 – which renewed that of
Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at
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813:
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Occasionally, however, attempts have been made to give alliances a more general character. Thus the
387:
Kuo, Raymond (2019). "Secrecy among
Friends: Covert Military Alliances and Portfolio Consistency".
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939:"The Price of Protection: Explaining Success and Failure of US Alliance Burden-Sharing Pressure"
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objects, and that in the long run the treaty in which these objects are defined must – to quote
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Reliability and
Alliance Interdependence: The United States and Its Allies in Asia, 1949–1969
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of 26 September 1815 was an attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the
Emperor
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1278:"Tangled up in rose? Theories of alliance entrapment and the 2008 Russo-Georgian War"
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1219:"What Allies Want: Reconsidering Loyalty, Reliability, and Alliance Interdependence"
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and his dynasty, and the confining of France within her traditional boundaries. The
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pledged to "perpetual friendship" between the two countries. This remains in action
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110:, military alliances have usually behaved less aggressively and act more as a
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670:"Anarchy in International Relations Theory: The Neorealist-Neoliberal Debate"
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Constructing
International Security: Alliances, Deterrence, and Moral Hazard
728:
176:, and reformulates the understanding of military alliances in the classical
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Ethics and weapons of Mass Destruction: Religious and Secular Perspectives
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Alliance between different states with the purpose to cooperate militarily
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297:, for mutual support in case of any hostile action of the other powers.
102:. Alliances may be covert (as was common from 1870 to 1916) or public.
1613:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 695.
1538:"Realist Perspectives on Ethical Norms and Weapons of Mass Destruction"
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Brooks, Stephen G.; Ikenberry, G. John; Wohlforth, William C. (2012).
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The Burden-Sharing Dilemma: Coercive Diplomacy in US Alliance Politics
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systems but can differ in nature. An early 1950s memorandum from the
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Why Allies Rebel: Defiant Local Partners in Counterinsurgency Wars
1590:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
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The Imperial Temptation: The New World Order and America's Purpose
58:
29:
995:
Benson, Brett V.; Meirowitz, Adam; Ramsay, Kristopher W. (2014).
997:"Inducing Deterrence through Moral Hazard in Alliance Contracts"
713:"Perverse Institutionalism: NATO and the Greco-Turkish Conflict"
64:
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Warring Friends: Alliance Restraint in International Politics
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between Great Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands, and the
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1504:
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280:. The Quadruple or Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the
1404:"Don't Come Home, America: The Case against Retrenchment"
1721:
Dangerous Alliances: Proponents of Peace, Weapons of War
658:, Waltz's book remains "the seminal text of neorealism".
557:
Dangerous Alliances: Proponents of Peace, Weapons of War
164:
theory of international politics where he argued that
1733:
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies
438:
World Politics: Interests, Interactions, Institutions
235:risks of military escalation for the other allies.
1694:
1662:
814:"Managing the Dilemmas of Alliance Burden Sharing"
532:
1336:"Why Alliances Entangle But Seldom Entrap States"
248:, dating back to 1373 where the then Kingdoms of
1635:The Defense Cooperation Agreement Dataset (DCAD)
859:, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 369–384,
597:"Remaking Alliances for the War on Terrorism"
560:. Stanford University Press. pp. 18–19.
211:Common problems for alliances revolve around
8:
86:that specifies mutual obligations regarding
1153:"The Security Dilemma in Alliance Politics"
879:Olson, Mancur; Zeckhauser, Richard (1966).
168:tend to form in world politics. Alongside
1359:
1244:
1234:
1059:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
539:. Council on Foreign Relations. pp.
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441:(4 ed.). W W NORTON. p. 190.
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295:Dual Alliance between Russia and France
219:provided by the alliance. According to
1546:In Sohail Hashmi and Steven Lee, eds.,
885:The Review of Economics and Statistics
700:from the original on 24 December 2022.
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476:American Journal of Political Science
34:European military alliances prior to
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1701:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
1685:. Ithaca: SCornell University Press.
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382:
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365:Coercion (international relations)
122:Military alliances are related to
65:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
25:
1656:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
881:"An Economic Theory of Alliances"
128:United States Department of State
1583:
604:The Journal of Strategic Studies
531:; Hendrickson, David C. (1992).
339:
196:. Neorealism is subdivided into
157:Theory of International Politics
1488:from the original on 2023-03-26
1450:from the original on 2023-07-19
1384:from the original on 2023-07-19
1316:from the original on 2023-11-07
1199:from the original on 2023-03-26
1081:from the original on 2023-03-29
1035:from the original on 2023-11-07
977:from the original on 2023-11-07
919:from the original on 2023-03-15
759:from the original on 2022-09-23
574:from the original on 2023-11-07
510:from the original on 2022-09-23
1639:Journal of Conflict Resolution
1001:Journal of Conflict Resolution
777:Blankenship, Brian D. (2023).
554:Weitsman, Patricia A. (2004).
389:Journal of Conflict Resolution
1:
1727:Weitsman, Patricia A. 2010. "
1654:Alliances and the Third World
1630:. Cambridge University Press.
1294:10.1080/13523260.2017.1392102
955:10.1080/09636412.2021.2018624
830:10.1080/0163660X.2024.2323898
1723:. Stanford University Press.
1474:. Cornell University Press.
1352:10.1080/09636412.2011.599201
1282:Contemporary Security Policy
1276:Lanoszka, Alexander (2018).
783:. Cornell University Press.
470:Leeds, Brett Ashley (2003).
63:Two military alliances (The
1633:Kinne, Brandon J. (2020). "
937:Blankenship, Brian (2022).
812:Blankenship, Brian (2024).
435:Frieden, Jeffry A. (2018).
1765:
1552:Cambridge University Press
717:International Organization
674:International Organization
355:List of military alliances
154:outlined in his 1979 book
1661:Pressman, Jeremy (2008).
1151:Snyder, Glenn H. (1984).
1117:10.1017/s0022381611000867
1099:Benson, Brett V. (2011).
1053:Benson, Brett V. (2012).
857:Research Handbook on NATO
711:Krebs, Ronald R. (1999).
686:10.1017/s0020818300028204
616:10.1080/01402390600900887
246:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
84:agreement between nations
1697:The Origins of Alliances
1671:Cornell University Press
1065:10.1017/cbo9781139225694
1013:10.1177/0022002712467936
818:The Washington Quarterly
401:10.1177/0022002719849676
1610:Encyclopædia Britannica
1597:Phillips, Walter Alison
1468:Henry, Iain D. (2022).
1217:Henry, Iain D. (2020).
1105:The Journal of Politics
851:Zyla, Benjamin (2023),
729:10.1162/002081899550904
668:Powell, Robert (1994).
290:Triple Alliance of 1882
270:Triple Alliance of 1668
239:European historiography
71:) in Europe during the
1624:Elias, Barbara. 2020.
1408:International Security
1223:International Security
274:Grand Alliance of 1689
75:
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1717:Weitsman, Patricia A.
1550:. New York, NY:
306:Alexander I of Russia
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1420:10.1162/ISEC_a_00107
1334:Kim, Tongfi (2011).
1236:10.1162/isec_a_00375
260:between the current
202:offensive neorealism
96:non-aggression pacts
360:Multinational force
278:Louis XIV of France
124:collective security
1749:Military alliances
1554:. pp. 73–95.
282:Treaty of Chaumont
225:Richard Zeckhauser
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18:Military alliances
1729:Alliances and War
1683:Alliance Politics
1561:978-0-521-83671-5
1481:978-1-5017-6305-2
1074:978-1-107-02724-4
866:978-1-83910-339-1
799:10.7591/jj.130890
790:978-1-5017-7247-4
567:978-0-8047-4866-7
448:978-0-393-67510-8
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