316:
212:
507:. Vermaseren (1963) stated that the only certain example of such influence was an image of Elijah drawn up to heaven in a chariot drawn by fiery horses. Deman (1971) claimed that a similarity of image does not tell us whether this implies an ideological influence, or merely a tradition of craftmanship. He then gave a list of medieval reliefs that parallel Mithraic images, but refused to draw conclusions from such parallels, despite volunteering this evidence.
276:, set out to prove the Mithraic origins of Christianity. Dupuis points out the absence of non-Christian historical records pertaining to Jesus, as well as the shared narrative structure possessed by the biblical account of Jesus and other notable myths. Dupuis claims this as evidence that suggests the New Testament's story of Jesus was likely a mythological construct created as a means to control religious practices.
527:. However, in these Roman instances, the Mithraeum appears to have been filled with rubble prior to the erection of a church over the top; and hence they cannot be considered demonstrable examples of deliberate re-use. A study of early Christian churches in Britain concluded that, if anything, the evidence there suggested a tendency to avoid locating churches on the sites of former Mithraea.
144:, hunting scenes, and banquet scenes, in which Mithras dines with Sol. Other scenes feature Mithras ascending behind Sol in the latter's chariot, the deities shaking hands and the two gods at an altar with pieces of meat on a spit or spits. One peculiar scene shows Sol kneeling before Mithras, who holds an object in his hand, interpreted as either a
1379:"... erwähnenswert wäre dass das Mithras-Kult keine öffentlichen Zeremonien kannte. Das Fest der natalis Invicti, der 25 Dezember, war ein allgemeines Sonnenfest und somit keineswegs auf die Mithras-Mysterien beschränkt. Es gab also im Mithras-Kult nichts vergleichbares zu den großen Feiern und Festlichkeiten anderer Kulte ...
568:
and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood; "and gave it to them alone. Which the wicked devils have imitated in the mysteries of
Mithras, commanding the same thing to be done. For, that bread and a cup of water are placed with certain incantations in the mystic rites of one who is being initiated, you either know
628:... writes ... "But Our Lord, too, is born in the month of December ... the eight before the calends of January ..., But they call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord ...? Or, if they say that it is the birthday of the Sun, He is the Sun of Justice." / Already
499:
was among these scholars. Cumont suggested that after the triumph of the
Christian church over paganism, artists continued to make use of stock images originally devised for Mithras in order to depict the new and unfamiliar stories of the bible. The "stranglehold of the workshop" meant that the first
454:
is only a conjecture. According to Robert Turcan, Mithraic salvation had little to do with the other-worldly destiny of individual souls, but was on the
Zoroastrian pattern of man's participation in the cosmic struggle of the good creation against the forces of evil. Another difference is found with
290:
and Edwin
Yamauchi, have suggested a different interpretation of Mithraism's relationship to Christianity. Yamauchi, pointing out that some of the textual evidence for Mithraist doctrine was written after the New Testament was in circulation, makes a logical leap in considering that it is more likely
458:
Akhondi and Akbari also claim red was a color of prominence. The sacrifice of the bull's holy blood was a sign of fertility and life, much as in
Christianity red wine can symbolize the sacrifice of Christ. In addition, white was an important color for the cult. The bull always remained white because
567:
For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called
Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body; "and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup
482:
states that followers of
Mithras were marked on their forehead in an unspecified manner. There is no indication that this mark was made in the form of a cross, or a branding, or a tattoo, or a permanent mark of any kind. The symbol of a circle with a diagonal cross inscribed within it is commonly
623:
The well-known solar feast ... of
Natalis Invicti, celebrated on 25 December, has a strong claim on the responsibility for our December date. / ... Cyprian ... "O, how wonderfully acted Providence that on that day on which that Sun was born ... Christ should be born." / In the fourth
396:
While
Christians around the world are preparing to celebrate Christmas on Dec. 25th, the Persians are getting ready to tribute one of their most festive celebrations on Dec. 21st, the eve of winter solstice, the longest night and shortest day of the year. In Iran this night is called
523:, are now to be found underneath Christian churches. It has been suggested that these instances might indicate a tendency for Christians to adopt Mithraea for Christian worship, in a similar manner to the undoubted conversion into churches of temples and shrines of civic paganism, such as the
256:
accused the
Mithraists of diabolically imitating the Christian communion rite, which indicates one instance of the evolution of Mithraism many years after its first known appearance. Justin Martyr was born roughly 50 years after Plutarch. A late-2nd-century Greek scholar and philosopher,
199:, and there seem to have been considerable similarities between the two cults; both being mystery cults with secret liturgies, both being popular in the military, and having similar names for their officials and initiates. Two large Mithrea have been discovered in Doliche itself (modern
1242:
The Holy Birth: Mithras was born on December 25th, the day of the winter solstice on the old calendar. ... The date was a very deliberate reference to the solar year, since we know from graffiti that Mithras bore the secret name Meitras, which in Greek numerology has a value of
112:
shows Mithras emerging from the cosmic egg, which is represented both as such and by the shape of the zodiacal ring. Ulansey adds, "The identification between Mithras and Phanes indicated by CIMRM 860 is also explicitly attested by an inscription found in Rome dedicated to
381:
Meanwhile, in modern-day Iran, the original homeland of Mithra, its religious followers celebrate a traditional feast of his birth. The present-day Iran Chamber Society's Ramona Shashaani claims that Christians borrowed the 25th December date from this 'Persian' (i.e.
470:
Monuments in the Danube area depict Mithras shooting a bow at a rock in the presence of the torch-bearers, apparently to encourage water to come forth. Clauss states that, after the ritual meal, this "water-miracle offers the clearest parallel with Christianity".
550:
of a cave Mithraeum has been replaced by a cross, which suggests later use as a church; but again the date of re-use cannot be determined, and hence it is by no means certain how far the Christian occupiers were aware of their cave's Mithraic past.
538:, England. A much-weathered Mithraic lion-headed figure carrying keys (presumably from a ruined Mithraeum in Roman Lincoln) was incorporated into the church tower, apparently in the mistaken belief that it was an ancient representation of the
54:. Mithraism was not an alternative to other pagan religions, but rather a particular way of practising pagan worship; and many Mithraic initiates can also be found worshipping in the civic religion, and as initiates of other mystery cults.
1596:
if my memory still serves me, Mithra there, (in the kingdom of Satan, ) sets his marks on the foreheads of his soldiers; celebrates also the oblation of bread, and introduces an image of a resurrection, and before a sword wreathes a
361:
Unusually amongst Roman mystery cults, the mysteries of Mithras had no 'public' face; worship of Mithras was confined to initiates, and they could only undertake such worship in the secrecy of the Mithraeum. Clauss (1990) states:
120:. This shows Phanes coming from an egg with flames shooting out around him, surrounded by the twelve signs of the zodiac, in an image very similar to that at Newcastle. Further references also exist.
459:
it was a symbol of purity and holiness. Moon and stars painted in gold and white were also important symbols to the cult and later incorporated into Christian architecture and other decorations.
245:
Soudavar submits that Plutarch pins Mithraic worship in Rome long before the birth of Christ, and it is therefore improbable that Christian traditions informed Mithraic, but rather the opposite.
1150:
The ecclesiastical calendar retains numerous remnants of pre-Christian festivals – notably Christmas, which blends elements including both the feast of the Saturnalia and the birthday of Mithra.
327:
It is often stated (e.g. by Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Catholic Encyclopedia, and others) that Mithras was born on December 25. Beck (1987) argues that this is unproven. He writes:
235:"offered strange rites of their own at Mount Olympus, and celebrated there, certain secret rites, among which those of Mithras continue to the present time, having been first instituted
231:, whose writing represents the earliest account on this issue. In the year 67 BCE, pirates who had more than a thousand sails and had captured more than four hundred cities
265:
gnostic ideas overlapped with the early mysteries of Mithras; however, the writing of Celsus was systematically suppressed by a growing Christian community shortly thereafter.
530:
On the other hand, there is at least one known example of a Mithraic carved relief being re-used on a Christian church, in the early 11th-century tower added to the church of
1120:
December 25th ... was also the birthday of the Indo-European deity Mithra, a god of light and loyalty whose cult was at the time growing popular among Roman soldiers.
423:... But in the 4th century AD, because of some errors in counting the leap year, the birthday of Mithra shifted to 25th of December and was established as such.
1638:
159:, who was part of the traditional state-sponsored Roman religious system, and also unlike the Sol Invictus cult, which became an official state-sponsored cult under
1000:
1539:
1035:
810:
283:
posited a case of two rival religions. He writes, "If the growth of Christianity had been arrested by some mortal malady, the world would have been Mithraic."
1474:
447:). The meaning of this text is unclear, although presumably it refers to the bull killed by Mithras, as no other source refers to a Mithraic salvation.
500:
Christian artworks were heavily based on pagan art, and "a few alterations in costume and attitude transformed a pagan scene into a Christian picture".
495:
From the end of the 18th century some scholars have suggested that certain elements in medieval Christian art reflect images found in Mithraic reliefs.
50:
contain statues dedicated to gods of other cults, and it is common to find inscriptions dedicated to Mithras in other sanctuaries, especially those of
856:
Vermaseren 695: marble relief from Mutina or Rome; V 475: Greek inscription from Rome, dedication by a Father and priest to Zeus-Helios-Mithras-Phanes
847:. See also F. Cumont, "Mithra et l'Orphisme", RHR CIX, 1934, 63 ff; M. P. Nilsson, "The Syncretistic Relief at Modena", Symb. Osi. XXIV, 1945, 1 ff.
1462:
In the Julian calendar, December 25 marked the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, after which the days begin to lengthen….
1728:
1353:
1235:
1015:
792:
714:
640:... bitterly reproves solar survivals – Christians, on the very doorstep of the Apostles' basilica, turn to adore the rising sun.
1310:
Salzman, Michele Renee (2004). "Pagan and Christian notions of the week in the 4th century CE western Roman Empire".
1093:
1797:
1208:, the birthday of their invincible god, i.e., December 25th, when the new light ... appears from the vault of heaven.
767:
295:
provides the earliest unbiased account of Mithraism's earlier existence, which continues to provoke scholarly response.
814:
746:
Corpus paroemiographorum graecorum: Zenobius. Diogenianus. Plutarchus. Gregorius Cyprius. Appendix proverbiorum, Vol 1
370:, held on 25 December, was a general festival of the Sun, and by no means specific to the Mysteries of Mithras.".
1524:
Turcan, Robert (1982). "Salut Mithriaque et soteriologie neoplatonicienne". In Bianchi, U.; Vermaseren, M.J. (eds.).
1419:
315:
303:
Mithras was born from a rock, not a virgin woman. David Ulansey speculates that this was a belief derived from the
1446:
1315:
273:
1485:
97:, the seventh element is "Mithras", in Theon it is 'Phanes'. Theon gives the same list but substitutes Phanes.
1137:
1114:
516:
462:
Mithraists believed that one day Mithra's works would be complete on earth and that he would return to heaven.
420:
or Mithra, meaning love and sun, and has been celebrated by the followers of Mithraism as early as 5000 BC
105:
1802:
1173:
654:
535:
216:
168:
156:
26:
957:
224:
455:
Mithras' slaying the bull is the sacrifice, while in Christianity the sacrifice was Christ himself.
211:
1659:
Deman, A. (1971). Hinnells, John R. (ed.). "Mithras and Christ: Some iconographical similarities".
336:
223:
Most scholars date Mithraism as existing prior to Christianity. Persian scholar and art historian,
1744:
Stocker, David (1998). "A hitherto unidentified image of the Mithraic god Arimanius at Lincoln?".
1132:
503:
A series of scholars have since discussed possible similarities with Mithraic reliefs in medieval
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1769:
1761:
1533:
1277:
1029:
994:
658:
484:
269:
249:
196:
67:
51:
39:
30:
1221:
1109:
1720:
1331:
Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, salvation, and ethics in the cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras
1724:
1632:
1349:
1231:
1189:
1089:
982:
710:
531:
109:
1083:
1753:
1712:
1400:
1269:
113:'Zeus-Helios-Mithras-Phanes' and another inscription dedicated to 'Helios-Mithras-Phanes'."
1391:
Hijmans, Steven (2003). "Sol Invictus, the winter solstice, and the origins of Christmas".
771:
319:
Bas-relief of Mithras looking to Sol Invictus as he slays the bull. Inscription top line:
90:
928:
291:
that Mithraism borrowed from Christianity, rather than the other way around. Ultimately,
1049:
524:
504:
287:
1786:
1773:
1713:
1620:
953:
571:
539:
253:
1227:
1085:
The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and salvation in the ancient world
667:
520:
496:
345:
280:
145:
137:
605:"There, a ladder of seven steps is described, similar to one used by the Ophites."
378:
festival was related to Christmas but does not give Mithras as a possible source.
353:'s sun god. It does not follow that a different, earlier, and unofficial sun god,
744:
195:
appear to have been constructed in close association with contemporary temple of
389:
1556:
Akhondi, Zohreh (December 2016). "The Influence of Mithraism on Christianity".
248:
Despite Plutarch's original chronological documentation of Mithraism predating
1587:
637:
629:
625:
547:
479:
179:
became a standard part of divine and imperial epithets, but this adapted from
141:
140:, and they are separate entities on Mithraic statuary and artwork such as the
82:
43:
16:
Similarities and differences of the Roman cult of Mithras and other religions.
1168:
986:
896:" became a standard part of imperial titulature under Commodus, adopted from
775:
764:
366:"the Mithraic Mysteries had no public ceremonies of its own. The festival of
633:
543:
515:
Several of the best preserved Mithraea, especially those in Rome such as at
200:
192:
164:
136:, "invincible sun". However, Mithras is distinct from both deities known as
101:
75:
47:
22:
932:
871:
Beck, Roger (2004). "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony".
85:
of Mithras and Phanes. A list of the eight elements of creation appears in
1404:
70:
speculation influenced the cult of Mithras at times. In Orphic cosmogony,
1715:
The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their nature and legacy
1511:
Il materiale epigrafico dallo scavo del mitreo di S. Stefano Rotondo
350:
292:
238:
228:
160:
94:
86:
1281:
662:
608:
Clauss states that the borrowing was by the Mithraists, but nothing in
304:
262:
129:
1765:
1191:
The excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Prisca in Rome
976:
840:
650:
592:
384:
258:
152:
117:
71:
1273:
761:
Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin literature
1757:
1188:
Vermaseren, Maarten Jozef; van Essen, Carel Claudius (1965).
844:
314:
210:
636:... denounces the heretical identification of Christ with Sol. /
331:"The only evidence for it is the celebration of the birthday of
78:
at the beginning of time, bringing the universe into existence.
791:, p. 70, photo p.71. The relief (Vermaseren 860) is now at the
252:, a remark in the 2nd century by the first Christian apologist
203:
in Turkey), which have been proposed as being unusually early.
923:
921:
1204:
One should bear in mind that the Mithraic New Year began on
1681:
Cumont, Franz (1956). McCormack, Thomas K. (trans.) (ed.).
743:
Leutsch, Ernst von; Schneidewin, Friedrich Wilhelm (1839).
374:
Steven Hijmans has discussed in detail whether the general
357:, was necessarily or even probably, born on that day too."
104:
in Rome reads "to Deus Sol Mithras Phanes". A relief from
1685:(reprint ed.). Dover Publications. pp. 227–228.
416:; it is the night of the birth of the unconquerable sun,
632:... had to assert that Sol was not the Christians' God;
432:
A painted text on the wall of the St. Prisca Mithraeum (
171:) did not receive state sanction. Under Commodus' rule (
46:
being a prominent feature of Roman paganism. Almost all
1526:
La soteriologiea dei culti orientali nell'impero romano
1420:"Borrowed ideas: Persian roots of Christian traditions"
1615:
Beskow describes the entire idea as a "scholarly myth"
483:
found in Mithraea, especially in association with the
839:, p.287 n.10. The relief is in the Estense Museum in
405:, which refers to the birthday or rebirth of the sun.
1333:. Translated by Gordon, Richard. Brill. p. 100.
1377:] (in German). München, DE: Beck. p. 70.
1022:Marcus Aurelius and the end of the classical world
873:Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays
900:, but had been used for Mithras well before then.
665:and as a composite deity equated with Mithras as
933:"From brotherhood ideal to religion's adversary"
1551:
1549:
1676:
1674:
1223:Mithras: Mysteries and initiation rediscovered
1052:(1999). "Mystery religions of the Near East".
866:
864:
862:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1613:. Mysteria Mithrae. Leyden. pp. 487–501.
8:
1637:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1260:Beck, Roger (1987). "Merkelbach's Mithras".
1255:
1253:
1251:
661:, both as an individual deity separate from
219:riding a bull (Sibiu/Hermannstadt, Romania).
100:A Greek inscription on a statue base from a
93:; most of the elements are the same, but in
1558:Journal of History Culture and Art Research
1088:. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–36.
1054:Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics
999:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
445:and you have saved us ... in the shed blood
1538:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1314:. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
1034:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
542:. Elsewhere, as in one of the Mithraea in
491:Mithraic motifs and medieval Christian art
42:had connections with other pagan deities,
1312:Time and Temporality in the Ancient World
763:, p.309 on this; quoted on Pearse, Roger
1609:Beskow, Per (1979). Bianchi, Ugo (ed.).
1348:. Harvard University Press. p. 10.
1177:. New York, NY: Robert Appleton Company.
1069:Easter: Myth, hallucination, or history?
709:. Harvard University Press. p. 49.
307:, which held he was born from a cavern.
58:Comparisons with contemporary Roman gods
1667:. Manchester University Press: 507–517.
1299:. Oxford University Press. p. 107.
749:. Vandenhoeck et Ruprecht. p. 151.
684:
560:
81:There is some literary evidence of the
1630:
1531:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1027:
1017:Marc-Aurele et la fin du monde antique
992:
811:"Mithraism in History and Archaeology"
1611:Branding in the mysteries of Mithras?
1297:The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries
1067:Yamauchi, Edwin M. (March 29, 1974).
806:The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries
511:Mithraea re-used in Christian worship
441:et nos servasti (?) ... sanguine fuso
7:
1513:. Mysteria Mithrae (published 1979).
1418:Shashaani, Ramona (December 1999).
978:The origin of all religious worship
1167:Martindale, Cyril Charles (1908).
183:, not from either Sol or Mithras.
116:Another syncretistic relief is in
14:
286:Christian apologists, among them
546:, there are instances where the
1230:). Chapter Seven (first page).
1110:"Why is Christmas in December?"
837:The miraculous birth of Mithras
657:played a prominent role in the
227:, cites notable Greek thinker,
1592:De praescriptione haereticorum
599:. book 6, cc. 22-24.
439:) in Rome contains the words:
29:and comparative theology. See
1:
433:
1447:"Sol Invictus and Christmas"
1375:Mithras: Culit and mysteries
175:180–192 CE), the title
1528:. Leiden. pp. 103–105.
1371:Mithras: Kult und Mysterien
975:Dupuis (1742-1809) (1984).
148:or the haunch of the bull.
1819:
1316:University of Pennsylvania
1240:– via Google Books.
1024:]. Paris. p. 579.
808:, pp.120-1. Excerpts here
207:Mithraism and Christianity
1696:Vermaseren, M.J. (1963).
1625:www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz
1576:The Roman Cult of Mithras
1482:www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz
1220:Cooper, D. Jason (1996).
1174:The Catholic Encyclopedia
1098:– via Google Books.
913:The Roman cult of Mithras
888:The Roman cult of Mithras
789:The Roman cult of Mithras
731:The Roman cult of Mithras
693:The Roman cult of Mithras
586:The Roman Cult of Mithras
215:Mithraic altar depicting
1733:– via Archive.org.
1683:The Mysteries of Mithras
1369:Clauss, Manfred (1990).
1344:Burkert, Walter (1987).
1138:Encyclopaedia Britannica
1115:Encyclopaedia Britannica
705:Burkert, Walter (1987).
1711:Hutton, Ronald (1991).
1698:Mithras: The secret god
1295:Ulansey, David (1989).
1226:. Samuel Weiser, Inc. (
1082:Ulansey, David (1991).
793:University of Newcastle
776:Who is Theon of Smyrna?
274:Charles-François Dupuis
261:, references how later
124:Helios/Sol/Sol invictus
1700:. Chatto & Windus.
1426:. Iran Chamber Society
1194:. Brill. pp. 238–
485:Leontocephaline figure
412:is chiefly related to
337:Calendar of Philocalus
324:
220:
21:This is an article on
1719:. Blackwell. p.
1619:Gordon, Richard, Dr.
1405:10.1353/mou.2003.0038
1346:Ancient Mystery Cults
1329:Alvar, Jaime (2008).
942:. Mithraic Societies.
707:Ancient Mystery Cults
318:
214:
169:Greco-Roman mysteries
33:for the main article.
27:comparative mythology
1798:Comparative religion
1475:"JMS v.2, n.1, Roll"
1451:Encyclopaedia Romana
759:See Albert de Jong,
355:Sol Invictus Mithras
875:. pp. 286–287.
765:Zenobius on Mithras
167:(as with all other
1014:Renan, E. (1882).
890:. pp. 23–24.
770:2012-03-18 at the
659:Mithraic mysteries
621:Martindale (1908):
466:Symbolism of water
437: 200 CE
325:
270:Christ myth theory
268:Originator of the
250:early Christianity
221:
197:Jupiter Dolichenus
187:Jupiter Dolichenus
52:Jupiter Dolichenus
38:The Roman cult of
31:Mithraic mysteries
1509:Panciera (1978).
929:Soudavar, Abolala
898:Hercules Invictus
532:St Peter at Gowts
475:Sign of the cross
181:Hercules Invictus
74:emerges from the
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1661:Mithraic Studies
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1490:
1484:. Archived from
1479:
1471:
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1457:
1442:
1436:
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1415:
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1199:
1185:
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1164:
1153:
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1147:
1145:
1133:"Roman Religion"
1129:
1123:
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1079:
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916:
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903:
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877:
876:
868:
857:
854:
848:
835:Vermaseren, M.,
833:
827:
825:
823:
822:
813:. Archived from
804:Ulansey, David,
802:
796:
785:
779:
757:
751:
750:
740:
734:
727:
721:
720:
702:
696:
689:
673:
647:
641:
619:
613:
612:seems to say so.
600:
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581:
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570:or can learn. —
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401:, also known as
335:on that date in
321:Soli Invicto Deo
311:25th of December
299:Miraculous birth
241:
225:Abolala Soudavar
191:The Mithraea at
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368:natalis Invicti
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237:by them ..." —
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91:Theon of Smyrna
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1491:on 2011-07-24
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962:First Apology
959:
958:"ch. 66"
955:
954:Justin Martyr
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610:Contra Celsum
604:
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597:Contra Celsum
594:
588:. p. 17,
587:
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1803:Sol Invictus
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1493:. Retrieved
1486:the original
1481:
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1456:February 17,
1454:. Retrieved
1450:
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1228:Weiser Books
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911:Clauss, M.,
907:
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805:
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691:Clauss, M.,
687:
668:Sol Invictus
666:
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609:
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521:Santa Prisca
517:San Clemente
514:
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497:Franz Cumont
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346:Sol Invictus
344:
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285:
281:Ernest Renan
278:
267:
247:
244:
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190:
180:
176:
172:
163:in 274, the
150:
146:Phrygian cap
138:Sol Invictus
134:Sol Invictus
133:
127:
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1574:Clauss, M.
1430:16 November
1169:"Christmas"
886:Clauss, M.
787:Clauss, M.
584:Clauss, M.
390:Zoroastrian
288:Ronald Nash
106:Vercovicium
1787:Categories
1588:Tertullian
1495:2011-01-25
1095:0195067886
821:2010-03-22
680:References
649:Note that
638:Pope Leo I
630:Tertullian
626:Chrysostom
548:tauroctony
480:Tertullian
414:Mehr Yazat
142:tauroctony
83:syncretism
44:syncretism
1793:Mithraism
1774:163266340
1746:Britannia
1617:See also
1534:cite book
1030:cite book
995:cite book
987:988157196
634:Augustine
624:century,
555:Footnotes
428:Salvation
279:In 1882,
201:Gaziantep
193:Carnuntum
165:Mithraism
102:mithraeum
76:world egg
23:Mithraism
1633:cite web
1393:Mouseion
894:Invictus
768:Archived
695:, p.158.
525:Pantheon
452:servasti
351:Aurelian
341:Invictus
333:Invictus
293:Plutarch
239:Plutarch
229:Plutarch
177:invictus
161:Aurelian
95:Zenobius
87:Zenobius
48:Mithraea
1282:1088197
1262:Phoenix
1198:3 April
915:, p.44.
733:, p. 70
670:Mithras
663:Mithras
544:Doliche
536:Lincoln
151:Unlike
130:epithet
40:Mithras
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1597:crown.
1594:. 40.
1352:
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1234:
1144:4 July
1092:
985:
841:Modena
713:
651:Helios
593:Origen
590:cites
410:Yaldaa
385:Parsee
263:Ophite
259:Celsus
217:Cautes
153:Helios
118:Modena
72:Phanes
68:Orphic
63:Phanes
1770:S2CID
1762:JSTOR
1621:"FAQ"
1489:(PDF)
1478:(PDF)
1373:[
1278:JSTOR
1020:[
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845:Italy
1725:ISBN
1639:link
1564:(4).
1540:link
1458:2023
1432:2019
1350:ISBN
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1232:ISBN
1200:2011
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774:and
711:ISBN
519:and
418:Mehr
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155:or
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