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and moderate response in the fall. Additionally, the presence of a forest understory had a significant impact on mobbing behavior, i.e., the denser the understory vegetation, the more birds responded to mobbing calls. That is to say, the presence of cover in the forest highly contributes to willingness to respond to the aforementioned call.
312:
Environment has an effect on mobbing behavior as seen in a study conducted by Dagan & Izhaki (2019), wherein mobbing behavior was examined particularly observing the effects of Pine Forest structure. Their findings showed that mobbing behavior varied by season, i.e., high responses in the winter,
478:
range, and carries over long distances. However, when prey species are in flight, they employ an alarm signal in the 7–8 kHz range. This call is less effective at traveling great distances, but is much more difficult for both owls and hawks to hear (and detect the direction from which the call
184:
colony, and recording the percentage of successful predation events as well as the probability of the crow being subjected to mobbing. The results showed decreasing mobbing with increased distance from the nest, which was correlated with increased predation success. Mobbing may function by reducing
569:
By cooperating to successfully drive away predators, all individuals involved increase their chances of survival and reproduction. An individual stands little chance against a larger predator, but when a large group is involved, the risk to each group member is reduced or diluted. This so-called
490:
vary acoustically as a byproduct of adapting to the environment, according to the acoustic adaptation hypothesis. In a study by
Billings (2018) examining, specifically the low-frequency acoustic structure of mobbing calls across habitat types (closed, open, and urban) in three passerine families
171:
on the predator. Mobbing can also be used to obtain food, by driving larger birds and mammals away from a food source, or by harassing a bird with food. One bird might distract while others quickly steal food. Scavenging birds such as gulls frequently use this technique to steal food from humans
280:
Another hypothesis for mobbing behavior is known as the “attract the mightier hypothesis.” Within this hypothesis, prey species produce a mobbing call in order to attract stronger secondary predator to address the threat of the present primary predator. A study conducted by Fang et al., showed
292:
Looking at variation in the behavioural responses of 22 different passerine species to a potential predator, the
Eurasian Pygmy Owl, extent of mobbing was positively related with a species prevalence in the owls' diet. Furthermore, the intensity of mobbing was greater in autumn than spring.
207:
Besides the ability to drive the predator away, mobbing also draws attention to the predator, making stealth attacks impossible. Mobbing plays a critical role in the identification of predators and inter-generational learning about predator identification. Reintroduction of species is often
166:
are widely seen to attack intruders, including encroaching humans. In North
America, the birds that most frequently engage in mobbing include mockingbirds, crows and jays, chickadees, terns, and blackbirds. Behavior includes flying about the intruder, dive bombing, loud squawking and
1173:
Pitman, Robert L.; Deecke, Volker B.; Gabriele, Christine M.; Srinivasan, Mridula; Black, Nancy; Denkinger, Judith; Durban, John W.; Mathews, Elizabeth A.; Matkin, Dena R.; Neilson, Janet L.; Schulman-Janiger, Alisa; Shearwater, Debra; Stap, Peggy; Ternullo, Richard (2017).
491:(Corvidae, Icteridae, Turdidae), it was discovered that the size of the bird was a factor in the variation of mobbing calls. Additionally, species in closed and urban habitats had lower energy and lower low frequencies in their mobbing calls, respectively.
392:. Bluegills, which form large nesting colonies, were seen to attack both released and naturally occurring turtles, which may advertise their presence, drive the predator from the area, or aid in the transmission of predator recognition. Similarly,
557:
Mobbing behavior varies in intensity depending on the perceived threat of a predator according to a study done by Dutour et al. (2016). However, particularly in terms of its surfacing in avian species, it is accepted to be the byproduct of
208:
unsuccessful, because the established population lacks this cultural knowledge of how to identify local predators. Scientists are exploring ways to train populations to identify and respond to predators before releasing them into the wild.
407:. The former relies heavily on group dynamics, whereas the latter’s central focus conceptually is on that of the individual and their offspring in some cases. A study conducted by Adamo & McKee (2017) examining the cricket
413:
showcases this by activating high predation risk repeatedly to examine how animals in general perceive such risks. Based on perceived threat, crickets took action to save their own self or made attempt to preserve offspring.
545:
Mobbing involves risks (costs) to the individual and benefits (payoffs) to the individual and others. The individuals themselves are often genetically related, and mobbing is increasingly studied with the
253:
to gull chick predators, distracting them from searching for prey. Indeed, an intruding carrion crow can only avoid incoming attacks by facing its attackers, which prevents it from locating its target.
172:
nearby. A flock of birds might drive a powerful animal away from food. Costs of mobbing behavior include the risk of engaging with predators, as well as energy expended in the process. The
296:
Mobbing is thought to carry risks to roosting predators, including potential harm from the mobbing birds, or attracting larger, more dangerous predators. Birds at risk of mobbing such as
1057:
Hendrichsen, Ditte K.; Christiansen, Peter; Nielsen, Elsemarie K.; Dabelsteen, Torben; Sunde, Peter (2006). "Exposure affects the risk of an owl being mobbed – experimental evidence".
2182:
273:
nests on sheer cliffs that are almost completely inaccessible to predators, meaning its young are not at risk of predation like other gull species. This is an example of
1537:
504:. In this species, the mobbing call is smoothly upsweeping, and is made when swooping down in an arc beside the predator. This call was also heard during
237:
the predator or attracting a predator of the predator itself. The much lower frequency of attacks between nesting seasons suggests such behavior may have
337:
Another way the comparative method can be used here is by comparing gulls with distantly related organisms. This approach relies on the existence of
285:: the typical call (TC, the control treatment), a mobbing call to a collared scops owl (the MtO treatment) and a mobbing call to a crested goshawk,
1871:
369:
by kicking sand into their face, which disrupts the snake's sensory organs; for crotaline snakes, this includes the heat-detecting organs in the
2051:
1790:
1520:
948:
750:
91:. While mobbing has evolved independently in many species, it only tends to be present in those whose young are frequently preyed upon. This
654:
281:
significant findings for this unproved functional thesis, utilizing three different call types for the prey species light-vented bulbuls,
75:. A simple definition of mobbing is an assemblage of individuals around a potentially dangerous predator. This is most frequently seen in
131:
struggle to survive. In his view, humans are subject to similar innate impulses but capable of bringing them under rational control (see
1030:
Dutour, M.; Lena, J.-P.; Lengagne, T. (2017). "Mobbing behaviour in a passerine community increases with prevalence in predator diet".
1800:
1687:
1217:"Differential effects of predator cues versus activation of fight-or-flight behaviour on reproduction in the cricket Gryllus texensis"
736:
185:
the predator's ability to locate nests (as a distraction) since predators cannot focus on locating eggs while they are under attack.
2208:
2203:
1993:
1176:"Humpback whales interfering when mammal-eating killer whales attack other species: Mobbing behavior and interspecific altruism?"
262:
1890:
547:
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came). In the case of the alarm call, it could be disadvantageous to the sender if the predator picks up on the signal, hence
535:
714:
2213:
1576:
589:. Here the idea is that a mobbing bird, by apparently putting itself at risk, displays its status and health so as to be
1761:
1712:
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bird, employs both mobbing behavior and alarm calls. In this illustration, a group of great tits are depicted mobbing a
2008:
1961:
1659:
1717:
354:
330:
1323:
1895:
1866:
1637:
1089:"The Effect of Pine Forest Structure on Bird-Mobbing Behavior: From Individual Response to Community Composition"
1283:"The low-frequency acoustic structure of mobbing calls differs across habitat types in three passerine families"
2046:
404:
108:
886:
Curio, E.; U. Ernst; W. Vieth (1978). "Cultural
Transmission of Enemy Recognition: One Function of Mobbing".
554:(the carrying on of one's genes through one's family members), rather than merely benefit to the individual.
2127:
1912:
64:
804:; Christopher S. Evans (October 2000). "Training Captive-Bred or Translocated Animals to Avoid Predators".
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when the latter are attacking other species, including other cetacean species, seals, sea lions, and fish.
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2147:
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can also be employed to investigate hypotheses such as those given by Curio above. For example, not all
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also provide an insight into the advantages of attacking in a large group rather than individually.
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180:. Classic experiments on this species by Hans Kruuk involved placing hen eggs at intervals from a
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mobbing calls indicate it may serve to enhance the swooping attack on the predators, including
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612:
Dominey, Wallace J. (1983). "Mobbing in
Colonially Nesting Fishes, Especially the Bluegill,
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Mobbing calls may also be part of an animal's arsenal in harassing the predator. Studies of
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409:
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Antipredator adaptation in which individuals of prey species cooperatively attack a predator
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1980:
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993:"The function of avian mobbing: an experimental test of 'attract the mightier' hypothesis"
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1595:"Group Mobbing Behaviour and Nest Defence in a Cooperatively Breeding Australian Bird"
849:"The adaptive significance of avian mobbing. I. Teleonomic hypotheses and predictions"
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has favored those birds able to hear and employ calls in this higher frequency range.
217:
regarding why an organism should engage in such risky behavior have been suggested by
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221:, including advertising their physical fitness and hence uncatchability (much like
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Interspecific reciprocity explains mobbing behaviour of the breeding chaffinches,
1512:
Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world
1448:
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is another way of explaining the benefits of cooperation by selfish individuals.
909:
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17:
2137:
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1783:
1654:
1130:"Individual Variation in the Antisnake Behavior of California Ground Squirrels (
991:
Fang, Wei-Hsuan; Hsu, Yu-Hsun; Lin, Wen-Loung; Yen, Shih-Ching (December 2020).
539:
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358:
321:
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1944:
1922:
512:, and may serve additionally or alternatively as an alarm call to their mate.
455:
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258:
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1433:"Mobbing behaviour varies according to predator dangerousness and occurrence"
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72:
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1254:
Brown, C. H. (1982). "Ventriloquial and locatable vocalizations in birds".
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behavior in gazelles), distracting predators from finding their offspring,
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made by the mobbing species while harassing a predator. These differ from
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341:, where distantly related organisms evolve the same trait due to similar
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in which individuals of prey species cooperatively attack or harass a
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1431:
Dutour, Mylène; Lena, Jean-Paul; Lengagne, Thierry (September 2016).
366:
350:
234:
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is a species which aggressively engages intruding predators, such as
80:
1346:
1150:
1129:
964:
Cullen, E. (1957). "Adaptations in the kittiwake to cliff nesting".
629:
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also mob predators, however more distantly related groups including
1998:
519:
421:
230:
187:
142:
76:
36:
941:
The herring gull's world: a study of the social behavior of birds
470:, uses such a signal to call on nearby birds to harass a perched
229:
their offspring, luring the predator away, allowing offspring to
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528:
381:
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192:
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Predators and anti-predator behaviour of the black-headed gull
403:
There is a distinction though, between mobbing in animals, and
353:
have been known to engage in this behavior. One example is the
1644:
297:
1384:"Cooperation under predation risk: a data-based ESS analysis"
1472:"Avian mobbing: byproduct mutualism not reciprocal altruism"
1665:
325:
The occurrence of mobbing behavior across widely different
534:
The evolution of mobbing behavior can be explained using
30:
For mobbing in relation to human bullying behavior, see
1388:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
123:(1966), attributed mobbing among birds and animals to
1470:
Russell, Andrew F.; Wright, Jonathan (January 2009).
2110:
2072:
2027:
1979:
1847:
1703:
2183:Task allocation and partitioning of social insects
767:
99:adaptations in the offspring themselves, such as
79:, though it is also known to occur in many other
745:(6th ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
1662:– paper in ejournal Ornithological Observations
1382:Parker, Geoffrey A.; Milinski, Manfred (1997).
345:. As mentioned, many bird species such as the
1681:
474:, such as an owl. This call occurs in the 4.5
304:and hidden roosts which reduces this danger.
8:
1082:
1080:
289:(the superior predator; the MtH treatment).
233:to recognize the predator species, directly
107:may be used to summon nearby individuals to
1643:Paper by Indrikis Krams and Tatjana Krama (
1322:Leger, Daniel W.; Laura F. Carroll (1981).
581:Another interpretation involves the use of
1688:
1674:
1666:
566:according to Russell & Wright (2009).
1415:
1298:
1199:
1149:
1104:
742:Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach
607:
605:
308:Effect of environment on mobbing behavior
1215:Adamo, S.A.; McKee, R. (December 2017).
1128:Coss, Richard G.; Biardi, J. E. (1997).
731:
729:
727:
357:, which distracts predators such as the
320:
249:argued that the mobbing was a source of
601:
1087:Dagan, Uzi; Izhaki, Ido (2019-09-03).
333:, is evidence of convergent evolution.
1791:Patterns of self-organization in ants
162:Birds that breed in colonies such as
7:
649:
647:
269:species show mobbing behavior. The
1801:symmetry breaking of escaping ants
1281:Billings, Alexis C. (April 2018).
1268:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1982.tb00346.x
978:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1957.tb01950.x
865:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb00254.x
688:"When Animals Attack — and Defend"
655:"Cows kill leopard in Maharashtra"
25:
1476:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1838:
1622:10.1046/j.1439-0310.2000.00545.x
1071:10.1111/j.2005.0908-8857.03658.x
826:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99326.x
536:evolutionarily stable strategies
384:engage in mobbing; for example,
1538:"Geometry for the selfish herd"
1256:Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie
943:. New York: Lyons and Bulford.
853:Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie
686:Kluger, Jeffrey (7 June 2007).
591:preferred by potential partners
548:gene-centered view of evolution
458:, which allow con-specifics to
377:species also uses alarm calls.
1545:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1:
1449:10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.06.024
1300:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.02.001
1233:10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.09.027
1009:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.10.013
701:– via content.time.com.
538:, which are in turn based on
1762:Mixed-species foraging flock
1713:Agent-based model in biology
1653:– Using mobbing behavior in
1565:10.1016/0022-5193(71)90189-5
910:10.1126/science.202.4370.899
570:dilution effect proposed by
2009:Particle swarm optimization
331:California ground squirrels
71:, usually to protect their
2235:
1718:Collective animal behavior
1515:. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
1488:10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.003
781:(11). Leiden: E.J. Brill.
355:California ground squirrel
29:
1836:
562:, rather than reciprocal
365:from locating their nest
2209:Evolutionary game theory
2204:Antipredator adaptations
2047:Self-propelled particles
1536:Hamilton, W. D. (1971).
1059:Journal of Avian Biology
939:Tinbergen, Niko (1989).
712:Kenneth Westheus Mobbing
405:fight-or-flight response
245:for the mobber's young.
201:Haliaeetus leucocephalus
2128:Collective intelligence
1994:Ant colony optimization
462:from the predator. The
65:antipredator adaptation
2148:Microbial intelligence
1808:Shoaling and schooling
1593:Arnold, K. E. (2000).
1408:10.1098/rspb.1997.0171
1324:"Mobbing calls of the
531:
447:
334:
204:
159:
57:
1660:Birds mob Puff Adder
1509:Kelly, Kevin (1994).
1180:Marine Mammal Science
1132:Spermophilus beecheyi
779:Behaviour Supplements
523:
425:
324:
287:Accipiter trivirgatus
191:
146:
46:Corvus brachyrhynchos
40:
2214:Animal communication
2168:Spatial organization
2133:Decentralised system
1971:Sea turtle migration
1825:Swarming (honey bee)
1138:Journal of Mammalogy
806:Conservation Biology
800:Griffin, Andrea S.;
339:convergent evolution
155:) (right) mobbing a
2143:Group size measures
1705:Biological swarming
1614:2000Ethol.106..385A
1557:1971JThBi..31..295H
1400:1997RSPSB.264.1239P
1394:(1385): 1239–1247.
1192:2017MMamS..33....7P
902:1978Sci...202..899C
818:2000ConBi..14.1317G
802:Daniel T. Blumstein
661:. PTI. 2018-07-13.
614:Lepomis macrochirus
585:, and possibly the
527:herd confronting a
343:selection pressures
283:Pycnonotus sinensis
275:divergent evolution
2158:Predator satiation
2019:Swarm (simulation)
2014:Swarm intelligence
1989:Agent-based models
1820:Swarming behaviour
1651:Nature Photography
847:Curio, E. (1978).
766:Kruuk, H. (1964).
717:2011-08-12 at the
587:handicap principle
532:
508:interactions with
506:agonistic behavior
488:bird vocalizations
450:Mobbing calls are
448:
335:
263:comparative method
205:
195:mobbing a perched
160:
153:Machetornis rixosa
58:
2191:
2190:
2178:Military swarming
2123:Animal navigation
2042:Collective motion
2029:Collective motion
1896:reverse migration
1830:Swarming motility
1640:Fringilla coelebs
1522:978-0-201-48340-6
1201:10.1111/mms.12343
1106:10.3390/f10090762
1044:10.1111/ibi.12461
950:978-1-55821-049-3
896:(4370): 899–901.
752:978-0-87893-009-8
583:signalling theory
576:Lanchester's laws
552:inclusive fitness
396:are known to mob
388:sometimes attack
174:black-headed gull
63:in animals is an
54:Buteo jamaicensis
18:Mobbing behaviour
16:(Redirected from
2226:
2004:Crowd simulation
1981:Swarm algorithms
1952:Insect migration
1857:Animal migration
1849:Animal migration
1842:
1767:Mobbing behavior
1690:
1683:
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1575:. Archived from
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1437:Animal Behaviour
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1287:Animal Behaviour
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1221:Animal Behaviour
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997:Animal Behaviour
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812:(5): 1317–1326.
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624:(4): 1086–1088.
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410:Gryllus texensis
390:snapping turtles
317:In other animals
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719:Wayback Machine
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550:by considering
525:African buffalo
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394:humpback whales
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111:in the attack.
95:may complement
50:red-tailed hawk
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247:Niko Tinbergen
219:Eberhard Curio
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127:rooted in the
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42:American crows
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120:On Aggression
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115:Konrad Lorenz
112:
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105:Mobbing calls
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2118:Allee effect
2092:Nanorobotics
2082:Ant robotics
2059:Vicsek model
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1577:the original
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1366:. Retrieved
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737:Alcock, John
707:
695:. Retrieved
691:
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670:. Retrieved
658:
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510:conspecifics
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472:bird of prey
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363:gopher snake
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311:
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259:experimental
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103:and hiding.
83:such as the
60:
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48:) mobbing a
45:
2138:Eusociality
2087:Microbotics
1957:butterflies
1928:sardine run
1862:altitudinal
1784:pack hunter
1655:photography
1443:: 119–124.
1326:Phainopepla
1186:(1): 7–58.
1003:: 229–233.
540:game theory
497:Phainopepla
456:alarm calls
444:Strix aluco
432:Parus major
371:loreal pits
359:rattlesnake
241:due to its
2198:Categories
2052:clustering
1945:philopatry
1923:salmon run
1918:Lessepsian
1482:(1): 3–5.
1368:2007-06-12
1335:The Condor
1099:(9): 762.
672:2018-08-12
597:References
502:scrub jays
215:hypotheses
197:bald eagle
169:defecating
101:camouflage
2173:Stigmergy
2153:Mutualism
1813:bait ball
1293:: 39–49.
1115:1999-4907
1017:227063061
873:250397187
667:0971-751X
659:The Hindu
560:mutualism
516:Evolution
481:selection
464:great tit
440:tawny owl
436:passerine
428:great tit
386:bluegills
271:kittiwake
251:confusion
129:Darwinian
125:instincts
109:cooperate
87:and some
73:offspring
2102:Symbrion
2064:BIO-LGCA
1867:tracking
1796:ant mill
1738:sort sol
1733:flocking
1697:Swarming
1602:Ethology
1496:19022524
1457:53274654
1363:49558729
1309:53182553
1241:53153442
926:33299917
918:17752463
834:31440651
739:(1998).
715:Archived
697:19 April
564:altruism
468:songbird
347:swallows
257:Besides
235:injuring
223:stotting
139:In birds
93:behavior
69:predator
1962:monarch
1891:flyways
1872:history
1723:Droving
1610:Bibcode
1573:5104951
1553:Bibcode
1417:1688555
1396:Bibcode
1355:1367509
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1188:Bibcode
1160:1382883
1093:Forests
898:Bibcode
889:Science
814:Bibcode
787:1502972
638:1445113
452:signals
373:. This
367:burrows
351:mammals
302:plumage
243:benefit
239:evolved
227:warning
182:nesting
133:mobbing
97:cryptic
89:bovines
85:meerkat
81:animals
61:Mobbing
32:Mobbing
1935:Homing
1757:Locust
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460:escape
375:social
1999:Boids
1940:natal
1728:Flock
1598:(PDF)
1580:(PDF)
1541:(PDF)
1453:S2CID
1359:S2CID
1351:JSTOR
1331:(PDF)
1305:S2CID
1237:S2CID
1156:JSTOR
1013:S2CID
922:S2CID
869:S2CID
830:S2CID
634:JSTOR
434:), a
380:Some
231:learn
193:Crows
164:gulls
77:birds
1779:Pack
1745:Herd
1569:PMID
1517:ISBN
1492:PMID
1111:ISSN
1032:Ibis
966:Ibis
945:ISBN
914:PMID
783:OCLC
747:ISBN
699:2018
692:Time
663:ISSN
622:1983
529:lion
426:The
382:fish
361:and
327:taxa
298:owls
267:gull
157:hawk
1645:PDF
1618:doi
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1343:doi
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