97:, which are simple responses of an organism to a specific stimulus, such as the contraction of the pupil in response to bright light or the spasmodic movement of the lower leg when the knee is tapped. The absence of volitional capacity must not be confused with an inability to modify fixed action patterns. For example, people may be able to modify a stimulated fixed action pattern by consciously recognizing the point of its activation and simply stop doing it, whereas animals without a sufficiently strong volitional capacity may not be able to disengage from their fixed action patterns, once activated.
381:(2010, pp. 35–42), Amanda Spink notes that "currently in the behavioral sciences instinct is generally understood as the innate part of behavior that emerges without any training or education in humans." She claims that the viewpoint that information behaviour has an instinctive basis is grounded in the latest thinking on human behaviour. Furthermore, she notes that "behaviors such as cooperation, sexual behavior, child rearing and aesthetics are seen as 'evolved psychological mechanisms' with an instinctive basis." Spink adds that
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certain pattern of behaviour when catching their prey, which Fabre called a fixed pattern. Then Fabre intervened in the wasps' process of catching prey, and only one of the species adjusted their behaviour in response to this unfamiliar interception. Fabre explained this contradiction by arguing that any individuals which stray from the norms of their species are merely an exception, while also admitting that there could be some room for growth within a species' instincts.
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636:. In a tit-for-tat strategy, cooperation and retaliation are comparable to forgiveness and revenge. The choice between the two can be beneficial or detrimental, depending on what the partner-organism chooses. Though this psychological example of game theory does not have such directly measurable results, it provides an interesting theory of unique thought. From a more biological standpoint, the brain's
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653:, detect pheromones from the opposite sex. These signals then travel to the medial amygdala, which disperses the signal to a variety of brain parts. The pathways involved with innate circuitry are extremely specialized and specific. Various organs and sensory receptors play parts in this complex process.
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that respond explicitly to predator stimuli that specifically relate to that individual species of rodent. The reception of a predatory stimulus usually creates a response of defense or fear. Mating in rats follows a similar mechanism. The vomeronasal organ and the main olfactory epithelium, together
196:
To better explain Wundt's research, Claudia
Wassman analyzed a large collection of sources. This included some of the earlier journals Wundt wrote, which pondered the idea of unconsciousness more than his later and more known research. Her paper concludes that he believed unconscious processes (which
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provides one example of instinct. This complex response may involve visual, auditory, and olfactory cues in the environment surrounding an organism. In some cases, imprinting attaches an offspring to its parent, which is a reproductive benefit to offspring survival. If an offspring has attachment to
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Some instinctive behaviours depend on maturational processes to appear. For instance, we commonly refer to birds "learning" to fly. However, young birds have been experimentally reared in devices that prevent them from moving their wings until they reached the age at which their cohorts were flying.
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An example of what Wundt studied to arrive at his conclusions regarding unconscious processes includes the facial expressions babies made in response to the sensations of sweet, sour, and bitter tastes. He concluded these facial expressions were the result of the babies trying to avoid unpleasant
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Fabre concluded a significant difference between humans and other animals is that most animals cannot reason. He came to this conclusion after observing how insects and wild birds continued to repeat a certain behaviour in response to a novel situation. While these instinctive behaviours appeared
126:(1823–1915) is said to be the first person to study small animals (other than birds) and insects, and he specifically specialized in the instincts of insects. Fabre considered an instinct to be a linked set of behaviours that an organism undergoes unconsciously in response to external conditions.
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Instinct is a phenomenon that can be investigated from a multitude of angles: genetics, limbic system, nervous pathways, and environment. Researchers can study levels of instincts, from molecular to groups of individuals. Extremely specialized systems have evolved, resulting in individuals which
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was restricted in its application. During the 1960s and 1970s, textbooks still contained some discussion of instincts in reference to human behaviour. By the year 2000, a survey of the 12 best selling textbooks in introductory psychology revealed only one reference to instincts, and that was in
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argued that humans no longer have instincts because we have the ability to override them in certain situations. He felt that what is called instinct is often imprecisely defined, and really amounts to strong "drives". For Maslow, an instinct is something which cannot be overridden, and therefore
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Fabre believed instincts were "fixed patterns", meaning these linked sets of behaviours do not change in response to novel environmental situations. One specific example that helped him arrive at this conclusion is his study of various wasp species. All of the wasp species he studied performed a
373:
F. B. Mandal proposed a set of criteria by which a behaviour might be considered instinctual: (a) be automatic, (b) be irresistible, (c) occur at some point in development, (d) be triggered by some event in the environment, (e) occur in every member of the species,
305:, who made the distinction between instinct and learned behaviours. Our modern understanding of instinctual behaviour in animals owes much to their work. For instance, there exists a sensitive period for a bird in which it learns the identity of its mother. Konrad Lorenz famously had a goose
640:
operates as the main control-area for response to certain stimuli, including a variety of instinctual behaviour. The limbic system processes external stimuli related to emotions, social activity, and motivation, which propagates a behavioural response. Some behaviours include maternal care,
222:. More specifically, his research suggests natural selection causes small changes in the nervous system over time. These changes bring about hereditary drives in organisms, which are then responsible for any unconscious processes. Another thing to note is that Wundt used the terms
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Examples of behaviours that do not require thought include many reflexes. The stimulus in a reflex may not require brain activity but instead may travel to the spinal cord as a message that is then transmitted back through the body, tracing a path called the
512:
towards change is the difficulty experienced by a person when they are trying to push against the suggestions made to change behavior or accept certain treatments regardless of whether it will improve their condition or not, it allows for instinctive
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Fabre's belief that instincts are fixed opposes the theory of evolution. He rejected that one species could evolve into another, and also rejected that the consciousness humans possess could be achieved through the evolution of unconscious traits.
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632:, explains that environment plays a key role in human behaviours such as forgiveness and revenge. This hypothesis theorizes that various social environments cause either forgiveness or revenge to prevail. McCollough relates his theory to
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or maternal instinct is when a mother develops a relationship to a child to provide for its well-being. Maternal oxytocin is the hormone and neuropeptide thought to be responsible for predisposing women to showing bonding behavior and
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emotions because there was something unpleasant in their mouths, and that these instincts (which he uses interchangeably with reflexive movements) only became innate because past generations learned it and it benefited their survival.
188:(1832–1920) is known for founding the first psychology laboratory, which occurred in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. He was able to draw conclusions about instinct from his careful observations of both animal and human behaviour.
600:. In rats, it has been observed that innate responses are related to specific chemicals, and these chemicals are detected by two organs located in the nose: the vomeronasal organ (VNO) and the main olfactory epithelium (MOE).
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on his boots. Thereafter the goose would follow whoever wore the boots. This suggests that the identity of the goose's mother was learned, but the goose's behaviour towards what it perceived as its mother was instinctive.
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a parent, it is more likely to stay nearby under parental protection. Attached offspring are also more likely to learn from a parental figure when interacting closely. (Reproductive benefits are a driving force behind
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Bornstein, Marc H.; Putnick, Diane L.; Rigo, Paola; Esposito, Gianluca; Swain, James E.; Suwalsky, Joan T. D.; Su, Xueyun; Du, Xiaoxia; Zhang, Kaihua; Cote, Linda R.; De
Pisapia, Nicola; Venuti, Paola (2017).
374:(f) be unmodifiable, and (g) govern behaviour for which the organism needs no training (although the organism may profit from experience and to that degree the behaviour is modifiable).
82:. Though an instinct is defined by its invariant innate characteristics, details of its performance can be changed by experience; for example, a dog can improve its listening skills by practice.
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Within the circuitry of the limbic system, there are various places where evolution could have taken place, or could take place in the future. For example, many rodents have receptors in the
519:
to environment is an inherited innate phenotypic characteristic, whether inherited as instincts intricately, or as a neuropsychological capacity that furthers learning. Examples are
559:
262:. As research became more rigorous and terms better defined, instinct as an explanation for human behaviour became less common. In 1932, McDougall argued that the word
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Grebe, Nicholas M.; Sarafin, Ruth E.; Strenth, Chance R.; Zilioli, Samuele (2019). "Pair-bonding, fatherhood, and the role of testosterone: A meta-analytic review".
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44:(FAP), in which a very short to medium length sequence of actions, without variation, are carried out in response to a corresponding clearly defined stimulus.
592:'s instinctive aggression towards anything red during his mating season is such an example. Examples of instinctive behaviours in humans include many of the
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manifest particularly in response to the infant cry. Its mechanism has been partly elucidated by observations with functional MRI of the parent's brain.
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These birds flew immediately and normally when released, showing that their improvement resulted from neuromuscular maturation and not true learning.
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Liang T, Brinkman BAW (2022) Evolution of innate behavioral strategies through competitive population dynamics. PLoS Comput Biol 18(3): e1009934.
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in that most reflexes meet the criteria of a fixed action pattern. However, a fixed action pattern can be processed in the brain as well; a male
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is believed to be a manifestation of instinct. The infant cannot otherwise protect itself for survival during its long period of maturation. The
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he called "instinctive movements") were the result of sensations and emotions, and these unconscious processes were building blocks towards
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Li, Ting; Horta, Marilyn; Mascaro, Jennifer S.; Bijanki, Kelly; Arnal, Luc H.; Adams, Melissa; Barr, Roland G.; Rilling, James K. (2018).
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Dabbs, J. M.; Frady, R. L.; Carr, T. S.; Besch, N. F. (1987). "Saliva testosterone and criminal violence in young adult prison inmates".
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The following are some insect and animal behaviours that Fabre observed and labelled "instinctive", for they do not involve reasoning:
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for goal-directed combinations of the many innate human abilities, which are loosely and variably linked, in a way that shows strong
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aggression, defense, and social hierarchy. These behaviours are influenced by sensory input — sight, sound, touch, and smell.
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Instincts are inborn complex patterns of behaviour that exist in most members of the species, and should be distinguished from
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response in human beings has been said to be a particular response to the arising harmful event, attack or threat to survival.
366:—representing nature and nurture—shows remarkable, and largely unrecognized, similarities between the contending sides in the
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wrote about the "instinct of curiosity" and its associated "emotion of wonder", though Spink's book does not mention this.
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Dickens, W. T.; Cohen, J. L. (2003). "Instinct and Choice: A Framework for
Analysis". In Garcia Coll, C. (ed.).
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Any behaviour is instinctive if it is performed without being based upon prior experience (that is, in the absence of
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complex, the insects and animals did not adjust their behaviour despite it not helping them in that novel situation.
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Nature and
Nurture: The Complex Interplay of Genetic and Environmental Influences on Human Behavior and Development
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Environment is an important factor in the evolution of innate behaviour. A hypothesis of
Michael McCollough, a
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Jaynes, Julian (1957). "Imprinting: The interaction of learned and innate behavior: II. The critical period".
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2275:"A Command Chemical Triggers an Innate Behavior by Sequential Activation of Multiple Peptidergic Ensembles"
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behavior or social instinct has been postulated as an instinct necessary for the future survival of people.
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Dabbs, James; Hargrove, Marian F. (1997). "Age, Testosterone, and
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M. S. Blumberg in 2017 examined the use of the word instinct, and found it varied significantly.
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Hogan, Michael (2010). "Beyond revenge: The evolution of the forgiveness instinct, by
Michael Mc
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climbs into its mother's pouch upon being born. Other examples include animal fighting, animal
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Kim, Young-Joon; Žitňan, Dušan; Galizia, C. Giovanni; Cho, Kook-Ho; Adams, Michael E. (2006).
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1655:"Hormones and the Evolution of Complex Traits: Insights from Artificial Selection on Behavior"
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1034:"Physiological Optics, Cognition and Emotion: A Novel Look at the Early Work of Wilhelm Wundt"
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Curtis, Valerie; Biran, Adam (2001). "Dirt, disgust, and disease. Is hygiene in our genes?".
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Sigmund Freud considered that mental images of bodily needs, expressed in the form of mental
40:, containing innate (inborn) elements. The simplest example of an instinctive behaviour is a
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Herrnstein, R. J. (1972). "Nature as
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Psychology: An
Introductory Study of the Structure and Function of Human Consciousness
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Among possible examples of instinct-influenced behaviour in humans are the following.
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2164:"Wired for behaviors: From development to function of innate limbic system circuitry"
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459:. High levels of testosterone are often associated in a person (male or female) with
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1596:"Majority-Biased Transmission in Chimpanzees and Human Children, but Not Orangutans"
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In the early 20th century, there was recognized a "union of instinct and emotion".
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similarly asserts that language acquisition is instinctive in humans in his book
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appeared to have become outmoded for introductory textbooks on human psychology.
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1436:"Itsy Bitsy Spider…: Infants React with Increased Arousal to Spiders and Snakes"
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is more suitable for describing animal behaviour, while he recommended the word
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1790:"Longitudinal evidence that fatherhood decreases testosterone in human males"
1547:"Explaining individual variation in paternal brain responses to infant cries"
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907:
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1806:
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Hoehl, Stefanie; Hellmer, Kahl; Johansson, Maria; Gredebäck, Gustaf (2017).
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James Rowland Angell (1906). "The Important Human Instincts", Chapter 16 in
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while the term may have applied to humans in the past, it no longer does.
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1980:(7th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 262.
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70:, newly hatched on a beach, will instinctively move toward the ocean. A
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behaviour in humans was suggested to be partly instinctive, based on
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wrote: "A comparison of McDougall's theory of instinct and Skinner's
243:
94:
1488:"Neurobiology of culturally common maternal responses to infant cry"
985:
740:
Behind the Mirror: A Search for a Natural History of Human Knowledge
1193:
https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Angell/Angell_1906/Angell_1906_p.html
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Personality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and Applications
964:(Fall 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
840:
258:
held that many instincts have their respective associated specific
218:
The process by which Wundt explained the existence of instincts is
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2031:(1st ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon: United Kingdom: Routledge.
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161:
107:
84:
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596:, such as rooting and suckling, behaviours which are present in
417:
79:
66:), and is therefore an expression of innate biological factors.
30:
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2420:
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2155:
2153:
1884:"Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour"
892:"Jean Henri Fabre and Evolution: Indifference or Blind Hatred?"
297:
An interest in innate behaviours arose again in the 1950s with
1594:
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494:
in people generally is when they have the instinct to survive.
1191:, third edition, revised. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
2762:
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1882:
Curtis, Valerie; Aunger, Robert; deBarra, Mícheál (2011).
78:
behaviour, internal escape functions, and the building of
467:
level after the birth of a child was found among fathers.
455:
are linked to specific forms of human behaviour, such as
1220:, second edition, Methuen & Co. Ltd, London, p. 99.
420:
of snakes and spiders was found in six-month-old babies.
1364:, 21st edition, Methuen & Co. Ltd, London, p. xxii.
1350:. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
358:
In a classic paper published in 1972, the psychologist
1207:, 21st edition, Methuen & Co. Ltd, London, p. vii.
1038:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
89:
A wet dog instinctively shakes the water from its fur.
2093:
The Social Instinct: How Cooperation Shaped the World
350:(1961) selected a range of writings about the topic.
1318:
Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind
326:, and attended by luminaries in the field, the term
3147:
3126:
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2800:
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2634:
2538:
2454:
2240:
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology
1383:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science
1231:
100:Instinctual behaviour in humans has been studied.
2006:. Cambridge University Press. 2010. p. 282.
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1372:
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445:infants, but is apparently absent in the young
234:interchangeably, often grouping them together.
2118:"The Concept of Resistance in Self Psychology"
379:Information Behavior: An Evolutionary Instinct
3134:Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
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1653:Garland T, Zhao M, Saltzman W (August 2016).
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8:
2370:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009934
2070:. United States: W.W. Norton & Company.
2051:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1126:"IV.—An Attempt at a Psychology of Instinct"
1090:. Pabst Science Publishers. pp. 35–63.
571:hunts the pointer of a mouse, confused with
1252:Instinct: An Enduring Problem in Psychology
896:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
348:Instinct: An Enduring Problem in Psychology
3139:International Society for Applied Ethology
2785:
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2213:Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2002).
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657:exhibit behaviours without learning them.
16:Behaviour due to innate biological factors
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370:as applied to the analysis of behavior."
1841:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
46:
2135:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1996.50.1.66
1163:Hjelle, Larry; Ziegler, Daniel (1981).
962:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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416:Congenital preparedness for developing
2044:
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1119:
1117:
1115:
339:" instincts. In this sense, the term
7:
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1933:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
1362:An Introduction to Social Psychology
1205:An Introduction to Social Psychology
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318:In a conference in 1960, chaired by
2168:Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience
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1659:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2336:The Journal of Positive Psychology
1888:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
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2122:American Journal of Psychotherapy
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1759:10.1097/00006842-199709000-00003
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839:Wheeler, William Morton (1916),
58:makes its way to the open ocean.
2489:Central pattern generator (CPG)
2399:The Language of Psycho-analysis
1853:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.010
441:is found in human children and
284:In the 1950s, the psychologist
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1:
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1230:Maslow, Abraham H. (1954).
1084:Fahrenberg, Jochen (2019).
1032:Wassmann, C. (2008-10-23).
130:Insect and animal behaviour
3257:
2688:Infrared sensing in snakes
2673:Jamming avoidance response
2003:Human Evolutionary Biology
1377:Blumberg, Mark S. (2017).
1346:Geary, D. C. (2004).
1238:Motivation and Personality
958:"Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt"
845:Journal of Animal Behavior
584:. Reflexes are similar to
547:
405:
18:
3193:
2900:Evolutionary neuroscience
2728:
2348:10.1080/17439760903509614
2300:10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.027
2116:Rowe, Crayton E. (1996).
1621:10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.006
1551:Physiology & Behavior
21:Instinct (disambiguation)
2853:Behavioral endocrinology
2693:Caridoid escape reaction
2181:10.3389/fnmol.2012.00055
1453:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01710
246:, are called instincts.
3048:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt
2828:Animal sexual behaviour
2546:Theodore Holmes Bullock
2390:Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand
2066:Cannon, Walter (1932).
1807:10.1073/pnas.1105403108
1513:10.1073/pnas.1712022114
1440:Frontiers in Psychology
737:Lorenz, Konrad (1977).
3234:Neuroethology concepts
2987:Tool use by non-humans
2940:Philosophical ethology
2885:Comparative psychology
2833:Animal welfare science
2703:Surface wave detection
2095:. St. Martin's Press.
1900:10.1098/rstb.2010.0117
1747:Psychosomatic Medicine
1704:Psychosomatic Medicine
1360:McDougall, W. (1928).
1216:McDougall, W. (1932).
1203:McDougall, W. (1928).
929:Raffles, Hugh (2010).
703:Psychological nativism
576:
324:comparative psychology
115:
90:
59:
2519:Anti-Hebbian learning
2394:"Instinct (or Drive)"
1945:10.1353/pbm.2001.0001
630:positive psychologist
586:fixed action patterns
566:
529:situational awareness
388:The Language Instinct
368:nature–nurture debate
232:instinctive movements
224:unconscious processes
192:Unconscious processes
111:
88:
50:
3093:William Homan Thorpe
2858:Behavioural genetics
2818:Animal consciousness
2813:Animal communication
2596:Bernhard Hassenstein
2529:Ultrasound avoidance
2504:Fixed action pattern
2467:Coincidence detector
1142:10.1093/mind/vi.1.59
1050:10.1093/jhmas/jrn058
890:Yavetz, Ido (1988).
364:reinforcement theory
335:'s referral to the "
42:fixed action pattern
19:For other uses, see
2848:Behavioural ecology
2663:Animal echolocation
2601:Werner E. Reichardt
2551:Walter Heiligenberg
2291:2006CBio...16.1395K
1800:(39): 16194–16199.
1612:2012CBio...22..727H
1504:2017PNAS..114E9465B
1498:(45): E9465–E9473.
795:1994SciAm.271a..74P
783:Scientific American
531:, establishing the
228:reflexive movements
3177:Behavioral Ecology
3098:Nikolaas Tinbergen
2890:Emotion in animals
2868:Cognitive ethology
2626:Fernando Nottebohm
2524:Sound localization
2499:Lateral inhibition
2068:Wisdom of the Body
1974:Chiras DD (2012).
1671:10.1093/icb/icw040
956:Kim, Alan (2016),
841:"Jean-Henri Fabre"
779:"Jean Henri Fabre"
699:(hunting instinct)
594:primitive reflexes
577:
525:searching for food
517:Adaptive behaviour
360:Richard Herrnstein
354:Richard Herrnstein
303:Nikolaas Tinbergen
205:Facial expressions
142:Maternal instincts
116:
113:Primitive reflexes
91:
60:
53:leatherback turtle
3211:
3210:
3103:Jakob von Uexküll
2873:Comfort behaviour
2760:
2759:
2647:Slice preparation
2509:Krogh's Principle
2484:Feature detection
2409:978-0-946-43949-2
2285:(14): 1395–1407.
2224:978-0-201-75054-6
2013:978-1-139-78900-4
1987:978-0-7637-8345-7
1894:(1563): 389–401.
1316:Buss, D. (2008).
1302:978-81-203-4035-0
1097:978-3-95853-574-9
942:978-0-375-42386-4
750:978-0-15-111699-7
646:vomeronasal organ
623:natural selection
564:
492:Self-preservation
393:William McDougall
391:(1994). In 1908,
256:William McDougall
250:William McDougall
220:natural selection
214:Natural selection
3246:
3224:Animal cognition
3201:
3200:
3163:Animal Cognition
3156:Animal Behaviour
3108:Wolfgang Wickler
2808:Animal cognition
2787:
2780:
2773:
2764:
2748:
2747:
2736:
2735:
2713:Mechanoreception
2708:Electroreception
2621:Masakazu Konishi
2586:Jörg-Peter Ewert
2441:
2434:
2427:
2418:
2413:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2327:
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2264:
2263:
2252:10.1037/h0044716
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864:
863:
857:10.1037/h0070333
836:
823:
822:
774:
755:
754:
734:
718:Unconscious mind
651:olfactory system
565:
124:Jean Henri Fabre
119:Jean Henri Fabre
3256:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3189:
3143:
3122:
3118:Solly Zuckerman
3058:Karl von Frisch
3043:Richard Dawkins
3028:John B. Calhoun
3013:Patrick Bateson
3001:
2935:Pain in animals
2796:
2791:
2761:
2756:
2724:
2678:Vision in toads
2651:
2630:
2581:Erich von Holst
2576:Karl von Frisch
2534:
2450:
2445:
2410:
2386:Laplanche, Jean
2384:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2279:Current Biology
2272:
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1600:Current Biology
1593:
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776:
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736:
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731:
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663:
615:
606:
554:
552:
546:
498:Fight-or-flight
410:
404:
356:
322:, a pioneer in
316:
295:
282:
252:
240:
216:
207:
194:
183:
170:
132:
121:
106:
104:Early theorists
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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3170:Animal Welfare
3166:
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3141:
3136:
3130:
3128:
3124:
3123:
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3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3083:Desmond Morris
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3038:Marian Dawkins
3035:
3033:Charles Darwin
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3009:
3007:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2978:
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2972:
2967:
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2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2915:Human ethology
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2823:Animal culture
2820:
2815:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2798:
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2789:
2782:
2775:
2767:
2758:
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2755:
2754:
2742:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2698:Vocal learning
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2571:Donald Kennedy
2568:
2566:Donald Griffin
2563:
2558:
2556:Niko Tinbergen
2553:
2548:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2514:Hebbian theory
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2436:
2429:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2408:
2380:
2379:External links
2377:
2374:
2373:
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2322:
2265:
2230:
2223:
2205:
2149:
2108:
2102:978-1250262820
2101:
2083:
2077:978-0393002058
2076:
2058:
2038:978-1855759596
2037:
2019:
2012:
1993:
1986:
1966:
1923:
1874:
1831:
1780:
1753:(5): 477–480.
1737:
1710:(2): 174–182.
1694:
1645:
1606:(8): 727–731.
1586:
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1389:(1–2): e1371.
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687:Human ethology
684:
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677:Genetic memory
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548:Main article:
545:
542:
541:
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514:
513:gratification.
507:
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463:. Decrease in
461:aggressiveness
450:
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406:Main article:
403:
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286:Abraham Maslow
281:
280:Abraham Maslow
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3088:Thomas Sebeok
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3078:Konrad Lorenz
3076:
3074:
3073:Julian Huxley
3071:
3069:
3068:Heini Hediger
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2838:Anthrozoology
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2561:Konrad Lorenz
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2517:
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2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
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2494:NMDA receptor
2492:
2490:
2487:
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2480:
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2448:Neuroethology
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2004:
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1977:Human Biology
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1705:
1698:
1695:
1690:
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1672:
1668:
1665:(2): 207–24.
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1174:9780070290631
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1120:
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1028:
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1024:
1022:
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1016:
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1007:
1003:
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997:0-19-515154-2
993:
989:
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978:
974:
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949:
944:
938:
934:
933:
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868:
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831:
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788:
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773:
771:
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664:
660:
658:
654:
652:
647:
642:
639:
638:limbic system
635:
631:
626:
624:
619:
612:
610:
603:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
574:
570:
551:
543:
538:
537:vocalizations
534:
533:pecking order
530:
526:
522:
518:
515:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
493:
490:
486:
485:Maternal bond
483:
480:
476:
472:
469:
466:
462:
458:
454:
451:
448:
444:
440:
439:herd instinct
436:
433:
432:paternal bond
429:
425:
422:
419:
415:
414:
413:
409:
401:
399:
396:
394:
390:
389:
384:
383:Steven Pinker
380:
375:
371:
369:
365:
361:
353:
351:
349:
344:
342:
338:
334:
333:Sigmund Freud
329:
325:
321:
313:
311:
308:
304:
300:
299:Konrad Lorenz
293:Konrad Lorenz
292:
290:
287:
279:
277:
275:
271:
270:
265:
261:
257:
249:
247:
245:
238:Sigmund Freud
237:
235:
233:
229:
225:
221:
213:
211:
204:
202:
200:
199:consciousness
191:
189:
187:
186:Wilhelm Wundt
181:Wilhelm Wundt
180:
178:
174:
167:
163:
160:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
146:Metamorphosis
144:
141:
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129:
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125:
118:
114:
110:
103:
101:
98:
96:
87:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
57:
54:
49:
45:
43:
39:
35:
32:
28:
22:
3182:
3175:
3168:
3161:
3154:
3113:E. O. Wilson
3063:Jane Goodall
3023:Donald Broom
2992:Zoosemiotics
2945:Sociobiology
2919:
2749:
2737:
2718:Lateral line
2668:Waggle dance
2606:Eric Knudsen
2478:
2471:
2398:
2364:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2282:
2278:
2268:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2214:
2208:
2171:
2167:
2128:(1): 66–74.
2125:
2121:
2111:
2092:
2086:
2067:
2061:
2028:
2022:
2002:
1996:
1976:
1969:
1939:(1): 17–31.
1936:
1932:
1926:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1750:
1746:
1740:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1662:
1658:
1648:
1603:
1599:
1589:
1557:(A): 43–54.
1554:
1550:
1540:
1495:
1491:
1480:
1443:
1439:
1429:
1386:
1382:
1361:
1356:
1347:
1341:
1332:
1326:
1317:
1311:
1292:
1286:
1272:(1): 23–52.
1269:
1265:
1259:
1251:
1246:
1237:
1225:
1217:
1212:
1204:
1199:
1188:
1183:
1164:
1158:
1136:(1): 59–70.
1133:
1129:
1086:
1041:
1037:
986:
966:, retrieved
961:
951:
932:Insectopedia
931:
924:
899:
895:
860:, retrieved
848:
844:
789:(1): 74–80.
786:
782:
739:
732:
713:Sociobiology
667:Drive theory
655:
643:
627:
616:
613:In evolution
607:
604:Maturational
578:
465:testosterone
411:
408:Human nature
397:
386:
378:
376:
372:
357:
347:
345:
340:
327:
317:
296:
283:
267:
263:
253:
241:
231:
227:
223:
217:
208:
195:
184:
175:
171:
158:Playing dead
137:
133:
122:
99:
92:
61:
26:
25:
3239:Unconscious
3053:Dian Fossey
3018:Marc Bekoff
3006:Ethologists
2642:Patch clamp
2611:Eric Kandel
2591:Franz Huber
2462:Feedforward
2246:(1): 6–10.
1847:: 221–233.
1266:Behaviorism
902:(1): 3–36.
708:Rationality
649:called the
634:game theory
590:stickleback
504:Cooperation
320:Frank Beach
314:Frank Beach
68:Sea turtles
3218:Categories
2955:Structures
2950:Stereotypy
2616:Nobuo Suga
2531:in insects
2342:: 97–100.
1106:1164647262
968:2022-05-06
862:2022-05-07
724:References
697:Prey drive
618:Imprinting
582:reflex arc
510:Resistance
447:orangutans
443:chimpanzee
424:Infant cry
331:regard to
274:plasticity
269:propensity
3184:Behaviour
3127:Societies
2965:Honeycomb
2356:144005845
2047:cite book
1403:1939-5078
1150:0026-4423
1058:0022-5045
908:0391-9714
851:: 74–80,
811:0036-8733
682:Heuristic
457:sexuality
402:In humans
346:The book
76:courtship
72:marsupial
56:hatchling
38:behaviour
3229:Ethology
3203:Category
3148:Journals
2975:Instinct
2925:Learning
2920:Instinct
2895:Ethogram
2878:Grooming
2801:Branches
2794:Ethology
2739:Category
2479:Instinct
2455:Concepts
2392:(1973).
2332:Cullough
2317:14745330
2309:16860738
2260:13406129
2200:22557946
1961:15675303
1953:11253302
1918:21199843
1869:58635068
1861:30639674
1826:21911391
1775:19900226
1732:39757740
1689:27252193
1640:22503497
1581:29730041
1532:29078366
1472:29093687
1446:: 1710.
1421:27906515
1278:27758791
1066:18948411
1006:49558592
916:23328997
819:43232778
692:Innatism
672:Ethology
661:See also
544:Reflexes
488:bonding.
477:such as
475:emotions
453:Hormones
428:maternal
341:instinct
328:instinct
264:instinct
260:emotions
95:reflexes
64:learning
34:organism
27:Instinct
2905:Feeding
2751:Commons
2656:Systems
2635:Methods
2287:Bibcode
2215:Biology
2191:3337482
2144:8867576
1909:3013466
1817:3182719
1767:9316179
1724:3575604
1680:5964798
1608:Bibcode
1572:6015531
1523:5692572
1500:Bibcode
1463:5651927
1412:5182125
791:Bibcode
598:mammals
479:disgust
471:Hygiene
307:imprint
244:desires
155:Molting
151:Mimicry
2539:People
2473:Umwelt
2406:
2354:
2315:
2307:
2258:
2221:
2198:
2188:
2174:: 55.
2142:
2099:
2074:
2035:
2010:
1984:
1959:
1951:
1916:
1906:
1867:
1859:
1824:
1814:
1773:
1765:
1730:
1722:
1687:
1677:
1638:
1579:
1569:
1530:
1520:
1470:
1460:
1419:
1409:
1401:
1299:
1276:
1171:
1148:
1104:
1094:
1064:
1056:
1004:
994:
939:
914:
906:
817:
809:
747:
550:Reflex
521:mating
230:, and
31:living
2982:Swarm
2910:Hover
2863:Breed
2352:S2CID
2313:S2CID
1957:S2CID
1865:S2CID
1771:S2CID
1728:S2CID
1274:JSTOR
912:JSTOR
815:S2CID
569:gecko
162:Taxis
80:nests
2970:Nest
2960:Hive
2404:ISBN
2305:PMID
2256:PMID
2219:ISBN
2196:PMID
2140:PMID
2097:ISBN
2072:ISBN
2053:link
2033:ISBN
2008:ISBN
1982:ISBN
1949:PMID
1914:PMID
1857:PMID
1822:PMID
1763:PMID
1720:PMID
1685:PMID
1636:PMID
1577:PMID
1528:PMID
1468:PMID
1417:PMID
1399:ISSN
1297:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1146:ISSN
1130:Mind
1102:OCLC
1092:ISBN
1062:PMID
1054:ISSN
1002:OCLC
992:ISBN
937:ISBN
904:ISSN
807:ISSN
745:ISBN
573:prey
535:and
437:The
430:and
418:fear
301:and
2344:doi
2334:".
2295:doi
2248:doi
2186:PMC
2176:doi
2130:doi
1941:doi
1904:PMC
1896:doi
1892:366
1849:doi
1812:PMC
1802:doi
1798:108
1755:doi
1712:doi
1675:PMC
1667:doi
1626:hdl
1616:doi
1567:PMC
1559:doi
1555:193
1518:PMC
1508:doi
1496:114
1458:PMC
1448:doi
1407:PMC
1391:doi
1138:doi
1046:doi
853:doi
799:doi
787:271
625:.)
377:In
3220::
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