Mycorrhiza - Knowledge

621:, known as “fine root endophytes" (MFREs), were mistakenly identified as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi until recently. While similar to AMF, MFREs are from subphylum Mucoromycotina instead of Glomeromycotina. Their morphology when colonizing a plant root is very similar to AMF, but they form fine textured hyphae. Effects of MFREs may have been mistakenly attributed to AMFs due to confusion between the two, complicated by the fact that AMFs and MFREs often colonize the same hosts simultaneously. Unlike AMFs, they appear capable of surviving without a host. This group of mycorrhizal fungi is little understood, but appears to prefer wet, acidic soils and forms symbiotic relationships with liverworts, hornworts, lycophytes, and angiosperms. 458:, are generalists that form mycorrhizas with many different plants. An individual tree may have 15 or more different fungal EcM partners at one time. While the diversity of plants involved in EcM is low, the diversity of fungi involved in EcM is high. Thousands of ectomycorrhizal fungal species exist, hosted in over 200 genera. A recent study has conservatively estimated global ectomycorrhizal fungal species richness at approximately 7750 species, although, on the basis of estimates of knowns and unknowns in macromycete diversity, a final estimate of ECM species richness would probably be between 20,000 and 25,000. Ectomycorrhizal fungi evolved independently from saprotrophic ancestors many times in the group's history. 702:. Orchid seeds are so small that they contain no nutrition to sustain the germinating seedling, and instead must gain the energy to grow from their fungal symbiont. The OM relationship is asymmetric; the plant seems to benefit more than the fungus, and some orchids are entirely mycoheterotrophic, lacking chlorophyll for photosynthesis. It is actually unknown whether fully autotrophic orchids that do not receive some of their carbon from fungi exist or not. Like fungi that form ErMs, OM fungi can sometimes live as endophytes or as independent saprotrophs. In the OM symbiosis, hyphae penetrate into the root cells and form pelotons (coils) for nutrient exchange. 1020:. These associations have been found to assist in plant defense both above and belowground. Mycorrhizas have been found to excrete enzymes that are toxic to soil borne organisms such as nematodes. More recent studies have shown that mycorrhizal associations result in a priming effect of plants that essentially acts as a primary immune response. When this association is formed a defense response is activated similarly to the response that occurs when the plant is under attack. As a result of this inoculation, defense responses are stronger in plants with mycorrhizal associations. 777:

mycorrhizae distribute nutrients based upon the environment with surrounding plants and other mycorrhizae. They go on to explain how this updated model could explain why mycorrhizae do not alleviate plant nitrogen limitation, and why plants can switch abruptly from a mixed strategy with both mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal roots to a purely mycorrhizal strategy as soil nitrogen availability declines. It has also been suggested that evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships can explain much more variation in the strength of mycorrhizal mutualisms than ecological factors.

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other chemical compounds are also suspected to have a signaling function. While the signals emitted by the fungi are less understood, it has been shown that chitinaceous molecules known as Myc factors are essential for the formation of arbuscular mycorrhizae. Signals from plants are detected by LysM-containing receptor-like kinases, or LysM-RLKs. AMF genomes also code for potentially hundreds of effector proteins, of which only a few have a proven effect on mycorrhizal symbiosis, but many others likely have a function in communication with plant hosts as well.

45: 56: 36: 781: 630: 818:, a plant hormone, secreted from roots induces fungal spores in the soil to germinate, stimulates their metabolism, growth and branching, and prompts the fungi to release chemical signals the plant can detect. Once the plant and fungus recognize one another as suitable symbionts, the plant activates the common symbiotic signaling pathway, which causes changes in the root tissues that enable the fungus to colonize. 749: 664:, but are found in two-thirds of all forests on Earth. Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi belong to several different lineages of fungi. Some species can live as endophytes entirely within plant cells even within plants outside the Ericales, or live independently as saprotrophs that decompose dead organic matter. This ability to switch between multiple lifestyle types makes ericoid mycorrhizal fungi very adaptable. 359: 65: 864: 503:, was published in 2008. An expansion of several multigene families occurred in this fungus, suggesting that adaptation to symbiosis proceeded by gene duplication. Within lineage-specific genes those coding for symbiosis-regulated secreted proteins showed an up-regulated expression in ectomycorrhizal root tips suggesting a role in the partner communication. 345: 440:. Ectomycorrhizae associate with relatively few plant species, only about 2% of plant species on Earth, but the species they associate with are mostly trees and woody plants that are highly dominant in their ecosystems, meaning plants in ectomycorrhizal relationships make up a large proportion of plant biomass. Some EcM fungi, such as many 569:, (formerly known as vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas), have hyphae that penetrate plant cells, producing branching, tree-like structures called arbuscules within the plant cells for nutrient exchange. Often, balloon-like storage structures, termed vesicles, are also produced. In this interaction, fungal 2962:

Hoeksema, Jason D.; Bever, James D.; Chakraborty, Sounak; Chaudhary, V. Bala; Gardes, Monique; Gehring, Catherine A.; Hart, Miranda M.; Housworth, Elizabeth Ann; Kaonongbua, Wittaya; Klironomos, John N.; Lajeunesse, Marc J.; Meadow, James; Milligan, Brook G.; Piculell, Bridget J.; Pringle, Anne; Rúa,

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to facilitate the transfer of nutrients between them. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are obligate biotrophs, meaning that they depend upon the plant host for both growth and reproduction; they have lost the ability to sustain themselves by decomposing dead plant material. Twenty percent of the photosynthetic

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of the mycorrhizal fungus can, however, access many such nutrient sources, and make them available to the plants they colonize. Thus, many plants are able to obtain phosphate without using soil as a source. Another form of immobilisation is when nutrients are locked up in organic matter that is slow

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capabilities, and EcM fungi have significant variation in their ability to produce enzymes needed for a saprotrophic lifestyle, fungi involved in ErMs have fully retained the ability to decompose plant material for sustenance. Some ericoid mycorrhizal fungi have actually expanded their repertoire of

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Experiments with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi have identified numerous chemical compounds to be involved in the "chemical dialog" that occurs between the prospective symbionts before symbiosis is begun. In plants, almost all plant hormones play a role in initiating or regulating AMF symbiosis, and

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relationship with the roots of most plant species. In such a relationship, both the plants themselves and those parts of the roots that host the fungi, are said to be mycorrhizal. Relatively few of the mycorrhizal relationships between plant species and fungi have been examined to date, but 95% of

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or hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi to colonise the plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. The absence of mycorrhizal fungi can also slow plant growth in early succession or on degraded landscapes. The introduction of alien mycorrhizal plants to nutrient-deficient ecosystems puts

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for detecting chemical signals from other organisms. Plants dynamically adjust their symbiotic and immune responses, changing their interactions with their symbionts in response to feedbacks detected by the plant. In plants, the mycorrhizal symbiosis is regulated by the common symbiosis signaling

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Plants that participate in these symbioses have specialized roots with no root hairs, which are covered with a layer of epidermal cells that the fungus penetrates into and completely occupies. The fungi have a simple intraradical (growth in cells) phase, consisting of dense coils of hyphae in the

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significance of mycorrhizal fungi also includes alleviation of salt stress and its beneficial effects on plant growth and productivity. Although salinity can negatively affect mycorrhizal fungi, many reports show improved growth and performance of mycorrhizal plants under salt stress conditions.

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The mechanisms by which mycorrhizae increase absorption include some that are physical and some that are chemical. Physically, most mycorrhizal mycelia are much smaller in diameter than the smallest root or root hair, and thus can explore soil material that roots and root hairs cannot reach, and

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Selosse, Marc-Andre; Petroli, Remi; Mujica, Maria; Laurent, Liam; Perez-Lamarque, Benoit; Figura, Tomas; Bourceret, Amelia; Jaquemyn, Hans; Li, Taiqiang; Gao, Jiangyun; Minasiewicz, Julita; Martos, Florent (2021). "The Waiting Room Hypothesis revisited by orchids: were orchid mycorrhizal fungi

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and are the most recently evolved of the major mycorrhizal relationships. Plants that form ericoid mycorrhizae are mostly woody understory shrubs; hosts include blueberries, bilberries, cranberries, mountain laurels, rhododendrons, heather, neinei, and giant grass tree. ErMs are most common in

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being the ancestral and predominant form, and the most prevalent symbiotic association found in the plant kingdom. The structure of arbuscular mycorrhizas has been highly conserved since their first appearance in the fossil record, with both the development of ectomycorrhizas, and the loss of

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Some forms of plant-fungal symbiosis are similar to mycorrhizae, but considered distinct. One example is fungal endophytes. Endophytes are defined as organisms that can live within plant cells without causing harm to the plant. They are distinguishable from mycorrhizal fungi by the absence of

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has indicated that mycorrhizal fungi and plants have a relationship that may be more complex than simply mutualistic. This relationship was noted when mycorrhizal fungi were unexpectedly found to be hoarding nitrogen from plant roots in times of nitrogen scarcity. Researchers argue that some

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and possible damage to mycorrhizae, but the direct effect of an increase in the gas should be to benefit plants and mycorrhizae. In Arctic regions, nitrogen and water are harder for plants to obtain, making mycorrhizae crucial to plant growth. Since mycorrhizae tend to do better in cooler

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provided by mycorrhizal fungi may depend on the soil microbiome. Furthermore, mycorrhizal fungi was significantly correlated with soil physical variable, but only with water level and not with aggregate stability and can lead also to more resistant to the effects of drought. Moreover, the

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plants with a mutation disabling their ability to detect P starvation show that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi detection, recruitment and colonization is prompted when the plant detects that it is starved of phosphorous. Nitrogen starvation also plays a role in initiating AMF symbiosis.

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outermost layer of root cells. There is no periradical phase and the extraradical phase consists of sparse hyphae that don't extend very far into the surrounding soil. They might form sporocarps (probably in the form of small cups), but their reproductive biology is poorly understood.

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Kiers, E. Toby; Duhamel, Marie; Beesetty, Yugandhar; Mensah, Jerry A.; Franken, Oscar; Verbruggen, Erik; Fellbaum, Carl R.; Kowalchuk, George A.; Hart, Miranda M.; Bago, Alberto; Palmer, Todd M.; West, Stuart A.; Vandenkoornhuyse, Philippe; Jansa, Jan; Bücking, Heike (2011-08-12).

256:. Genetic evidence indicates that all land plants share a single common ancestor, which appears to have quickly adopted mycorrhizal symbiosis, and research suggests that proto-mycorrhizal fungi were a key factor enabling plant terrestrialization. The 400 million year old 520:

lifestyle of the mycorrhizal fungus that enables it to grow within both soil and living plant roots. Since then, the genomes of many other ectomycorrhizal fungal species have been sequenced further expanding the study of gene families and evolution in these organisms.

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Babikova, Zdenka; Gilbert, Lucy; Bruce, Toby J. A.; Birkett, Michael; Caulfield, John C.; Woodcock, Christine; Pickett, John A.; Johnson, David (July 2013). "Underground signals carried through common mycelial networks warn neighbouring plants of aphid attack".

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Miyauchi, Shingo; Kiss, Enikő; Kuo, Alan; Drula, Elodie; Kohler, Annegret; Sánchez-García, Marisol; Morin, Emmanuelle; Andreopoulos, Bill; Barry, Kerrie W.; Bonito, Gregory; Buée, Marc; Carver, Akiko; Chen, Cindy; Cichocki, Nicolas; Clum, Alicia (2020-10-12).

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Associations of fungi with the roots of plants have been known since at least the mid-19th century. However early observers simply recorded the fact without investigating the relationships between the two organisms. This symbiosis was studied and described by

533:. It is however different from ericoid mycorrhiza and resembles ectomycorrhiza, both functionally and in terms of the fungi involved. It differs from ectomycorrhiza in that some hyphae actually penetrate into the root cells, making this type of mycorrhiza an 589:

Contrasting with the pattern seen in ectomycorrhizae, the species diversity of AMFs is very low, but the diversity of plant hosts is very high; an estimated 78% of all plant species associate with AMFs. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are formed only by fungi in the

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was able to derive up to 25% of its nitrogen from springtails. When compared with non-mycorrhizal fine roots, ectomycorrhizae may contain very high concentrations of trace elements, including toxic metals (cadmium, silver) or chlorine.

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nutrient-transferring structures for bringing in nutrients from outside the plant. Some lineages of mycorrhizal fungi may have evolved from endophytes into mycorrhizal fungi, and some fungi can live as mycorrhizae or as endophytes.

4205:"Der ganze Körper ist also weder Baumwurzel noch Pilz allein, sondern ähnlich wie der Thallus der Flechten, eine Vereinigung zweier verschiedener Wesen zu einem einheitlichen morphologischen Organ, welches vielleicht passend als 814:. The CSSP has origins predating the colonization of land by plants, demonstrating that the co-evolution of plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is over 500 million years old. In arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, the presence of 4137:

Berch, S. M.; Massicotte, H. B.; Tackaberry, L. E. (July 2005). "Re-publication of a translation of 'The vegetative organs of Monotropa hypopitys L.' published by F. Kamienski in 1882, with an update on Monotropa mycorrhizas".

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In this mutualism, fungal hyphae (E) increase the surface area of the root and uptake of key nutrients while the plant supplies the fungi with fixed carbon (A=root cortex, B=root epidermis, C=arbuscle, D=vesicle, F=root hair,

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Jeffries, Peter; Gianinazzi, Silvio; Perotto, Silvia; Turnau, Katarzyna; Barea, José-Miguel (January 2003). "The contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in sustainable maintenance of plant health and soil fertility".

4215:(The whole body is thus neither tree root nor fungus alone, but similar to the thallus of lichens, a union of two different organisms into a single morphological organ, which can be aptly designated as a "fungus root", a 1192:

was launched. SPUN is a science-based initiative to map and protect the mycorrhizal networks regulating Earth’s climate and ecosystems. The stated goals of SPUN are mapping, protecting, and harnessing mycorrhizal fungi.

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is lacking enzymes involved in the degradation of plant cell wall components (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and pectates), preventing the symbiont from degrading host cells during the root colonisation. By contrast,

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is an extension of mycorrhizal symbiosis. The modern distribution of mycorrhizal fungi appears to reflect an increasing complexity and competition in root morphology associated with the dominance of angiosperms in the

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Ward, Elisabeth B.; Duguid, Marlyse C.; Kuebbing, Sara E.; Lendemer, James C.; Bradford, Mark A. (2022). "The functional role of ericoid mycorrhizal plants and fungi on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in forests".

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enzymes for breaking down organic matter. They can extract nitrogen from cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and chitin. This would increase the benefit they can provide to their plant symbiotic partners.

601:, when the first plants were colonizing land. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are found in 85% of all plant families, and occur in many crop species. The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi produce the glycoprotein 2317:

Cejpková, J.; Gryndler, M.; Hršelová, H.; Kotrba, P.; Řanda, Z.; Greňová, I.; Borovička, J. (2016). "Bioaccumulation of heavy metals, metalloids, and chlorine in ectomycorrhizae from smelter-polluted area".

797:, such as mycorrhizal fungi and any of the thousands of microbes that colonize plants, plants must discriminate between mutualists and pathogens, allowing the mutualists to colonize while activating an 3107:

Prout, James N.; Williams, Alex; Wanke, Alan; Schornack, Sebastian; Ton, Jurriaan; Field, Katie J. (2023). "Mucoromycotina 'fine root endophytes': a new molecular model for plant–fungal mutualisms?".

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the plant families investigated are predominantly mycorrhizal either in the sense that most of their species associate beneficially with mycorrhizae, or are absolutely dependent on mycorrhizae. The

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Nasir, Fahad; Bahadur, Ali; Lin, Xiaolong; Gao, Yingzhi; Tian, Chunjie (2021). "Novel insights into host receptors and receptor-mediated signaling that regulate arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis".

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products made by the plant host are consumed by the fungi, the transfer of carbon from the terrestrial host plant is then exchanged by equal amounts of phosphate from the fungi to the plant host.

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and there is fossil evidence that early land plants that lacked roots formed arbuscular mycorrhizal associations. Most plant species form mycorrhizal associations, though some families like

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Monz, C. A.; Hunt, H. W.; Reeves, F. B.; Elliott, E. T. (1994). "The response of mycorrhizal colonization to elevated CO2 and climate change in Pascopyrum smithii and Bouteloua gracilis".

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Thoms, David; Liang, Yan; Haney, Cara H. (2021). "Maintaining Symbiotic Homeostasis: How Do Plants Engage With Beneficial Microorganisms While at the Same Time Restricting Pathogens?".

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Nikolaou, N.; Angelopoulos, K.; Karagiannidis, N. (2003). "Effects of Drought Stress on Mycorrhizal and Non-Mycorrhizal Cabernet Sauvignon Grapevine, Grafted Onto Various Rootstocks".

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Hobbie, John E.; Hobbie, Erik A.; Drossman, Howard; et al. (2009). "Mycorrhizal fungi supply nitrogen to host plants in Arctic tundra and boreal forests: 15N is the key signal".

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that penetrates between cells. Ectomycorrhizas consist of a hyphal sheath, or mantle, covering the root tip and the Hartig net of hyphae surrounding the plant cells within the root

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Howard, Nathan; Pressel, Silvia; Kaye, Ryan S.; Daniell, Tim J.; Field, Katie J. (2022). "The potential role of Mucoromycotina 'fine root endophytes' in plant nitrogen nutrition".

2534: 892:, and partly because some such fungi can mobilize soil minerals unavailable to the plants' roots. The effect is thus to improve the plant's mineral absorption capabilities. 884:. The carbohydrates are translocated from their source (usually leaves) to root tissue and on to the plant's fungal partners. In return, the plant gains the benefits of the 3475:

Azcón-Aguilar, C.; Barea, J. M. (29 October 1996). "Arbuscular mycorrhizas and biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens – an overview of the mechanisms involved".

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to decay, such as wood, and some mycorrhizal fungi act directly as decay organisms, mobilising the nutrients and passing some onto the host plants; for example, in some

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Svenningsen, Nanna B; Watts-Williams, Stephanie J; Joner, Erik J; Battini, Fabio; Efthymiou, Aikaterini; Cruz-Paredes, Carla; Nybroe, Ole; Jakobsen, Iver (May 2018).

888:'s higher absorptive capacity for water and mineral nutrients, partly because of the large surface area of fungal hyphae, which are much longer and finer than plant 1202: 512:

possesses expanded multigene families associated with hydrolysis of bacterial and microfauna polysaccharides and proteins. This genome analysis revealed the dual

581:, creating a so-called peri-arbuscular membrane. The structure of the arbuscules greatly increases the contact surface area between the hypha and the host cell 2673:

Simon, L.; Bousquet, J.; Lévesque, R. C.; Lalonde, M. (1993). "Origin and diversification of endomycorrhizal fungi and coincidence with vascular land plants".

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Harris, Brogan J.; Clark, James W.; Schrempf, Dominik; Szöllősi, Gergely J.; Donoghue, Philip C. J.; Hetherington, Alistair M.; Williams, Tom A. (2022-09-29).

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Simard, S.W.; Beiler, K.J.; Bingham, M.A.; Deslippe, J.R.; Philip, L.J.; Teste, F.P. (April 2012). "Mycorrhizal networks: mechanisms, ecology and modelling".

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Martin, Francis M.; van der Heijden, Marcel G. A. (2024). "The mycorrhizal symbiosis: research frontiers in genomics, ecology, and agricultural application".

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Martin, Francis M.; van der Heijden, Marcel G. A. (2024). "The mycorrhizal symbiosis: research frontiers in genomics, ecology, and agricultural application".

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planted in several contaminated sites displayed high tolerance to the prevailing contaminant, survivorship and growth. One study discovered the existence of

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Jung, Sabine C.; Martinez-Medina, Ainhoa; Lopez-Raez, Juan A.; Pozo, Maria J. (24 May 2012). "Mycorrhiza-Induced Resistance and Priming of Plant Defenses".

3286:"Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi contribute to phosphorus uptake by wheat grown in a phosphorus-fixing soil even in the absence of positive growth responses" 843:

provide a larger surface area for absorption. Chemically, the cell membrane chemistry of fungi differs from that of plants. For example, they may secrete

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Midgley, DJ; Chambers, SM; Cairney, J. W. G. (2002). "Spatial distribution of fungal endophyte genotypes in a Woollsia pungens (Ericaceae) root system".

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Li, Taiqiang; Yang, Wenke; Wu, Shimao; Selosse, Marc-Andre; Gao, Jiangyun (2021). "Progress and Prospects of Mycorrhizal Fungal Diversity in Orchids".

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Perotto, Silvia; Daghino, Stefania; Martino, Elena (2018). "Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi and their genomes: another side to the mycorrhizal symbiosis?".

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multiple times in the history of Earth. There are multiple ways to categorize mycorrhizal symbiosis. One major categorization is the division between

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Trappe, J. M. (1987). "Phylogenetic and ecologic aspects of mycotrophy in the angiosperms from an evolutionary standpoint". In Safir, G. R. (ed.).

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Within mycorrhiza, the plant gives carbohydrates (products of photosynthesis) to the fungus, while the fungus gives the plant water and minerals.

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In some more complex relationships, mycorrhizal fungi do not just collect immobilised soil nutrients, but connect individual plants together by

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and supplies them to the fungus in the form of sugars or lipids, while the fungus supplies the plant with water and mineral nutrients, such as

4013: 3158: 1868: 1513: 1338: 1176:, the colonization of roots, degradation in connections between trees, reduction in the mycorrhizal incidence in trees, and reduction in the 1694:"[Evolution of nitrogen-fixing symbioses based on the migration of bacteria from mycorrhizal fungi and soil into the plant tissues]" 397:. Other forms of mycorrhizae, including arbuscular, ericoid, arbutoid, monotropoid, and orchid mycorrhizas, are considered endomycorrhizae. 2253: 1858: 389:. In some cases the hyphae may also penetrate the plant cells, in which case the mycorrhiza is called an endomycorrhiza. Outside the root, 806:

pathway (CSSP), a set of genes involved in initiating and maintaining colonization by endosymbiotic fungi and other endosymbionts such as

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Ectomycorrhizas, or EcM, are symbiotic associations between the roots of around 10% of plant families, mostly woody plants including the

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Hijri, M.; Sanders, I. R. (2005). "Low gene copy number shows that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inherit genetically different nuclei".

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contains an assemblage of fossil plants preserved in sufficient detail that arbuscular mycorrhizae have been observed in the stems of

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indigenous non-mycorrhizal plants at a competitive disadvantage. This aptitude to colonize barren soil is defined by the category

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Plants participating in ericoid mycorrhizal symbioses are found in acidic, nutrient-poor conditions. Whereas AMFs have lost their

3663: 228:, taken from the soil. Mycorrhizas are located in the roots of vascular plants, but mycorrhiza-like associations also occur in 2099: 1948: 487:

to obtain nitrogen, some of which may then be transferred to the mycorrhizal host plant. In a study by Klironomos and Hart,

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Many factors are involved in the initiation of mycorrhizal symbiosis, but particularly influential is the plant's need for

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Tam, Paul C.F. (1995). "Heavy metal tolerance by ectomycorrhizal fungi and metal amelioration by Pisolithus tinctorius".

1041:, the plant signals surrounding connected plants of its condition. Both the host plant and those connected to it release 4083: 2205:

Simard, Suzanne W.; Perry, David A.; Jones, Melanie D.; Myrold, David D.; Durall, Daniel M. & Molina, Randy (1997).

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Megan A.; Umbanhowar, James; Viechtbauer, Wolfgang; Wang, Yen-Wen; Wilson, Gail W. T.; Zee, Peter C. (16 August 2018).

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can use these underground connections to communicate warning signals. For example, when a host plant is attacked by an

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Nutrients can be shown to move between different plants through the fungal network. Carbon has been shown to move from

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period, while most other modern mycorrhizal families, including orchid and erchoid mycorrhizae, date to the period of

253: 2144:"Positive citation bias and overinterpreted results lead to misinformation on common mycorrhizal networks in forests" 970:

that transport water, carbon, and other nutrients directly from plant to plant through underground hyphal networks.

311:. The two types are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate individual 3428:"Nitrogen Fixation Associated with Suillus tomentosus Tuberculate Ectomycorrhizae on Pinus contorta var. latifolia" 3377: 3126:

Ho-Plagaro, Tania; Garcia-Garrido, Jose Manuel (2022). "Molecular Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis".

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Ho-Plagaro, Tania; Garcia-Garrido, Jose Manuel (2022). "Molecular Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis".

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Ho-Plagaro, Tania; Garcia-Garrido, Jose Manuel (2022). "Molecular Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis".

2420:"Large-scale genome sequencing of mycorrhizal fungi provides insights into the early evolution of symbiotic traits" 1637:"Large-scale genome sequencing of mycorrhizal fungi provides insights into the early evolution of symbiotic traits" 1531:"Divergent evolutionary trajectories of bryophytes and tracheophytes from a complex common ancestor of land plants" 381:

Ectomycorrhizae are distinct in that they do not penetrate into plant cells, but instead form a structure called a

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A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a green plant and a fungus. The plant makes organic molecules by

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video recommending agricultural mycorrhiza use to conserve phosphorus reserves & 85% waste problem @Ted.com

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Selosse, M. A.; Richard, F.; He, X.; Simard, S. W. (2006). "Mycorrhizal networks: des liaisons dangereuses?".

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are notorious as a family in which the absence of the correct mycorrhizae is fatal even to germinating seeds.

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Lanfranco, Luisa; Bonfante, Paola; Genre, Andrea (2016-12-23). Heitman, Joseph; Howlett, Barbara J. (eds.).

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Wang, B.; Qiu, Y.-L. (July 2006). "Phylogenetic distribution and evolution of mycorrhizas in land plants".

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The mycorrhizal mutualistic association provides the fungus with relatively constant and direct access to

100: 2965:"Evolutionary history of plant hosts and fungal symbionts predicts the strength of mycorrhizal mutualism" 124: 4421: 3630:

Zeng, Ren-Sen (2006). "Disease Resistance in Plants Through Mycorrhizal Fungi Induced Allelochemicals".

2915:"Forests trapped in nitrogen limitation - an ecological market perspective on ectomycorrhizal symbiosis" 1131: 1092: 566: 559: 546: 470: 241: 82: 3794: 1016:

Mycorrhizal plants are often more resistant to diseases, such as those caused by microbial soil-borne

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The first genomic sequence for a representative of symbiotic fungi, the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete

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cannot. Different forms for the association are detailed in the next section. The most common is the

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Saari, S. K.; Campbell, C. D.; Russell, J.; Alexander, I. J.; Anderson, I. C. (14 October 2004).

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fungus, produces specialized structures known as tuberculate ectomycorrhizae with its plant host

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that is present in 70% of plant species, including many crop plants such as cereals and legumes.

4403:

a portal concerned with the biology and ecology of ectomycorrhizal fungi and other forest fungi.

1874: 1078:

Fungi have a protective role for plants rooted in soils with high metal concentrations, such as

35: 3179:"Botany online: Interactions - Plants - Fungi - Parasitic and Symbiotic Relations - Mycorrhiza" 4340: 4299: 4163: 4009: 3907: 3866: 3643: 3612: 3545: 3457: 3307: 3266: 3223: 3154: 2994: 2944: 2861: 2766: 2647: 2639: 2591: 2583: 2508: 2500: 2465: 2447: 2399: 2343: 2291: 2179: 2171: 2065: 2044:"Pine microsatellite markers allow roots and ectomycorrhizas to be linked to individual trees" 2024: 1922: 1864: 1746: 1705: 1674: 1617: 1568: 1509: 1486: 1420: 1334: 995: 711: 699: 695: 685: 466: 462: 469:

seedlings, although not conclusively through a common mycorrhizal network, thereby promoting

252:

Fossil and genetic evidence indicate that mycorrhizae are ancient, potentially as old as the

4330: 4289: 4281: 4246: 4155: 4099: 4054: 4046: 3965: 3897: 3858: 3809: 3767: 3730: 3635: 3602: 3592: 3535: 3527: 3484: 3447: 3439: 3408: 3297: 3258: 3215: 2984: 2976: 2934: 2926: 2851: 2820: 2758: 2690: 2631: 2573: 2565: 2492: 2455: 2439: 2389: 2335: 2283: 2226: 2163: 2055: 2014: 1914: 1736: 1664: 1656: 1607: 1599: 1558: 1550: 1476: 1466: 1410: 1369: 1326: 1228: 1114: 639: 629: 479: 405: 3219: 1587: 1320: 1282: 780: 4191:"Über die auf Wurzelsymbiose beruhende Ernährung gewisser Bäume durch unterirdische Pilze" 3182: 1801:

Allen, Michael F. 1991. The ecology of mycorrhizae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

1789:

Harley, J. L.; Smith, S. E. 1983. Mycorrhizal symbiosis (1st ed.). Academic Press, London.

1360: 1177: 1108: 1046: 769: 386: 271: 174: 2569: 1049:, predators of aphids. This assists the mycorrhizal fungi by conserving its food supply. 188:

In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's root tissues, either

4391:

Comprehensive illustrations and lists of mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal plants and fungi

4242: 4193:[On the nourishing, via root symbiosis, of certain trees by underground fungi]. 4151: 4042: 3961: 3854: 3588: 3523: 3404: 3254: 2754: 2686: 2627: 2435: 2385: 2331: 2279: 2222: 2159: 1910: 1652: 1546: 1462: 452:, are symbiotic with only one particular genus of plant, while other fungi, such as the 4103: 3933: 3735: 3714: 3607: 3572: 3452: 3427: 3334: 2989: 2964: 2939: 2914: 2460: 2419: 2001:

den Bakker, Henk C.; Zuccarello, G. C.; Kuyper, Th. W.; Noordeloos, M. E. (July 2004).

1669: 1636: 1612: 1563: 1530: 1253: 1160: 1098: 983: 950: 773: 717: 618: 606: 376: 352: 312: 237: 221: 182: 78: 2611: 855:. Mycorrhizae are especially beneficial for the plant partner in nutrient-poor soils. 698:

at some stage during their lifecycle, meaning that they can survive only if they form

17: 4410: 3667: 3302: 3285: 2856: 2839: 2191: 2143: 2060: 2043: 2019: 2002: 1481: 1446: 1415: 1398: 1374: 1355: 979: 911: 815: 798: 729: 661: 594: 578: 429: 324: 197: 189: 4258: 4068: 3977: 3779: 3573:"Suppression of the activity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi by the soil microbiota" 3557: 3496: 2659: 2520: 2483:

Brundrett, Mark (2004). "Diversity and classification of mycorrhizal associations".

1934: 1383: 953:

rainforest destruction, relies upon mycorrhiza within the root system of species of

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forests, large amounts of phosphate and other nutrients are taken up by mycorrhizal

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Xavier, L. J.; Germida, J. J. (1999). "Impact of human activities on mycorrhizae".

4175: 3821: 3354: 3145:

Sylvia, David M.; Fuhrmann, Jeffry J.; Hartel, Peter G.; Zuberer, David A. (2005).

2778: 2717: 2702: 2303: 2240: 2084: 1207: 946: 873: 852: 844: 830: 748: 672: 513: 257: 233: 1356:"Functioning of mycorrhizal associations along the mutualism–parasitism continuum" 3333:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from 2339: 736:

and derive their carbon from the fungus partner. This is thus a non-mutualistic,

597:. Fossil evidence and DNA sequence analysis suggest that this mutualism appeared 3164: 2266:

Klironomos, J. N.; Hart, M. M. (2001). "Animal nitrogen swap for plant carbon".

1130:

Mycorrhizas are present in 92% of plant families studied (80% of species), with

936: 762: 733: 725: 691: 530: 425: 394: 320: 261: 208:. In particular species, or in particular circumstances, mycorrhizae may have a 166: 3262: 2443: 2167: 1725:"Evolutionary history of mycorrhizal symbioses and global host plant diversity" 1660: 1554: 801:

response towards the pathogens. Plant genomes code for potentially hundreds of

358: 4159: 3969: 3813: 3771: 3634:. Disease Management of Fruits and Vegetables. Vol. 2. pp. 181–192. 3597: 3531: 3412: 2980: 2496: 1918: 1330: 1173: 1067: 960: 928: 826: 737: 574: 517: 484: 437: 433: 401: 382: 275: 229: 225: 209: 74: 3639: 3206:

Harrison, M. J. (2005). "Signaling in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis".

2840:"Mycorrhizas and nutrient cycling in ecosystems—a journey towards relevance?" 2643: 2587: 2554:"The Mutualistic Interaction between Plants and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi" 2504: 2451: 2175: 1603: 1471: 752:

Nutrient exchanges and communication between a mycorrhizal fungus and plants.

3350:"Slash-and-burn farming has become a major threat to the world's rainforest" 2635: 1218: 904: 889: 848: 794: 721: 582: 474: 409: 178: 154: 64: 4344: 4303: 4167: 4127:

Mémoires de la Société nat. Des Sciences naturelles et mathém. De Cherbourg

3911: 3870: 3616: 3549: 3461: 3311: 3270: 3227: 2998: 2948: 2865: 2770: 2651: 2595: 2512: 2469: 2403: 2347: 2295: 2183: 2069: 2028: 1926: 1750: 1709: 1693: 1678: 1621: 1572: 1490: 1424: 1012:

Disease, drought and salinity resistance and its correlation to mycorrhizae

3795:"Salinity stress alleviation using arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. A review" 3488: 2207:"Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field" 4335: 4318: 3443: 1588:"Plant–microbe interactions that have impacted plant terrestrializations" 1248: 1223: 1212: 1119: 1017: 1002: 998: 923: 896: 885: 807: 656: 602: 598: 442: 421: 417: 413: 288: 267: 3540: 2762: 2578: 2394: 1399:"The evolution of mycorrhiza-like associations in liverworts: An update" 1122:

of the fungus, without affecting the exchange of beneficial substances.

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Porcel, Rosa; Aroca, Ricardo; Ruiz-Lozano, Juan Manuel (January 2012).

3744: 2612:"Reciprocal Rewards Stabilize Cooperation in the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis" 2085:"Ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity: separating the wheat from the chaff" 1233: 1172:

produced by human activity may harm mycorrhizae, causing reduction in "

1079: 914:

such as iron. One form of such immobilization occurs in soil with high

881: 877: 863: 634: 454: 448: 85:(lower left) are very common in plants, including crop species such as 3902: 3885: 3862: 2930: 2535:"Some plants may depend more on friendly fungi than own leaves: Study" 2003:"Evolution and host specificity in the ectomycorrhizal genus Leccinum" 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1741: 1724: 1118:. This was probably due to binding of the metal to the extramatricial 344: 165:. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's 4388: 4294: 3284:

Li, H.; Smith, S. E.; Holloway, R. E.; Zhu, Y.; Smith, F. A. (2006).

2694: 2287: 811: 570: 279: 158: 130: 113: 4285: 2824: 2142:

Karst, Justine; Jones, Melanie D.; Hoeksema, Jason D. (2023-02-13).

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temperatures, warming could be detrimental to them. Gases such as SO

4360:

Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Microbial Ecology

3632:

Allelochemicals: Biological Control of Plant Pathogens and Diseases

2716:

International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2019-11-07).

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Puginier, Camille; Keller, Jean; Delaux, Pierre-Marc (2022-08-29).

793:

To successfully engage in mutualistic symbiotic relationships with

529:

This type of mycorrhiza involves plants of the Ericaceae subfamily

2231: 2206: 1087: 1062: 1038: 932: 862: 779: 747: 628: 555: 550: 357: 348: 343: 316: 162: 86: 1857:

Peterson, R. L.; Massicotte, H. B. & Melville, L. H. (2004).

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system and its surroundings. Mycorrhizae play important roles in

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Mohamed Hijri: A simple solution to the coming phosphorus crisis

1447:"Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae" 1103: 1058: 955: 915: 907: 291:, characterized by complex ecological dynamics between species. 170: 2913:

Franklin, O.; Näsholm, T.; Högberg, P.; Högberg, M. N. (2014).

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Remy, W.; Taylor, T. N.; Hass, H.; Kerp, H. (6 December 1994).

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Kirk, P. M.; Cannon, P. F.; David, J. C.; Stalpers, J. (2001).

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International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions

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Miyauchi, Shingo; Kiss, Enikő; Kuo, Alan; et al. (2020).

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and growth media often perform poorly without the addition of

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period. There is genetic evidence that the symbiosis between

3426:

Paul, L. R.; Chapman, B. K.; Chanway, C. P. (1 June 2007).

919: 4117:

Kamieński, Franciszek (1882). "Les organes végétatifs de

1106:. Another study discovered that zinc-tolerant strains of 1797: 1795: 1692:

Provorov, N. A.; Shtark, O. Yu; Dolgikh, E. A. (2016).

3719:(Bong.) Carr. I. In Conditions of Nutrient Deficiency" 2718:"Plants and fungi together could slow climate change" 2083:

Rinaldi, A. C.; Comandini, O.; Kuyper, T. W. (2008).

1322:

Arbuscular Mycorrhizas and Stress Tolerance of Plants

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and allow the pines to colonize nutrient-poor sites.

319:

of endomycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall and

1949:"Orchids and fungi: An unexpected case of symbiosis" 1354:

Johnson, N. C.; Graham, J. H.; Smith, F. A. (1997).

577:(i.e. the interior of the cell), but invaginate the 4397:

Biosafety research into genetically modified barley

4008:. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 336. 1308:(9th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 1508:(second ed.). Versaillles: Inra. p. 10. 1190:Society for the Protection of Underground Networks 4317:Heinemeyer, A.; Fitter, A. H. (22 January 2004). 3151:Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology 716:This type of mycorrhiza occurs in the subfamily 4195:Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 3886:"Interplant signalling through hyphal networks" 3201: 3199: 1451:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1325:(1st ed.). Springer Singapore. p. 1. 393:forms an extensive network within the soil and 1203:Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity 3999: 3997: 3691:. Aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu. Archived from 2367:provides insights into mycorrhizal symbiosis" 1951:. American Journal of Botany. July 12, 2011. 1440: 1438: 1436: 1434: 1306:Ainsworth and Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi 1215:, an organism that grows on another life form 895:Unaided plant roots may be unable to take up 8: 3884:Johnson, David; Gilbert, Lucy (March 2015). 3329:. In Jorgensen, A.; Cleveland, C.J. (eds.). 1863:. National Research Council Research Press. 994:). These structures have been shown to host 851:many ions, or release them from minerals by 299:The mycorrhizal lifestyle has independently 3128:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 3090:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 3052:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2838:Read, D. J. & Perez-Moreno, J. (2003). 2361:Martin, F.; Aerts, A.; et al. (2008). 1892: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1723:Brundrett, Mark C.; Tedersoo, Leho (2018). 4389:Mycorrhizal Associations: The Web Resource 4334: 4293: 4058: 3901: 3734: 3606: 3596: 3539: 3451: 3301: 3181:. Biologie.uni-hamburg.de. Archived from 2988: 2938: 2855: 2577: 2459: 2393: 2230: 2059: 2018: 1740: 1668: 1611: 1562: 1480: 1470: 1414: 1373: 1239:Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage 1033:Plants connected by mycorrhizal fungi in 1001:which contribute a significant amount of 2541:. Press Trust of India. 20 October 2019. 1159:released by human activities is causing 949:technique proposed as an alternative to 3715:"Mycorrhizas and Drought Resistance of 3664:"Dr. Susan Kaminskyj: Endorhizal Fungi" 2254:Fungi kill insects and feed host plants 1265: 3220:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123749 2900:Ecophysiology of VA Mycorrhizal Plants 1504:Fortin, J. André; et al. (2015). 1126:Occurrence of mycorrhizal associations 939:, bypassing the need for soil uptake. 391:ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium 1860:Mycorrhizas: anatomy and cell biology 7: 4395:Mycorrhizas – a successful symbiosis 3802:Agronomy for Sustainable Development 2570:10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0012-2016 4121:L."" [The vegetative organs of 3147:"Overview of Mycorrhizal Symbioses" 1812:recruited among root endophytes?". 724:, as well as several genera in the 613:Mucoromycotina fine root endophytes 368: 204:fungi. The association is normally 201: 138: 73:Many conspicuous fungi such as the 4104:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a089540 3736:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1992.tb00094.x 1275:"The Microbial World: Mycorrhizas" 1112:conferred resistance to plants of 1102:strains with varying tolerance of 918:content, or soils with a strongly 899:that are chemically or physically 655:, or ErMs, involve only plants in 81:(upper right) with tree rootlets. 27:Fungus-plant symbiotic association 25: 4006:Ecology and biogeography of Pinus 959:to prevent the rain from washing 637:mycorrhizal fungus isolated from 4379:International Mycorrhiza Society 4377:International Mycorrhiza Society 4274:Canadian Journal of Microbiology 3926:"Root fungi turn rock into soil" 3303:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01846.x 2857:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00704.x 2061:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01213.x 2020:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01090.x 1416:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01471.x 1375:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1997.00729.x 483:has been found to lure and kill 63: 54: 43: 34: 3243:Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2105:from the original on 2011-07-24 1955:from the original on 2011-07-15 740:type of mycorrhizal symbiosis. 617:Mycorrhizal fungi belonging to 331:Similar symbiotic relationships 4323:Journal of Experimental Botany 4189:Kamieński, Franciszek (1885). 3950:Biology and Fertility of Soils 3370:"What is Inga alley cropping?" 3071:Journal of Experimental Botany 2148:Nature Ecology & Evolution 1535:Nature Ecology & Evolution 1397:Kottke, I.; Nebel, M. (2005). 1045:that repel aphids and attract 212:association with host plants. 1: 4004:Richardson, David M. (2000). 3932:. 3 July 2009. Archived from 1319:Wu, Qiang-Sheng, ed. (2017). 573:do not in fact penetrate the 477:. The ectomycorrhizal fungus 428:, and fungi belonging to the 4082:Rayner, M. Cheveley (1915). 2813:Australian Journal of Botany 2340:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.009 859:Sugar-water/mineral exchange 254:terrestrialization of plants 194:arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 3348:Elkan, D. (21 April 2004). 1180:of ectomycorrhizal roots." 1053:Colonization of barren soil 315:within the root, while the 120: 'fungus' and 4453: 3689:"Dr. Davies Research Page" 3666:. Usask.ca. Archived from 3263:10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.003 2881:Frontiers in Plant Science 2444:10.1038/s41467-020-18795-w 2168:10.1038/s41559-023-01986-1 1661:10.1038/s41467-020-18795-w 1555:10.1038/s41559-022-01885-x 1043:volatile organic compounds 709: 683: 645: 544: 374: 123: 106: 4160:10.1007/s00572-004-0334-1 3970:10.1007/s00374-002-0546-5 3814:10.1007/s13593-011-0029-x 3772:10.1017/S001447970300125X 3598:10.1038/s41396-018-0059-3 3532:10.1007/s10886-012-0134-6 3413:10.1016/j.fbr.2012.01.001 3153:. Pearson Prentice Hall. 2981:10.1038/s42003-018-0120-9 2497:10.1017/s1464793103006316 1919:10.1007/s00572-005-0033-6 1698:Zhurnal Obshchei Biologii 1331:10.1007/978-981-10-4115-0 756:Mycorrhizal fungi form a 599:400-460 million years ago 4213:bezeichnet werden kann." 3760:Experimental Agriculture 3640:10.1007/1-4020-4447-X_10 1472:10.1073/pnas.91.25.11841 1184:Conservation and mapping 1057:Plants grown in sterile 829:. Experiments involving 465:seedlings into adjacent 284:nitrogen-fixing bacteria 4084:"Obligate Symbiosis in 3109:Trends in Plant Science 2794:Trends in Plant Science 2636:10.1126/science.1208473 2320:Environmental Pollution 1279:bio.ed.ac.uk (archived) 1139:on multiple occasions. 3393:Fungal Biology Reviews 2969:Communications Biology 1604:10.1093/plphys/kiac258 1132:arbuscular mycorrhizas 1090:trees inoculated with 1074:Resistance to toxicity 869: 785: 753: 706:Monotropoid mycorrhiza 643: 567:Arbuscular mycorrhizas 563: 372: 355: 157:association between a 18:Monotropoid mycorrhiza 3713:Lehto, Tarja (1992). 3489:10.1007/s005720050147 3331:Encyclopedia of Earth 2902:. Florida: CRC Press. 2558:Microbiology Spectrum 2491:(3). Wiley: 473–495. 2424:Nature Communications 1840:Physiologia Plantarum 1641:Nature Communications 1137:evolving convergently 1093:Pisolithus tinctorius 1029:Resistance to insects 866: 783: 768:Recent research into 751: 632: 560:arbuscular mycorrhiza 554: 547:Arbuscular mycorrhiza 541:Arbuscular mycorrhiza 361: 347: 83:Arbuscular mycorrhiza 3325:Hogan, C.M. (2011). 1145:Franciszek Kamieński 1035:mycorrhizal networks 968:mycorrhizal networks 364:Leccinum aurantiacum 301:convergently evolved 272:angiosperm radiation 4243:1994PlSoi.165...75M 4152:2005Mycor..15..323B 4123:Monotropa hypopitys 4119:Monotropa hypopitys 4043:1995Mycor...5..181T 3962:2003BioFS..37....1J 3930:Planet Earth Online 3855:2013EcolL..16..835B 3589:2018ISMEJ..12.1296S 3524:2012JCEco..38..651J 3405:2012FunBR..26...39S 3374:rainforestsaver.org 3255:2006TEcoE..21..621S 2763:10.1038/nature03069 2755:2005Natur.433..160H 2687:1993Natur.363...67S 2628:2011Sci...333..880K 2436:2020NatCo..11.5125M 2395:10.1038/nature06556 2386:2008Natur.452...88M 2332:2016EPoll.218..176C 2280:2001Natur.410..651K 2223:1997Natur.388..579S 2160:2023NatEE...7..501K 1911:2006Mycor..16..299W 1653:2020NatCo..11.5125M 1547:2022NatEE...6.1634H 1463:1994PNAS...9111841R 1457:(25): 11841–11843. 1244:Mycorrhizal network 942:Inga alley cropping 935:acting directly on 903:; examples include 728:. These plants are 653:Ericoid mycorrhizae 525:Arbutoid mycorrhiza 4336:10.1093/jxb/erh049 4251:10.1007/bf00009964 4051:10.1007/BF00203335 3444:10.1093/aob/mcm061 3208:Annu Rev Microbiol 2485:Biological Reviews 1084:contaminated soils 1022:Ecosystem services 975:Suillus tomentosus 870: 786: 754: 700:orchid mycorrhizae 696:myco-heterotrophic 648:Ericoid mycorrhiza 644: 625:Ericoid mycorrhiza 564: 489:Eastern White Pine 373: 356: 77:(upper left) form 4015:978-0-521-78910-3 3903:10.1111/nph.13115 3863:10.1111/ele.12115 3167:on June 23, 2010. 3160:978-0-13-094117-6 2931:10.1111/nph.12840 2749:(7022): 160–163. 2622:(6044): 880–882. 2539:Business Standard 2274:(6829): 651–652. 2217:(6642): 579–582. 1870:978-0-660-19087-7 1742:10.1111/nph.14976 1541:(11): 1634–1643. 1515:978-2-7592-2433-3 1340:978-981-10-4115-0 963:out of the soil. 847:that dissolve or 712:Myco-heterotrophy 686:Orchid mycorrhiza 680:Orchid mycorrhiza 535:ectendomycorrhiza 263:Aglaophyton major 16:(Redirected from 4444: 4364: 4363: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4338: 4329:(396): 525–534. 4314: 4308: 4307: 4297: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4226: 4220: 4202: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4134: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4092:Annals of Botany 4086:Calluna vulgaris 4079: 4073: 4072: 4062: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4001: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3905: 3896:(4): 1448–1453. 3881: 3875: 3874: 3837: 3826: 3825: 3799: 3790: 3784: 3783: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3738: 3717:Picea sitchensis 3710: 3704: 3703: 3701: 3700: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3676: 3675: 3660: 3654: 3653: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3610: 3600: 3583:(5): 1296–1307. 3577:The ISME Journal 3568: 3562: 3561: 3543: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3455: 3438:(6): 1101–1109. 3432:Annals of Botany 3423: 3417: 3416: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3376:. 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Archived from 3142: 3136: 3135: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2992: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2942: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2859: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2738: 2732: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2695:10.1038/363067a0 2670: 2664: 2663: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2581: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2463: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2397: 2371: 2365:Laccaria bicolor 2358: 2352: 2351: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2288:10.1038/35070643 2263: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2234: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2111: 2110: 2104: 2092:Fungal Diversity 2089: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2063: 2039: 2033: 2032: 2022: 1998: 1992: 1991: 1978: 1965: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1894: 1879: 1878: 1873:. Archived from 1854: 1848: 1847: 1835: 1822: 1821: 1814:Annals of Botany 1808: 1802: 1799: 1790: 1787: 1781: 1780: 1768: 1755: 1754: 1744: 1735:(4): 1108–1115. 1720: 1714: 1713: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1672: 1632: 1626: 1625: 1615: 1592:Plant Physiology 1583: 1577: 1576: 1566: 1526: 1520: 1519: 1501: 1495: 1494: 1484: 1474: 1442: 1429: 1428: 1418: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1377: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1316: 1310: 1309: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1292: 1290: 1281:. Archived from 1270: 1229:Epiphytic fungus 1115:Pinus sylvestris 1047:parasitoid wasps 640:Woollsia pungens 491:inoculated with 480:Laccaria bicolor 140: 134: 127: 117: 110: 67: 58: 47: 38: 21: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4445: 4443: 4442: 4441: 4407: 4406: 4373: 4368: 4367: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4286:10.1139/w08-127 4271: 4270: 4266: 4228: 4227: 4223: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4136: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4098:(113): 97–134. 4081: 4080: 4076: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4003: 4002: 3995: 3984: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3924: 3923: 3919: 3890:New Phytologist 3883: 3882: 3878: 3843:Ecology Letters 3839: 3838: 3829: 3797: 3792: 3791: 3787: 3757: 3756: 3752: 3723:New Phytologist 3712: 3711: 3707: 3698: 3696: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3673: 3671: 3662: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3629: 3628: 3624: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3509: 3508: 3504: 3474: 3473: 3469: 3425: 3424: 3420: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3368: 3367: 3363: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3324: 3323: 3319: 3290:New Phytologist 3283: 3282: 3278: 3249:(11): 621–628. 3240: 3239: 3235: 3205: 3204: 3197: 3188: 3186: 3177: 3176: 3172: 3161: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3033:New Phytologist 3030: 3029: 3025: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2961: 2960: 2956: 2919:New Phytologist 2912: 2911: 2907: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2878: 2877: 2873: 2844:New Phytologist 2837: 2836: 2832: 2825:10.1071/BT02020 2810: 2809: 2805: 2791: 2790: 2786: 2740: 2739: 2735: 2726: 2724: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2681:(6424): 67–69. 2672: 2671: 2667: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2416: 2415: 2411: 2380:(7183): 88–92. 2369: 2363:"The genome of 2360: 2359: 2355: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2252: 2248: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2125:New Phytologist 2122: 2121: 2117: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2087: 2082: 2081: 2077: 2048:New Phytologist 2041: 2040: 2036: 2007:New Phytologist 2000: 1999: 1995: 1984:New Phytologist 1980: 1979: 1968: 1958: 1956: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1896: 1895: 1882: 1871: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1837: 1836: 1825: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1793: 1788: 1784: 1773:New Phytologist 1770: 1769: 1758: 1729:New Phytologist 1722: 1721: 1717: 1691: 1690: 1686: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1585: 1584: 1580: 1528: 1527: 1523: 1516: 1503: 1502: 1498: 1444: 1443: 1432: 1403:New Phytologist 1396: 1395: 1391: 1361:New Phytologist 1353: 1352: 1348: 1341: 1318: 1317: 1313: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1288: 1286: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1262: 1199: 1186: 1178:enzyme activity 1171: 1167: 1158: 1153: 1128: 1109:Suillus bovinus 1076: 1055: 1031: 1014: 1008: 996:nitrogen fixing 861: 840: 795:other organisms 791: 770:ectomycorrhizal 746: 714: 708: 688: 682: 650: 627: 615: 549: 543: 527: 379: 369:ectomycorrhizal 353:ectomycorrhizal 342: 333: 309:endomycorrhizas 305:ectomycorrhizas 297: 250: 242:arbuscular type 218: 202:ectomycorrhizal 198:extracellularly 190:intracellularly 175:plant nutrition 93: 92: 91: 90: 70: 69: 68: 60: 59: 50: 49: 48: 40: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4450: 4448: 4440: 4439: 4437:Fungus ecology 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4409: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4372: 4371:External links 4369: 4366: 4365: 4350: 4309: 4264: 4231:Plant and Soil 4221: 4203:From p. 129: 4181: 4109: 4074: 4037:(3): 181–187. 4021: 4014: 3993: 3939: 3936:on 2009-07-13. 3917: 3876: 3849:(7): 835–843. 3827: 3808:(1): 181–200. 3785: 3766:(3): 241–252. 3750: 3729:(4): 661–668. 3705: 3680: 3655: 3648: 3622: 3563: 3518:(6): 651–664. 3502: 3483:(6): 457–464. 3467: 3418: 3383: 3380:on 2011-11-01. 3361: 3340: 3337:on 2012-10-25. 3317: 3296:(3): 536–543. 3276: 3233: 3195: 3170: 3159: 3137: 3118: 3099: 3080: 3061: 3042: 3023: 3004: 2954: 2925:(2): 657–666. 2905: 2890: 2871: 2850:(3): 475–492. 2830: 2819:(5): 559–565. 2803: 2784: 2733: 2708: 2665: 2601: 2544: 2526: 2475: 2409: 2353: 2309: 2258: 2246: 2197: 2154:(4): 501–511. 2134: 2115: 2075: 2054:(1): 295–304. 2034: 2013:(1): 201–215. 1993: 1966: 1940: 1905:(5): 299–363. 1880: 1877:on 2007-12-25. 1869: 1849: 1823: 1803: 1791: 1782: 1756: 1715: 1704:(5): 329–345. 1684: 1627: 1578: 1521: 1514: 1506:Les Mycorhizes 1496: 1430: 1409:(2): 330–334. 1389: 1368:(4): 575–585. 1346: 1339: 1311: 1296: 1264: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1254:Suzanne Simard 1251: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1210: 1205: 1198: 1195: 1185: 1182: 1169: 1165: 1161:climate change 1156: 1152: 1151:Climate change 1149: 1147:in 1879–1882. 1127: 1124: 1099:Suillus luteus 1075: 1072: 1054: 1051: 1030: 1027: 1013: 1010: 988:Pinus contorta 984:lodgepole pine 951:slash and burn 912:micronutrients 860: 857: 839: 836: 816:strigolactones 790: 787: 774:boreal forests 745: 742: 718:Monotropoideae 710:Main article: 707: 704: 684:Main article: 681: 678: 662:boreal forests 646:Main article: 626: 623: 619:Mucoromycotina 614: 611: 607:heterokaryosis 545:Main article: 542: 539: 526: 523: 377:Ectomycorrhiza 375:Main article: 341: 340:Ectomycorrhiza 338: 332: 329: 296: 293: 249: 246: 238:Chenopodiaceae 222:photosynthesis 217: 214: 183:soil chemistry 137: 'root'; 79:ectomycorrhiza 72: 71: 62: 61: 53: 52: 51: 42: 41: 33: 32: 31: 30: 29: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4449: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4402: 4399: 4396: 4393: 4390: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4370: 4361: 4354: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4268: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4197:(in German). 4196: 4192: 4185: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4146:(5): 323–32. 4145: 4141: 4132: 4129:(in French). 4128: 4124: 4120: 4113: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4087: 4078: 4075: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4022: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3943: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3921: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3880: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3796: 3789: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3751: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3718: 3709: 3706: 3695:on 2010-10-19 3694: 3690: 3684: 3681: 3670:on 2010-11-04 3669: 3665: 3659: 3656: 3651: 3649:1-4020-4445-3 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3626: 3623: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3567: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3357: 3356: 3351: 3344: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3321: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3237: 3234: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3185:on 2011-06-06 3184: 3180: 3174: 3171: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3084: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3008: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2906: 2901: 2894: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2737: 2734: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2602: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2564:(6): 4.6.14. 2563: 2559: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2530: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2479: 2476: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2413: 2410: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2366: 2357: 2354: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2313: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2232:10.1038/41557 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2201: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2135: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2116: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2086: 2079: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2038: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1997: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1954: 1950: 1944: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1853: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1807: 1804: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1778: 1774: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1719: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1631: 1628: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1582: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1525: 1522: 1517: 1511: 1507: 1500: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1393: 1390: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1323: 1315: 1312: 1307: 1300: 1297: 1285:on 2018-04-27 1284: 1280: 1276: 1273:Deacon, Jim. 1269: 1266: 1259: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1188:In 2021, the 1183: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1168:, NO-x, and O 1162: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1140: 1138: 1135:mycorrhizas, 1133: 1125: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1116: 1111: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1073: 1071: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1052: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1000: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 980:basidiomycete 977: 976: 971: 969: 964: 962: 958: 957: 952: 948: 944: 943: 938: 934: 930: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 906: 902: 898: 893: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 874:carbohydrates 865: 858: 856: 854: 850: 846: 845:organic acids 837: 835: 832: 828: 823: 819: 817: 813: 809: 804: 800: 796: 788: 782: 778: 775: 771: 766: 764: 759: 750: 743: 741: 739: 735: 731: 730:heterotrophic 727: 723: 719: 713: 705: 703: 701: 697: 693: 687: 679: 677: 674: 669: 665: 663: 658: 654: 649: 642: 641: 636: 631: 624: 622: 620: 612: 610: 608: 604: 600: 596: 595:Glomeromycota 593: 587: 584: 580: 579:cell membrane 576: 572: 568: 561: 557: 553: 548: 540: 538: 536: 532: 524: 522: 519: 515: 511: 506: 502: 497: 494: 490: 486: 482: 481: 476: 472: 468: 464: 459: 457: 456: 451: 450: 445: 444: 439: 435: 431: 430:Basidiomycota 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 398: 396: 392: 388: 384: 378: 370: 366: 365: 360: 354: 350: 346: 339: 337: 330: 328: 326: 325:cell membrane 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 294: 292: 290: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 264: 259: 255: 247: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 215: 213: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 136: 133: 126: 122: 119: 116: 109: 105: 102: 101:Ancient Greek 98: 89:(lower right) 88: 84: 80: 76: 66: 57: 46: 37: 19: 4422:Soil biology 4359: 4353: 4326: 4322: 4312: 4280:(1): 84–94. 4277: 4273: 4267: 4237:(1): 75–80. 4234: 4230: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4184: 4143: 4139: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4095: 4091: 4085: 4077: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4005: 3953: 3949: 3942: 3934:the original 3929: 3920: 3893: 3889: 3879: 3846: 3842: 3805: 3801: 3788: 3763: 3759: 3753: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3708: 3697:. Retrieved 3693:the original 3683: 3672:. Retrieved 3668:the original 3658: 3631: 3625: 3580: 3576: 3566: 3541:10261/344431 3515: 3511: 3505: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3435: 3431: 3421: 3399:(1): 39–60. 3396: 3392: 3386: 3378:the original 3373: 3364: 3355:The Guardian 3353: 3343: 3335:the original 3330: 3320: 3293: 3289: 3279: 3246: 3242: 3236: 3211: 3207: 3187:. Retrieved 3183:the original 3173: 3165:the original 3150: 3140: 3131: 3127: 3121: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3055: 3051: 3045: 3036: 3032: 3026: 3017: 3013: 3007: 2972: 2968: 2957: 2922: 2918: 2908: 2899: 2893: 2884: 2880: 2874: 2847: 2843: 2833: 2816: 2812: 2806: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2746: 2742: 2736: 2725:. Retrieved 2722:phys.org -us 2721: 2711: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2619: 2615: 2604: 2579:2318/1627235 2561: 2557: 2547: 2538: 2529: 2488: 2484: 2478: 2427: 2423: 2412: 2377: 2373: 2364: 2356: 2323: 2319: 2312: 2271: 2267: 2261: 2249: 2214: 2210: 2200: 2151: 2147: 2137: 2128: 2124: 2118: 2107:. 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