429:, luring the garrison, led by Weiming Linggong, out onto the field where it was easily destroyed. His path now open, Genghis advanced to the capital. Well fortified, Yinchuan held about 150,000 soldiers, nearly twice the size of the Mongol army. One of their first endeavors at siege warfare, the Mongols lacked the proper equipment and experience to take the city. They arrived at the city in May, but by October were still unsuccessful at breaking through. Genghis attempted to flood the capital by diverting the river and its network of irrigation canals into the city, and by January 1210 the walls of Yinchuan were nearly breached. However, the dike used to divert the river broke, and the ensuing flood wiped out the Mongol camp, forcing the Mongols to take the higher ground. Despite this setback, the Mongols still posed a threat to Western Xia, and with the state's crops destroyed and no relief coming from the Jin, Emperor Xiangzong agreed to submit to Mongol rule, demonstrating his loyalty by giving a daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and paying a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.
489:, the Mongols began a steady advance southward. Asha, commander of the Western Xia troops, could not afford to meet the Mongols as it would involve an exhausting westward march from the capital Yinchuan through 500 kilometers of desert. With no army to meet them in pitched battle, the Mongols picked the best targets for attack and as each city fell the Mongols would draw on prisoners, defectors, supplies, and weapons to take the next one. Enraged by Western Xia's fierce resistance, Genghis annihilated the countryside, ordering his generals to systematically destroy cities and garrisons as they went. Two months after taking Khara-Khoto, the Mongols reached a point where the
259:. Angered by the betrayal of the Western Xia, Genghis Khan began a second campaign against them, sending a punitive expedition into Western Xia in 1225. Genghis intended to annihilate the entire Western Xia culture: his methodically destroyed their cities and countryside, and began besieging Yinchuan in 1227. In December, near the end of the siege, Genghis Khan died of unknown causes, which has been presented by some accounts as being the result of wounds he had suffered against the Western Xia. Following Genghis's death, Yinchuan fell to the Mongols, and most of its population was massacred.
575:, rejected an offer of peace from the Jin, and prepared to invade them near their border with the Song. However, in August 1227, Genghis died of a historically uncertain cause, and, in order not to jeopardize the ongoing campaign, his death was kept a secret. In September 1227, Emperor Mozhu surrendered to the Mongols and was promptly executed. The Mongols then mercilessly pillaged Yinchuan, slaughtered the city's population, plundered the imperial tombs west of the city, and completed the effective annihilation of the Western Xia state.
617:
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509:, the hometown of his general Chagaan. Chagaan's father still commanded the city garrison, so Chagaan attempted negotiations with him. However, the second-in-command of the city staged a coup, killed Chagaan's father, and refused to surrender. The city took five months to subdue, and though the now furious Genghis threatened vengeance, Chagaan convinced him to only kill the 35 conspirators who killed Chagaan's father.
181:
474:
376:), the Mongols captured the son of the city's commander. This young boy joined Mongol service and took a Mongol name, Chagaan, and eventually rose through the ranks to become commander of TemĂŒjin's personal guard. The next year, 1206, TemĂŒjin was formally proclaimed Genghis Khan, ruler of all the Mongols, marking the official start of the Mongol Empire, while
405:
532:, a mere 30 kilometers from Yinchuan. Here, in the Battle of Yellow River, Western Xia led a counter-attack with an estimated force of over 300,000 troops, engaging Mongol forces along the banks of the frozen river and canal systems. The Mongols destroyed the Western Xia troops, supposedly counting 300,000 bodies of Western Xia soldiers after the battle.
556:. Genghis himself rejoined with Subutai and headed southwest to slice across an approximately 150 kilometer-wide territory mainly in present-day Ningxia and Gansu. Subutai crossed the northern parts of the Liupan mountain range, zigzagging from town to town throughout February and March, and conquered the
571:, sent Chagaan to negotiate terms.Chagaan reported that the emperor agreed to capitulate, but wanted a month to prepare suitable gifts. Genghis agreed, though secretly planned to kill the emperor. During the peace negotiations, Genghis continued his military operations around the Liupan mountains near
634:, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field precisely because of Genghis Khan's policy calling for their complete eradication. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide, it was certainly very successful
603:
wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. Later Mongol chronicles connect
Genghis' death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and
416:
refused to send aid, stating that "It is to our advantage when our enemies attack each other. Wherein lies the danger to us?" After defeating a force led by Gao
Lianghui outside Wulahai, Genghis captured the city and pushed up along the Yellow River, defeating several cities as he went, until he
535:
Upon reaching
Yinchuan in 1227 and setting siege to the city, Genghis prepared to invade the Jin dynasty in order to neutralize any threat of them sending relief troops to Western Xia as well as setting the stage for a final conquest of the Jin empire. Genghis sent a force under his son
593:, Genghis Khan died. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action by Western Xia, falling from his horse, illness, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. The
456:
in
Central Asia, and requested military aid from Western Xia. However, the emperor and his military commander Asha refused to take part in the campaign, stating that if Genghis had too few troops to attack the
392:, before withdrawing in 1208. Genghis then began preparing for a full-scale invasion. By invading Western Xia, he would gain a tribute-paying vassal, and also would take control of caravan routes along the
360:
in 1203, Keriat leader Nilqa
Senggum led a small band of followers into Western Xia. However, after his adherents took to plundering the locals, Nilqa Senggum was expelled from Western Xia territory.
516:, the second-largest city of the Western Xia empire. As no relief came from the capital, Wuwei decided to surrender and avoid certain destruction. At this point, Emperor Xianzong died, leaving
437:
In 1210, Western Xia attacked the Jin dynasty as punishment for their refusal to aid them against the
Mongols. The following year, the Mongols joined Western Xia and began a 23-year-long
2017:
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After defeating
Khwarazm in 1221, Genghis prepared his armies to punish Western Xia for their betrayal. Meanwhile, Emperor Shenzong stepped down from power in 1223, leaving his son
718:
Distribution and historical transition of fortresses with a side length of 130 meters on the borderline through
Mongolia, HeXi corridor and LouLan: Using satellite images and GIS
224:
commanded some initial raids against the
Western Xia before launching a full-scale invasion in 1209. This was the first major invasion conducted by Genghis, and his first major
1945:
662:
Despite the death of
Genghis, the Mongol Empire was at last successful in defeating Western Xia. Now, Genghis Khan's successors concentrated on unifying the rest of China. The
655:, while other Western Xia populations settled in what are now the modern provinces of Henan and Hebei. In China, remnants of the Western Xia persisted into the middle of the
332:
took the throne and Western Xia's power began to fail. Though militarily inferior to neighboring Jin, the Western Xia still exerted a significant influence upon the northern
708:
Western Xia constructed the long wall, so-called "Chinggis Khan's wall", and fortresses on the borderline with Outer Mongolia. These remains are reported by archaeologists:
2012:
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461:, then he had no claim to supreme power. Infuriated, Genghis swore vengeance and left to invade Khwarazm, while Western Xia attempted alliances with the Jin and
321:, Western Xia gained thousands of square miles of former Song territory. However, over many years the relations between Western Xia and Jin gradually declined.
239:
surrendered to the Mongols in January 1210, marking the beginning of a decade of Western Xia vassalage under the Mongols, where they provided support for the
235:
that lasted nearly a decade, during which the Mongols tried to divert a river to flood the city, but accidentally flooded their own camp instead. Ultimately,
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380:
killed Huanzong of Western Xia in a coup d'Ă©tat and installed himself as Emperor Xiangzong. In 1207, Genghis led another raid into Western Xia, invading the
651:, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers. A small Western Xia state was established in Tibet along the upper reaches of the
425:. Containing an army of up to 70,000, plus 50,000 reinforcements, the fortress proved too difficult to capture, and after a two-month stand-off the Mongols
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In 1209, Genghis undertook his campaign to actually conquer Western Xia. Emperor Xiangzong requested aid from the Jin dynasty, but the new Jin emperor
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in southwest China fell in an invasion in 1253, and the Song in the south, after over four decades of a conflict begun 1235, surrendered in 1279.
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region. The Mongols plundered border settlements and one local Western Xia noble accepted Mongol supremacy. During a raid on Ganzhou (present-day
452:, Western Xia refused to commit troops, and as a warning the Mongols besieged the capital before withdrawing. In 1219, Genghis Khan launched his
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and provide the Mongols with valuable revenue. Furthermore, from Western Xia he could launch raids into the even more wealthy Jin dynasty.
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to take care of the westernmost cities, while the main force moved east into the heart of the Western Xia Empire. Genghis lay siege to
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Using his rival Nilga Senggum's temporary refuge in Western Xia as a pretext, TemĂŒjin launched a raid against the state in 1205 in the
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666:, already reeling from great losses of land and troops due to the ongoing Mongol campaign since 1211, finally collapsed in 1234. The
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emerged in 1115 and displaced the Liao, Western Xia eventually accepted vassal status to the new Jin empire. Aiding Jin in their
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leaders because of close trade connections to the steppes and because of the possibility of using the refugees as pawns in the
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to deal with a collapsing state as the Mongols encroached on the capital. In Autumn, Genghis rejoined his troops, took
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stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival
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Back in Western Xia, Yinchuan lay besieged for about six months, and Genghis, himself busy directing a siege of
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eastward, about 300 kilometers south of Khara-Khoto. At this point, Genghis divided his army, sending general
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The northern border of the Tangut state, XiXia: According to the archaeological evidence and written sources
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In August 1226, Genghis escaped the heat by residing in the Qilian Mountains while his troops approached
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1645:(1998). "The Uighurs, the Kyrgyz and the Tangut (Eighth to the Thirteenth Century)". In Asimov, M. S.;
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in 1219, the Western Xia attempted to break away from Mongol vassalage and form alliances with the
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However, despite aiding the Mongols against Jin, in 1217 when Genghis Khan requested help for his
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305:. A fairly small state, Western Xia struggled against its larger and more powerful neighbors, the
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and commander Chagaan toward the southern border, and they pushed into Jin territories along the
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in his place. In 1225, Genghis Khan attacked with a force of approximately 180,000. After taking
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Empire", or "Minya"âand eventually controlled what are now the northwestern provinces of
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embarked on a series of military campaigns that ultimately led to the destruction of the
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The Great State of White and High: Buddhism and State Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia
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The destruction of Western Xia during the second campaign was near total. According to
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dynasty in northwestern China. Hoping to both to plunder and acquire vassalage,
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441:. The same year Li Anquan abdicated the throne, and subsequently died, after
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region. Meanwhile, Genghis went due south, following the Qing Shui river.
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The Cambridge history of China: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907â1368
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However, some members of the Western Xia royal clan emigrated to western
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348:, began consolidating his power in Mongolia. Following the death of the
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Bianren (2005). ăè„żć€: æ¶éćšććČèź°ćżäžçćœćșŠă. Beijing: Foreign Language Press .
605:
572:
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reached the fortress Kiemen which guarded the only pass through the
1709:
Wang, Tianshun (1993). ăè„żć€æćČă. Yinchuan : Ningxia People's Press .
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The Western Xia dynasty emerged in 1038âalso called "Xi Xia", the "
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Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century
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2288:(1205 / 1207 / 1209â10 / 1225â27)
620:
Mongol Empire at the time of Genghis Khan's death in 1227.
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alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while
1436:
History: From the Dawn of Civilization to the Present Day
762:
760:
344:. In the late 1190s and early 1200s, TemĂŒjin, soon to be
43:
Mongol conquest of Western Xia and other regimes of China
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Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC-AD 1840
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2018:
List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'
853:
851:
849:
505:, which fell after five weeks. Genghis then moved to
231:
The Mongols began a siege of the Western Xia capital
1511:(3rd ed.). New York City: Infobase Publishing.
1345:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
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1938:
1826:
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1134:
929:
2013:Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe
1388:Franke, Herbert; Twitchett, Denis, eds. (2007) .
1275:The Territories of the People's Republic of China
1655:. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 191â214.
1348:(3rd ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
2433:(1220â22 / 1226â31 / 1237â64)
1714:Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World
1233:
1173:
23:
1483:Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road
1263:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
741:
739:
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731:
729:
2957:
1736:
1459:Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte
1272:Boland-Crewe, Tara; Lea, David, eds. (2002).
93:Western Xia lands absorbed into Mongol Empire
8:
1674:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
1553:Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection
1392:. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press.
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1471:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1421:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1185:
20:
1363:Emmons, James B. (2012). "Genghis Khan".
1327:. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.
1294:Mongol hiigeed Eurasiin diplomat shashtir
1146:
1093:
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1021:
1009:
766:
477:Mongol invasion of Western Xia, 1226-1227
615:
472:
454:campaign against the Khwarazmian dynasty
403:
1695:. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.
1209:
917:
905:
811:
683:
585:Genghis Khan § Death and aftermath
2363:(1277 / 1283 / 1287)
2322:(1236 / 1240 / 1252)
1464:
1414:
1033:
973:
408:Mongol invasion of Western Xia in 1209
16:1205â1227 campaigns in northwest China
1578:The Mongol Conquests in World History
1110:
958:
872:
712:(Kovalev A. A.& Erdenebaatar D),
528:desert, and in November lay siege to
7:
1946:Administrative divisions and vassals
1303:Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World
1245:
1158:
985:
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548:, even sending some troops over the
324:Upon the death of its fourth ruler,
1409:Die Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen
1221:
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589:In August 1227, during the fall of
336:. The state often welcomed deposed
309:to the east and northeast, and the
1672:Genghis Khan and the Mongol empire
241:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
14:
1532:. New York: Infobase Publishing.
1135:Sinor, Shimin & Kychanov 1998
930:Sinor, Shimin & Kychanov 1998
1342:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2012).
722:http://doi.org/10.24517/00064490
714:http://doi.org/10.24517/00064491
237:Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia
195:
179:
37:
3065:Wars involving the Yuan dynasty
1278:. London: Europa Publications.
552:to threaten the Jin capital at
465:dynasties against the Mongols.
3080:Invasions by the Mongol Empire
3005:Western Xia rulers family tree
2990:Mongol conquest of Western Xia
1439:. London: Dorling Kindersley.
1306:. New York City: I.B. Tauris.
388:, the main garrison along the
24:Mongol conquest of Western Xia
1:
3070:Wars involving Imperial China
2933:Timeline of the Mongol Empire
2630:Division of the Mongol Empire
1626:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
1366:China at War: An Encyclopedia
596:GalicianâVolhynian Chronicle
433:Mongol vassalage (1210â1224)
1880:Manghit / Mangudai
1689:Tucker, Spencer C. (2010).
1234:Franke & Twitchett 1995
1174:Boland-Crewe & Lea 2002
469:Second invasion (1225â1227)
313:to the southeast. When the
208:Between 1205 and 1227, the
3126:
3105:1220s in the Mongol Empire
3100:1210s in the Mongol Empire
3095:1200s in the Mongol Empire
2659:Esen BuqaâAyurbarwada war
1581:. London: Reaktion Books.
623:
582:
400:First invasion (1209â1210)
266:
3110:1227 in the Mongol Empire
3028:
2980:
2930:
2689:
2678:
2474:(1223 / 1236â40)
2380:(1257 / 1284â88)
2209:
2189:
2003:ByzantineâMongol Alliance
1934:
1911:
1769:
1758:
1670:Rossabi, William (2009).
1641:Sinor, D.; Shimin, Geng;
1480:Kessler, Adam T. (2012).
1321:Dunnell, Ruth W. (1996).
129:
101:
47:
36:
28:
3075:Mongol conquest of China
1605:Harvard University Press
1601:Imperial China: 900-1800
1505:Kohn, George C. (2007).
1461:(in German). DĂŒsseldorf.
1407:Haenisch, Erich (1948).
626:Mongol conquest of China
243:. However, when Genghis
31:Mongol conquest of China
1956:Invasions and conquests
1875:Paiza / Gerege
1300:de Hartog, Leo (2004).
450:Central Asian campaigns
3015:Fashion in Western Xia
3010:Western Xia mausoleums
2613:(1260 / 1301)
2341:(1274 / 1281)
2008:Franco-Mongol alliance
1526:Lange, Brenda (2003).
621:
478:
409:
356:to TemĂŒjin's emerging
130:Commanders and leaders
3090:13th century in China
1622:Peers, Chris (2006).
1575:May, Timothy (2012).
624:Further information:
619:
579:Death of Genghis Khan
476:
407:
319:wars against the Song
2504:Serbia and Bulgaria
226:incursion into China
55:1205â1210, 1225â1227
3000:Western Xia coinage
2751:Khagans of the Yuan
2480:Poland and Bohemia
2256:Khwarazmian Empire
1981:Society and economy
1712:Weatherford, Jack.
1248:, pp. 256â257.
1224:, pp. 116â117.
1200:, pp. 239â240.
1096:, pp. 135â137.
1084:, pp. 219â220.
1012:, pp. 134â135.
988:, pp. 255â256.
884:Weatherford, pg. 85
459:Khwarazmian dynasty
301:, and southernmost
2496:Holy Roman Empire
1951:Banner/Bunchuk/Tug
1597:Mote, Frederick W.
1558:St. Martin's Press
1508:Dictionary of Wars
1060:, p. 215â217.
1048:, p. 213â214.
1000:, p. 212â213.
745:May 2012, pg. 1211
622:
479:
410:
249:Khwarazmian Empire
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2643:BerkeâHulagu war
2635:Toluid Civil War
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2415:
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2184:
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1988:House of Borjigin
1907:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1603:. Cambridge, MA:
1399:978-0-521-24331-5
1371:Santa Barbara, CA
427:feinted a retreat
364:Preliminary raids
342:Mongolian Plateau
206:
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176:Emperor Xiangzong
97:
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73:Mongolian Plateau
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2515:
2507:
2499:
2491:
2483:
2475:
2467:
2459:
2451:
2443:
2435:
2434:
2408:
2389:
2381:
2373:
2365:
2364:
2342:
2332:
2324:
2323:
2314:
2306:
2298:
2290:
2289:
2267:
2259:
2251:
2241:
2233:
2218:
2211:
2191:
2153:Shangdu (Xanadu)
2143:Sarai Batu/Berke
2048:Chagatai Khanate
1936:
1913:
1771:
1760:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1722:
1706:
1685:
1666:
1637:
1618:
1592:
1571:
1543:
1522:
1501:
1476:
1470:
1462:
1455:Heissig, Walther
1450:
1431:Hart-Davis, Adam
1426:
1420:
1412:
1403:
1384:
1359:
1338:
1317:
1289:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1171:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
962:
956:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
903:
897:
891:
885:
882:
876:
870:
861:
855:
844:
838:
832:
826:
815:
809:
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
776:
770:
764:
755:
752:
746:
743:
724:
706:
700:
697:
691:
688:
491:Qilian Mountains
443:Emperor Shenzong
421:to the capital,
330:Emperor Huanzong
199:
187:Emperor Xianzong
183:
171:Emperor Huanzong
49:
48:
41:
21:
3125:
3124:
3120:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3055:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3043:Tangut numerals
3034:Tangut language
3024:
2976:
2970:
2940:
2935:
2918:
2837:
2756:
2735:
2722:
2709:
2685:
2666:
2660:
2652:
2644:
2636:
2618:
2612:
2604:
2596:
2588:
2580:
2567:
2561:
2553:
2545:
2537:
2529:
2521:
2513:
2505:
2497:
2489:
2481:
2473:
2465:
2457:
2456:Volga Bulgaria
2449:
2441:
2432:
2430:
2412:
2406:
2393:
2387:
2379:
2371:
2362:
2360:
2346:
2340:
2330:
2321:
2319:
2312:
2311:Southern China
2304:
2296:
2295:Northern China
2287:
2285:
2271:
2265:
2257:
2249:
2239:
2231:
2205:
2204:
2177:
2076:
2053:House of Ăgedei
2022:
1993:House of Ăgedei
1961:Destructiveness
1930:
1929:
1899:
1836:
1822:
1765:
1754:
1749:
1719:
1703:
1688:
1682:
1669:
1663:
1647:Bosworth, C. E.
1643:Kychanov, Y. I.
1640:
1634:
1621:
1615:
1595:
1589:
1574:
1568:
1546:
1540:
1525:
1519:
1504:
1498:
1479:
1463:
1453:
1447:
1429:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1387:
1381:
1362:
1356:
1341:
1335:
1320:
1314:
1299:
1296:, vol. II.
1286:
1271:
1257:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1186:Hart-Davis 2007
1184:
1180:
1172:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1008:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
980:
972:
965:
957:
948:
940:
936:
928:
924:
916:
912:
904:
900:
892:
888:
883:
879:
871:
864:
856:
847:
839:
835:
827:
818:
810:
806:
798:
794:
786:
782:
777:
773:
765:
758:
754:Atwood, pg. 590
753:
749:
744:
727:
707:
703:
698:
694:
689:
685:
681:
676:
668:Kingdom of Dali
628:
614:
587:
581:
471:
439:war against Jin
435:
419:Helan Mountains
402:
366:
326:Emperor Renzong
293:, northeastern
271:
265:
202:
164:
125:
89:
75:
69:Tibetan Plateau
65:Northwest China
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3123:
3121:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3057:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2981:
2978:
2977:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2961:
2954:
2946:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2744:
2739:
2734:Oghul Qaimish
2731:
2726:
2718:
2713:
2705:
2699:
2697:
2687:
2686:
2683:
2676:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2640:
2632:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2608:
2600:
2592:
2584:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2557:
2549:
2541:
2533:
2525:
2517:
2509:
2501:
2493:
2485:
2477:
2469:
2461:
2453:
2445:
2437:
2426:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2383:
2375:
2367:
2356:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2326:
2316:
2308:
2300:
2292:
2281:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2261:
2253:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2226:
2224:
2215:
2207:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2032:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1998:Mongol Armenia
1995:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1942:
1940:
1932:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1777:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1740:
1733:
1725:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1702:978-1851096725
1701:
1686:
1681:978-9622178359
1680:
1667:
1661:
1638:
1632:
1619:
1613:
1593:
1587:
1572:
1566:
1544:
1538:
1523:
1517:
1502:
1496:
1477:
1451:
1446:978-1405318099
1445:
1427:
1404:
1398:
1385:
1379:
1360:
1354:
1339:
1333:
1318:
1312:
1297:
1290:
1284:
1269:
1266:
1261:Atwood, C. P.
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1250:
1238:
1236:, p. 214.
1226:
1214:
1212:, p. 124.
1202:
1190:
1188:, p. 165.
1178:
1176:, p. 215.
1163:
1161:, p. 256.
1151:
1149:, p. 137.
1147:de Hartog 2004
1139:
1137:, p. 214.
1127:
1125:, p. 238.
1115:
1098:
1094:de Hartog 2004
1086:
1074:
1072:, p. 135.
1070:de Hartog 2004
1062:
1050:
1038:
1036:, p. 276.
1026:
1024:, p. 134.
1022:de Hartog 2004
1014:
1010:de Hartog 2004
1002:
990:
978:
976:, p. 139.
963:
961:, p. 199.
946:
944:, p. 160.
934:
932:, p. 213.
922:
920:, p. xxv.
910:
898:
896:, p. 133.
886:
877:
875:, p. 135.
862:
860:, p. 131.
845:
843:, p. 130.
833:
831:, p. 205.
816:
814:, p. 156.
804:
802:, p. 213.
792:
790:, p. 212.
780:
771:
767:de Hartog 2004
756:
747:
725:
701:
692:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
613:
610:
583:Main article:
580:
577:
524:, crossed the
470:
467:
445:seized power.
434:
431:
401:
398:
365:
362:
303:Outer Mongolia
299:Inner Mongolia
267:Main article:
264:
261:
257:Song dynasties
204:
203:
201:
200:
189:
184:
173:
167:
165:
163:
162:
157:
152:
147:
135:
132:
131:
127:
126:
124:
123:
118:
112:
110:
104:
103:
99:
98:
95:
94:
91:
85:
84:
83:Mongol victory
81:
77:
76:
63:
61:
57:
56:
53:
45:
44:
34:
33:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3122:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3044:
3040:
3039:Tangut Script
3037:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2995:Tangut people
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2985:SongâXia wars
2983:
2982:
2979:
2974:
2967:
2962:
2960:
2955:
2953:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2934:
2929:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2803:Chagatai Khan
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2677:
2663:
2657:
2655:
2649:
2647:
2641:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2607:
2601:
2599:
2593:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2556:
2550:
2548:
2542:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2526:
2524:
2518:
2516:
2512:Latin Empire
2510:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2494:
2492:
2486:
2484:
2478:
2476:
2470:
2468:
2462:
2460:
2454:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2436:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2382:
2376:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2317:
2315:
2309:
2307:
2301:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2260:
2254:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2041:Northern Yuan
2039:
2038:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1966:Imperial Seal
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1859:Pax Mongolica
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1752:Mongol Empire
1746:
1741:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1694:
1693:
1687:
1683:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1588:9781861899712
1584:
1580:
1579:
1573:
1569:
1567:9780312366247
1563:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1539:9780791072226
1535:
1531:
1530:
1524:
1520:
1518:9781438129167
1514:
1510:
1509:
1503:
1499:
1497:9789004218598
1493:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1380:9781598844153
1376:
1372:
1368:
1367:
1361:
1357:
1355:9781133606475
1351:
1347:
1346:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1326:
1325:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1305:
1304:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1285:9780203403112
1281:
1277:
1276:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1113:, p. 71.
1112:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
975:
970:
968:
964:
960:
955:
953:
951:
947:
943:
938:
935:
931:
926:
923:
919:
914:
911:
908:, p. 91.
907:
902:
899:
895:
890:
887:
881:
878:
874:
869:
867:
863:
859:
854:
852:
850:
846:
842:
837:
834:
830:
825:
823:
821:
817:
813:
808:
805:
801:
796:
793:
789:
784:
781:
775:
772:
769:, p. 59.
768:
763:
761:
757:
751:
748:
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
732:
730:
726:
723:
719:
715:
711:
705:
702:
696:
693:
687:
684:
678:
673:
671:
669:
665:
660:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
639:
638:
633:
627:
618:
611:
609:
607:
602:
598:
597:
592:
586:
578:
576:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
533:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
475:
468:
466:
464:
460:
455:
451:
446:
444:
440:
432:
430:
428:
424:
420:
415:
414:Wanyan Yongji
406:
399:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
382:Ordos Plateau
379:
375:
371:
363:
361:
359:
358:Mongol Empire
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
270:
262:
260:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
210:Mongol Empire
198:
193:
190:
188:
185:
182:
177:
174:
172:
169:
168:
166:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
145:
140:
137:
136:
134:
133:
128:
122:
119:
117:
114:
113:
111:
109:
108:Mongol Empire
106:
105:
100:
92:
87:
86:
82:
79:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
59:
58:
54:
51:
50:
46:
40:
35:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2989:
2703:Genghis Khan
2472:Kievan Rus'
2450:(1237â1300s)
2442:(1237â1300s)
2286:Western Xia
2284:
2248:Qara Khitai
2081:Major cities
2060:Golden Horde
2036:Yuan dynasty
1923:Organization
1857:
1808:Khong Tayiji
1713:
1691:
1671:
1651:
1623:
1600:
1577:
1556:. New York:
1552:
1529:Genghis Khan
1528:
1507:
1482:
1458:
1435:
1408:
1389:
1373:: ABC-CLIO.
1365:
1344:
1323:
1302:
1293:
1274:
1262:
1241:
1229:
1217:
1210:Heissig 1964
1205:
1193:
1181:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1089:
1077:
1065:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1005:
993:
981:
937:
925:
918:Dunnell 1996
913:
906:Kessler 2012
901:
889:
880:
836:
812:Rossabi 2009
807:
795:
783:
778:Bor, pg. 204
774:
750:
720:(Moriya K),
717:
709:
704:
695:
686:
661:
657:Ming dynasty
653:Yalong River
642:
635:
629:
594:
588:
566:
534:
511:
480:
447:
436:
411:
390:Yellow River
384:and sacking
367:
346:Genghis Khan
323:
311:Song dynasty
307:Liao dynasty
297:, southwest
272:
247:the Islamic
230:
222:Genghis Khan
207:
143:
139:Genghis Khan
102:Belligerents
29:Part of the
18:
3085:Western Xia
2973:Western Xia
2778:Sartaq Khan
2747:Kublai Khan
2742:Möngke Khan
2716:Ăgedei Khan
2695:Great Khans
2661:(1314â1318)
2653:(1268â1301)
2605:(1260â1323)
2589:(1253â1256)
2572:Middle East
2466:(1238â1239)
2407:(1221â1327)
2266:(1219â1256)
2258:(1219â1221)
2240:(1264â1308)
2232:(1207-1308)
2098:Azov (Azaq)
1764:Terminology
1034:Tucker 2010
974:Emmons 2012
664:Jin dynasty
647:, northern
560:valley and
538:Ăgedei Khan
487:Khara-Khoto
315:Jin dynasty
289:, northern
269:Western Xia
218:Western Xia
150:Ăgedei Khan
121:Jin dynasty
116:Western Xia
88:Territorial
3059:Categories
2914:Nogai Khan
2798:Ăzbeg Khan
2729:GĂŒyĂŒk Khan
2623:Civil wars
2611:Palestine
2520:Lithuania
2440:Circassia
2173:Xacitarxan
2158:Soltaniyeh
1895:Darughachi
1662:9231034677
1633:1846030986
1614:0674012127
1411:. Leipzig.
1334:0824817192
1313:1860649726
1111:Lange 2003
959:Ebrey 2012
873:Peers 2006
674:References
601:Marco Polo
544:and south
526:Helan Shan
493:force the
285:, eastern
263:Background
192:Emperor Mo
3030:Language
2783:Orda Khan
2773:Batu Khan
2637:(1260â64)
2581:(1241â43)
2579:Anatolia
2554:(1287â88)
2546:(1285â86)
2538:(1264â65)
2530:(1259â60)
2522:(1258â59)
2498:(1241â42)
2490:(1241â42)
2482:(1240â41)
2458:(1229â36)
2448:Chechnya
2388:(1300â02)
2352:Southeast
2331:(1253â56)
2313:(1235â79)
2305:(1231â60)
2297:(1211â34)
2250:(1216â18)
2238:Sakhalin
2198:Campaigns
2148:Saray-JĂŒk
2138:Samarkand
2113:Karakorum
2072:Ilkhanate
1830:Political
1548:Man, John
1490:: Brill.
1467:cite book
1417:cite book
1246:Mote 1999
1159:Mote 1999
986:Mote 1999
829:Kohn 2007
699:Bian 2005
690:Wang 1993
679:Citations
637:ethnocide
612:Aftermath
558:Tao River
542:Wei River
522:Liangzhou
394:Silk Road
378:Li Anquan
3020:Baisigou
2909:Boroldai
2889:Khubilai
2869:Bo'orchu
2842:Military
2736:(regent)
2723:(regent)
2710:(regent)
2595:Baghdad
2544:Hungary
2488:Hungary
2431:Georgia
2378:Vietnam
2230:Siberia
2128:Maragheh
2028:Khanates
1976:Religion
1971:Military
1920:Politics
1870:Kurultai
1833:Military
1649:(eds.).
1599:(1999).
1550:(2004).
1457:(1964).
1433:(2007).
1292:Bor, J.
1222:Man 2004
1198:Man 2004
1123:Man 2004
1082:Man 2004
1058:Man 2004
1046:Man 2004
998:Man 2004
942:Man 2004
894:Man 2004
858:Man 2004
841:Man 2004
800:Man 2004
788:Man 2004
632:John Man
591:Yinchuan
495:Ruo Shui
483:Xianzong
423:Yinchuan
354:Ong Khan
350:Keraites
295:Xinjiang
233:Yinchuan
60:Location
2879:Boroqul
2874:Guo Kan
2864:Negudar
2849:Subutai
2749: (
2587:Alamut
2560:Serbia
2552:Poland
2536:Thrace
2528:Poland
2464:Alania
2329:Yunnan
2264:Persia
2222:Central
2201:Battles
2108:Bolghar
2103:Bukhara
2088:Almalik
1890:Kheshig
1818:Tarkhan
1255:Sources
645:Sichuan
562:Lanzhou
554:Kaifeng
550:Qinling
546:Shaanxi
507:Ganzhou
499:Subutai
374:Zhangye
352:leader
334:steppes
291:Shaanxi
287:Qinghai
279:Ningxia
245:invaded
155:Subutai
90:changes
2975:topics
2859:Muqali
2833:Ghazan
2828:Arghun
2818:Hulegu
2708:Tolui
2684:People
2645:(1262)
2603:Syria
2597:(1258)
2562:(1291)
2514:(1242)
2506:(1242)
2422:Europe
2405:India
2386:Burma
2372:(1293)
2361:Burma
2339:Japan
2320:Tibet
2303:Korea
2163:Tabriz
2133:Qarshi
2093:Avarga
1939:Topics
1843:Jarlig
1803:Jinong
1798:Khanum
1793:Khatun
1783:Khagan
1775:Titles
1699:
1678:
1659:
1630:
1611:
1585:
1564:
1536:
1515:
1494:
1488:Leiden
1443:
1396:
1377:
1352:
1331:
1310:
1282:
606:Oirats
573:Guyuan
569:Longde
530:Lingwu
503:Suzhou
338:Kerait
275:Tangut
214:Tangut
194:
178:
141:
80:Result
2904:Kadan
2899:Bayan
2884:Jelme
2823:Abaqa
2813:Kebek
2793:Toqta
2788:Berke
2768:Jochi
2761:Khans
2398:South
2370:Java
2123:Majar
2065:Wings
1885:TĂŒmen
1865:Yassa
1848:Ărtöö
1813:Noyan
649:Tibet
518:Mozhu
514:Wuwei
386:Wuhai
370:Edsin
283:Gansu
216:-led
160:Tolui
2854:Jebe
2808:Duwa
2277:East
2214:Asia
2168:Ukek
2118:Dadu
1926:Life
1853:Orda
1788:Khan
1697:ISBN
1676:ISBN
1657:ISBN
1628:ISBN
1609:ISBN
1583:ISBN
1562:ISBN
1534:ISBN
1513:ISBN
1492:ISBN
1473:link
1441:ISBN
1423:link
1394:ISBN
1375:ISBN
1350:ISBN
1329:ISBN
1308:ISBN
1280:ISBN
463:Song
255:and
52:Date
2894:Aju
640:."
253:Jin
3061::
1607:.
1560:.
1486:.
1469:}}
1465:{{
1419:}}
1415:{{
1369:.
1166:^
1101:^
966:^
949:^
865:^
848:^
819:^
759:^
728:^
716:,
659:.
608:.
328:,
281:,
228:.
71:,
67:,
3045:)
3041:(
2965:e
2958:t
2951:v
2753:)
1744:e
1737:t
1730:v
1716:.
1705:.
1684:.
1665:.
1636:.
1617:.
1591:.
1570:.
1542:.
1521:.
1500:.
1475:)
1449:.
1425:)
1402:.
1383:.
1358:.
1337:.
1316:.
1288:.
1265:.
144:#
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