33:
46:
409:, which reduces the formation of basidiocarps by 99% when brooms are in contact with soil and 56% in brooms remaining on trees. It can reduce pod infection by 31%. This biofungicide has shown variable performance due to environmental conditions of high humidity and moisture from rainfall, which is ideal for disease development, but not necessarily ideal for optimizing biocontrol efficacy.
429:, where output diminished from 380,000 metric tons per year to 90,000 metric tons in the late 1990s. Due to this disease, Bahia, Brazil went from being the 3rd largest exporter of cacao beans to a net importer. Lack of cacao beans could increase the price for importing countries, and also for all cocoa products. The U.S. currently imports $ 100 million in cacao beans annually.
384:
strategies for control are chemical control, genetic resistance and biological control. Genetic resistance is currently being researched. In order to achieve durable resistance to a specific pathogen, extensive knowledge of the genetics of specific host-pathogen interaction is required. Host-pathogen interaction for
443:
growth of cacao helps to preserve habitat for numerous animal and bird species in these regions. With the production losses associated with WBD, tropical landowners are forced to convert their land to other production systems that usually require the destruction of the forest cover. WBD does not only
342:
targeting nutrient acquisition while altering the host physiology without causing significant necrosis. After 1–2 months post infection, necrosis of infected tissues occurs distal to the original infection site, forming a structure called a dry broom. WBD may also lead to plant death after successive
420:
infection causes young pods to become deformed (these are called chirimoyas in
Spanish), whereas infection of more mature pods will cause necrosis of seeds and render the pod worthless. This largely affects cocoa production in South American countries where their cash crop is cacao beans. In 1989,
355:
formed on pods and affected vegetative tissue, which are small and pink. It is possible to cultivate these basidiomata under experimental conditions on a bran-vermiculite medium using the 'pie-dish' method to simulate the wetting/drying conditions experienced by the fungus under field conditions.
337:
causes
Witches’ Broom Disease (WBD), which show distinctive symptoms of hypertrophy and hyperplasia of distal tissue of the infection site, loss of apical dominance, proliferation of auxiliary shoots, and the formation of abnormal stems resulting in a broom-like structure called a green broom.
383:
Generally, there are four major strategies that can be used for disease control of
Witches’ Broom. One strategy is phytosanitation, which is the removal and destruction of diseased plant parts. This can only be conducted during dry periods, or one risks spreading the disease further. Other
1041:
Silvia, D.; Araujo, I.; Branco, S.; Aguilar-Vildoso, C.; Lopes, U.; Marelli, J.; Motamayor, J.; Royaert, S.; Reboucas, R. (1997). "Analysis of resistance to witches' broom disease (Moniliophthora perniciosa) in flower cushions of
Theobroma cacao in a segregating population".
375:. As a consequence, it mainly spreads during rainy periods. In most cacao production areas, rainfall totals and temperature maximums range between 1300 and 3000 mm and 30 to 33 °C. These conditions are ideal for WBD development.
529:
Litholder Jr., Ceso; Leal Jr., Gildemberg; Albuquerque, Paulo; Figueria, Antonio (June 14, 2015). "Differential expression of
Jasmonate biosynthesis genes in cocao genotypes contrasting for resistance against Moniliophthora perniciosa".
926:
Melnick, Rachel; Marelli, Jean-Philippe; Sicher, Richard; Strem, Mary; Bailey, Bryan (December 2012). "The interaction of
Theobroma cacao and Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches' broom disease, during parthenocarpy".
788:
de Arruda, M.C.C.; Sepulveda Ch., G.F.; Miller, R.N.G.; Ferreira, M.A.S.V.; Santiago, D.V.R.; Resende, M.L.V.; Dianese, J.C.; Felipe, M.S.S. (2017). "Crinipellis brasiliensis, a new species based on morphological and molecular data".
219:. This pathogen is currently limited to South America, Panama and the Caribbean, and is perhaps one of the best-known cocoa diseases, thought to have co-evolved with cocoa in its centre of origin (first recorded in the Brazilian
388:
is not fully known. Some of these strategies can be tedious and expensive, for example, 95% phytosanitation is required to achieve 50% reduction in pod loss. Among the endophytic fungi associated with cacao are many species of
338:
Infection of flower cushions results in the formation of cushion brooms and reduces the ability to produce viable pods, causing seedless pods, or in other words, parthenocarpic fruits. Parthenocarpy results in
310:
basidiospore is capable of completing its life cycle. This is crucial in the epidemiology of disease since a single spore infection can be fertile. Primary homothallism is highly unusual amongst
284:; . Under experimental conditions, this biotype is also able to cause witches' broom symptoms on tomato, aubergine, pepper and potato. Most recently discovered is the H-biotype, which infects
367:
evolved from the Amazon and its susceptible hosts are tropical plants located in rain forests. Favorable conditions for the disease to spread are humid, warm tropical weather. The
677:
GRIFFITH, G. W.; HEDGER, J. N. (June 1994). "Spatial distribution of mycelia of the liana (L-) biotype of the agaric
Crinipellis perniciosa (Stahel) Singer in tropical forest".
253:
is now known to comprise four different biotypes (C, S, L and H), each infecting different (and unrelated) host plants. The economically important C-biotype infects species of
998:
Griffith, G. W.; Hedger, J. N. (1993-07-01). "A novel method for producing basidiocarps of the cocoa pathogen
Crinipellis perniciosa using a bran-vermiculite medium".
276:) but witches' broom symptoms have not been observed on this host. The S-biotype, reported only from Brazil caused witches' broom symptoms on hosts within the family
1317:
1224:
1358:
1304:
1172:
832:
Artero, A. S.; Silva, J. Q.; Albuquerque, P. S. B.; Bressan, E. A.; Leal, G. A.; Sebbenn, A. M.; Griffith, G. W.; Figueira, A. (2016-11-23).
302:
Investigation of the breeding biology of these various biotypes found that those causing disease symptoms (C,S) are non-outcrossing (primary
720:
BASTOS, C. N.; EVANS, H.C. (June 1985). "A new pathotype of
Crinipellis perniciosa (witches' broom disease) on solanaceous hosts".
1373:
463:"The causal agents of witches' broom and frosty pod rot of cacao (chocolate, Theobroma cacao) form a new lineage of Marasmiaceae"
590:
Meinhardt, Lyndel; Rincones, Johana; Bailey, Bryan; Aime, Catherine; Griffith, Gareth; Zhang, Dapeng; Pereira, Gancalo (2008).
234:, on necrotic tissue). The biotrophic stage, and what triggers its switch to a saprotrophic stage, are still not understood.
45:
299:. Recent phylogenetic analysis of field-collected basidiomes and cultures suggests that other biotypes may also exist.
1198:
1077:
1072:
230:, with two characteristic phases: biotrophic (expanding and infecting, on living tissue) and saprotrophic (producing
967:"Pathogenic variability of Moniliophthora perniciosa in three agroecological zones of cacao region of Bahia, Brazil"
444:
affect the supply of cacao, but also largely impacts the conservation of tropical environment where cacao is grown.
1229:
462:
834:"Spatial genetic structure and dispersal of the cacao pathogen Moniliophthora perniciosa in the Brazilian Amazon"
833:
351:
infection are green brooms, which are broom-like structures that are formed from the stem, and highly infective
249:
infects tropical host plants, and host plants in the Upper Amazon River basin on the eastern side of the Andes.
592:"Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches' broom disease of cacao: what's new from this old foe?"
1378:
1363:
401:
268:
A second biotype (L-biotype) was found on liana vines in
Ecuador; subsequently the host was identified as
1088:
1368:
140:
1296:
1164:
1133:
399:
have been isolated from cacao and is one of the most often used biofungicides. One of the isolates,
314:
fungi which are outcrossing, requiring mating between mycelia derived from single spore germlings (
32:
884:"The breeding biology of biotypes of the witches' broom pathogen of cocoa, Crinipellis perniciosa"
1023:
944:
864:
814:
555:
322:
which is capable of basidiome formation. The L-biotype, in contrast to its relatives exhibits a
162:
40:
1322:
639:
Evans, H.C. (July 1978). "Witches' broom disease of cocoa Crinipellis perniciosa) in Ecuador".
1278:
1237:
1120:
1015:
905:
856:
806:
737:
702:
694:
656:
621:
547:
482:
1242:
1051:
1007:
978:
936:
895:
848:
798:
768:
729:
686:
648:
611:
603:
539:
474:
210:
214:
1291:
1159:
733:
690:
652:
616:
591:
117:
87:
1352:
818:
607:
323:
292:
77:
1078:
Moniliophthora perniciosa genome sequencing at Laboratory of Genomics and Expression
1027:
948:
868:
559:
1283:
1125:
802:
303:
286:
273:
231:
227:
220:
107:
773:
756:
1269:
983:
966:
1185:
755:
Griffith, G.W.; Nicholson, J.; Nenninger, A.; Birch, R.N.; Hedger, J.N. (2003).
478:
391:
372:
307:
1111:
965:
Gramacho, Karina; Luz, Edna; Santos da Silva, Fernanda; Lopes, Uilson (2016).
940:
543:
440:
436:
315:
277:
97:
1019:
909:
860:
741:
698:
660:
1146:
352:
262:
57:
1203:
810:
706:
625:
551:
486:
1330:
1263:
1211:
1105:
319:
900:
883:
1309:
1177:
1011:
1190:
1055:
852:
371:
of this fungus are spread by wind, but must land in water in order to
1335:
1216:
426:
368:
311:
206:
67:
1082:
1151:
422:
1138:
1086:
757:"Witches' brooms and frosty pods: two major pathogens of cacao"
507:
Becker, Hank (1999). "Fighting a fungal siege on Cocao farms".
405:
parasitizes the saprotrophic mycelium and basidiocarps of
295:) but this has been reclassified as a separate species,
1253:
1095:
421:WBD was introduced to the cocoa producing state of
8:
1083:
31:
20:
982:
899:
882:Griffith, G W; Hedger, J N (March 1994).
772:
615:
245:can infect a number of hosts. Generally,
156:(Stahel) Aime & Phillips-Mora, (2005)
971:Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology
453:
1000:Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology
461:Aime, M.C.; Phillips-Mora, W. (2005).
178:Crinipellis perniciosa var. perniciosa
960:
958:
921:
919:
7:
672:
670:
585:
583:
581:
579:
577:
575:
573:
571:
569:
524:
522:
502:
500:
498:
496:
1359:Fungal tree pathogens and diseases
734:10.1111/j.1365-3059.1985.tb01366.x
691:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04276.x
653:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1978.tb07689.x
14:
213:disease" (WBD) of the cocoa tree
608:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00496.x
44:
803:10.1080/15572536.2006.11832741
1:
774:10.1080/0028825X.2003.9512860
761:New Zealand Journal of Botany
984:10.1590/1984-70332016v16n1a2
929:Tree Genetics & Genomes
479:10.3852/mycologia.97.5.1012
297:Moniliophthora brasiliensis
1395:
1097:Moniliophthora perniciosa
941:10.1007/s11295-012-0513-8
641:Annals of Applied Biology
596:Molecular Plant Pathology
544:10.1007/s00299-015-1821-x
243:Moniliophthora perniciosa
198:Moniliophthora perniciosa
168:
161:
150:Moniliophthora perniciosa
146:
139:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
25:Moniliophthora perniciosa
23:
1073:USDA ARS Fungal Database
439:tropical plant, and the
1374:Fungi described in 1915
326:outcrossing mechanism.
181:(Stahel) Singer, (1943)
174:(Stahel) Singer, (1943)
203:Crinipellis perniciosa
171:Crinipellis perniciosa
1255:Marasmius perniciosus
509:Agricultural Research
395:. Several species of
185:Marasmius perniciosus
306:), wherein a single
270:Arrabidaea verrucosa
901:10.1038/hdy.1994.38
1012:10.1007/BF01974667
379:Disease management
238:Hosts and symptoms
132:M. perniciosa
1346:
1345:
1238:Open Tree of Life
1089:Taxon identifiers
1056:10.1111/ppa.12204
853:10.1111/ppa.12644
538:(10): 1747–1759.
194:
193:
189:
182:
175:
16:Species of fungus
1386:
1339:
1338:
1326:
1325:
1313:
1312:
1300:
1299:
1287:
1286:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1246:
1245:
1233:
1232:
1220:
1219:
1207:
1206:
1194:
1193:
1181:
1180:
1168:
1167:
1155:
1154:
1142:
1141:
1129:
1128:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1084:
1060:
1059:
1050:(6): 1264–1271.
1038:
1032:
1031:
995:
989:
988:
986:
962:
953:
952:
935:(6): 1261–1279.
923:
914:
913:
903:
879:
873:
872:
838:
829:
823:
822:
797:(6): 1348–1361.
785:
779:
778:
776:
752:
746:
745:
717:
711:
710:
674:
665:
664:
636:
630:
629:
619:
587:
564:
563:
526:
517:
516:
504:
491:
490:
473:(5): 1012–1022.
458:
187:
180:
173:
152:
49:
48:
35:
21:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1334:
1329:
1321:
1316:
1308:
1303:
1295:
1290:
1282:
1277:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1249:
1241:
1236:
1228:
1223:
1215:
1210:
1202:
1197:
1189:
1184:
1176:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1150:
1145:
1137:
1132:
1124:
1119:
1110:
1109:
1104:
1091:
1069:
1064:
1063:
1044:Plant Pathology
1040:
1039:
1035:
997:
996:
992:
964:
963:
956:
925:
924:
917:
881:
880:
876:
841:Plant Pathology
836:
831:
830:
826:
787:
786:
782:
754:
753:
749:
722:Plant Pathology
719:
718:
714:
679:New Phytologist
676:
675:
668:
638:
637:
633:
589:
588:
567:
528:
527:
520:
506:
505:
494:
460:
459:
455:
450:
415:
381:
362:
282:Solanum rugosum
240:
226:This fungus is
183:
176:
157:
154:
148:
135:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1392:
1390:
1382:
1381:
1379:Fungus species
1376:
1371:
1366:
1364:Cacao diseases
1361:
1351:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1340:
1327:
1314:
1301:
1288:
1275:
1259:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1234:
1221:
1208:
1195:
1182:
1169:
1156:
1143:
1130:
1117:
1101:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1068:
1067:External links
1065:
1062:
1061:
1033:
1006:(4): 227–230.
990:
954:
915:
894:(3): 278–289.
874:
847:(6): 912–923.
824:
780:
767:(3): 423–435.
747:
728:(2): 306–312.
712:
685:(2): 243–259.
666:
647:(2): 185–192.
631:
602:(5): 577–588.
565:
532:Plant Cell Rep
518:
492:
452:
451:
449:
446:
414:
411:
402:T. stromaticum
380:
377:
361:
358:
239:
236:
211:witches' broom
192:
191:
188:Stahel, (1915)
166:
165:
159:
158:
155:
144:
143:
137:
136:
129:
127:
123:
122:
119:Moniliophthora
115:
111:
110:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
88:Agaricomycetes
85:
81:
80:
75:
71:
70:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1391:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1265:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
994:
991:
985:
980:
976:
972:
968:
961:
959:
955:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
922:
920:
916:
911:
907:
902:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
875:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
835:
828:
825:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
784:
781:
775:
770:
766:
762:
758:
751:
748:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
716:
713:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
673:
671:
667:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
635:
632:
627:
623:
618:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
586:
584:
582:
580:
578:
576:
574:
572:
570:
566:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
525:
523:
519:
514:
510:
503:
501:
499:
497:
493:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
457:
454:
447:
445:
442:
438:
434:
430:
428:
424:
419:
418:M. perniciosa
412:
410:
408:
407:M. perniciosa
404:
403:
398:
394:
393:
387:
386:M. perniciosa
378:
376:
374:
370:
366:
365:M. perniciosa
359:
357:
354:
350:
349:M. perniciosa
346:
345:M. perniciosa
341:
340:M. perniciosa
336:
332:
331:M. perniciosa
329:Infection of
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
300:
298:
294:
293:Malpighiaceae
290:
288:
283:
279:
275:
271:
266:
264:
260:
256:
252:
251:M. perniciosa
248:
247:M. perniciosa
244:
237:
235:
233:
232:basidiospores
229:
224:
222:
218:
217:
212:
209:that causes "
208:
204:
200:
199:
190:
186:
179:
172:
167:
164:
160:
153:
151:
145:
142:
141:Binomial name
138:
134:
133:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
116:
113:
112:
109:
106:
103:
102:
99:
96:
93:
92:
89:
86:
83:
82:
79:
78:Basidiomycota
76:
73:
72:
69:
66:
63:
62:
59:
56:
53:
52:
47:
42:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1369:Marasmiaceae
1254:
1096:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1003:
999:
993:
974:
970:
932:
928:
891:
887:
877:
844:
840:
827:
794:
790:
783:
764:
760:
750:
725:
721:
715:
682:
678:
644:
640:
634:
599:
595:
535:
531:
512:
508:
470:
466:
456:
432:
431:
417:
416:
406:
400:
396:
390:
385:
382:
364:
363:
348:
344:
339:
334:
330:
328:
318:) to form a
301:
296:
287:Heteropterys
285:
281:
280:, including
274:Bignoniaceae
269:
267:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
241:
228:hemibiotroph
225:
215:
202:
201:(previously
197:
196:
195:
184:
177:
170:
169:
149:
147:
131:
130:
118:
108:Marasmiaceae
24:
18:
1186:iNaturalist
441:understorey
437:understorey
397:Trichoderma
392:Trichoderma
360:Environment
347:. Signs of
343:attacks of
324:bifactorial
316:monokaryons
308:uninucleate
304:homothallic
1353:Categories
448:References
413:Importance
289:acutifolia
278:Solanaceae
223:in 1785).
98:Agaricales
74:Division:
1270:Q61780952
1020:0028-2944
910:0018-067X
861:0032-0862
819:218588140
791:Mycologia
742:0032-0862
699:0028-646X
661:0003-4746
467:Mycologia
435:L. is an
373:germinate
353:mushrooms
263:Malvaceae
255:Theobroma
126:Species:
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1331:MycoBank
1323:10671972
1292:Fungorum
1264:Wikidata
1212:MycoBank
1160:Fungorum
1112:Q1306864
1106:Wikidata
1028:44201042
977:: 7–13.
949:14233290
888:Heredity
869:89033683
811:16722225
707:33874513
626:19018989
560:16829724
552:26071948
487:16596953
433:T. cacao
335:T. cacao
320:dikaryon
261:(family
259:Herrania
216:T. cacao
163:Synonyms
104:Family:
54:Domain:
1310:2538066
1178:2538064
1139:1003826
617:6640444
205:) is a
114:Genus:
94:Order:
84:Class:
1336:213158
1297:213158
1243:889102
1230:153609
1217:500896
1191:473395
1165:500896
1152:CRNPPE
1026:
1018:
947:
908:
867:
859:
817:
809:
740:
705:
697:
659:
624:
614:
558:
550:
515:: 4–8.
485:
427:Brazil
369:spores
312:agaric
221:Amazon
207:fungus
1318:IRMNG
1284:3XZT8
1204:16054
1126:444C8
1024:S2CID
945:S2CID
865:S2CID
837:(PDF)
815:S2CID
556:S2CID
423:Bahia
68:Fungi
1305:GBIF
1225:NCBI
1173:GBIF
1147:EPPO
1016:ISSN
906:ISSN
857:ISSN
807:PMID
738:ISSN
703:PMID
695:ISSN
657:ISSN
622:PMID
548:PMID
483:PMID
257:and
1279:CoL
1199:ISC
1134:EoL
1121:CoL
1052:doi
1008:doi
979:doi
937:doi
896:doi
849:doi
799:doi
769:doi
730:doi
687:doi
683:127
649:doi
612:PMC
604:doi
540:doi
475:doi
425:of
333:on
265:).
1355::
1333::
1320::
1307::
1294::
1281::
1266::
1240::
1227::
1214::
1201::
1188::
1175::
1162::
1149::
1136::
1123::
1108::
1048:63
1046:.
1022:.
1014:.
1004:99
1002:.
975:16
973:.
969:.
957:^
943:.
931:.
918:^
904:.
892:72
890:.
886:.
863:.
855:.
845:66
843:.
839:.
813:.
805:.
795:97
793:.
765:41
763:.
759:.
736:.
726:34
724:.
701:.
693:.
681:.
669:^
655:.
645:89
643:.
620:.
610:.
598:.
594:.
568:^
554:.
546:.
536:34
534:.
521:^
513:47
511:.
495:^
481:.
471:97
469:.
465:.
1058:.
1054::
1030:.
1010::
987:.
981::
951:.
939::
933:8
912:.
898::
871:.
851::
821:.
801::
777:.
771::
744:.
732::
709:.
689::
663:.
651::
628:.
606::
600:9
562:.
542::
489:.
477::
291:(
272:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
