698:. Originally rats, now more commonly mice, were placed in an open pool and the latency to escape was measured for up to six trials a day for 2–14 days. Several variables are used to evaluate an animal's performance. For example, a "probe trial" measures how long the test subject spends in the "target quadrant" (the quadrant with the hidden platform). More elaborate trials alter the location of the hidden platform, or measure distance spent swimming in the pool before reaching the platform. Over the years, many different versions of this test have been performed with a large amount of variables. For example, neuroscientists examine the effect of differences of sex, weight, strength, stress levels, age, and strain of species. The results vary dramatically, so researchers cannot draw conclusions unless these variables are kept constant. Many different size pools have been used throughout the history of this task, but it has been shown that this does not have a significant impact on the results of the test. In early versions of the task, researchers only timed latency to escape, however video tracking devices are now routinely used to measure the path to escape, time spent in each quadrant, and distance traveled in the pool.
721:, which is the time it takes to find the platform. However, this measure is confounded by swimming speed, not necessarily a cognitive factor, and path length between point of origin and platform is a parameter more closely related to spatial learning. Further parameters are the Gallagher measure, the average distance to the platform, and the Whishaw corridor test, which measures time and path in a strip directly leading from swim-start to platform. Other parameters are measured during probe trials: the escape platform is removed and the mice or rats are allowed to search for it for a fixed time (often 60 seconds). Variables measured are time and path length in quadrants, time near platform, and platform crossings.
747:. The T-maze and radial arm maze are much more structured in comparison. The T-maze, for instance, only requires the rat or mouse to make a binary decision, choose left or right (or East or West). In the Morris water navigation task, on the other hand, the animal needs to decide continually where to go. Another reason this task became popular is that rats (but not mice) are natural swimmers, but dislike colder water (mice simply dislike water of any temperature), so in order to perform the task they do not need to be motivated by food deprivation or electrical shock. The mobility of the platform allows for experiments on learning and relearning. Also, the apparatus set-up and costs are relatively low.
657:. It enables learning, memory, and spatial working to be studied with great accuracy, and can also be used to assess damage to particular cortical regions of the brain. It is used by neuroscientists to measure the effect of neurocognitive disorders on spatial learning and possible neural treatments, to test the effect of lesions to the brain in areas concerned with memory, and to study how age influences cognitive function and spatial learning. The task is also used as a tool to study drug-abuse, neural systems, neurotransmitters, and brain development.
674:
environment in which they were raised, exposure to drugs, etc. There are three basic tactics for the rats to escape the maze: a praxic strategy (remembering the movements needed to get to the platform), a taxic strategy (the rat uses visual cues to reach their destinations), or spatial strategy (using distal cues as points of reference to locate themselves). There are a variety of paradigms for the water maze that can be used to examine different cognitive functions. In particular,
135:
36:
666:
154:
760:, the tendency of animals to stay close to the walls of the pool. About 20% of the variability was explained by differing tendencies of mice to float passively in the water until "rescued" by the experimenter. Differences in spatial memory were only the third factor, explaining just 13% of the variation between animals' performance.
755:
When the searching times for the platform in the target quadrant are reduced in the probe trial, this is seen as direct evidence that the spatial memory of the rat must be impaired. However, many times the reason for a lengthier amount of time spent looking for the platform, or the lack of searching
706:
In Morris' first experiment, the apparatus was a large circular pool, 1.30 m across and 0.60 m high. The purpose of the original experiment was to show that spatial learning does not require the presence of local cues, meaning that rats can learn to locate an object without any auditory, visual, or
673:
The basic procedure for the Morris water navigation task is that the rat is placed in a large circular pool and is required to find an invisible or visible platform that allows it to escape the water by using various cues. Many factors can influence the rats' performance, including their sex, the
756:
in the target quadrant, has nothing to do with an effect on the rat's spatial memory, but is actually due to other factors. A large study of performance in mice concluded that almost half of all variance in performance scores was due to differences in
454:
338:
419:
414:
387:
474:
53:
469:
194:
1607:
Whishaw, IQ (October 1985). "Cholinergic receptor blockade in the rat impairs locale but not taxon strategies for place navigation in a swimming pool".
622:
290:
204:
1385:
Van Dam, D; Lenders, G; De Deyn, PP (March 2006). "Effect of Morris water maze diameter on visual-spatial learning in different mouse strains".
1706:
1645:
Whishaw, I.Q. (1995). "A comparison of rats and mice in a swimming pool place task and matching to place task: some surprising differences".
464:
247:
100:
694:) in 1981 as an alternative to the radial maze. The test was developed to study spatial learning and how it differed from other forms of
72:
1387:
1004:
1240:
449:
459:
119:
79:
1768:
1176:
Saab, BJ; Saab AMP; Roder JC (May 2011). "Statistical and theoretical considerations for the platform re-location water maze".
237:
86:
1098:
Brandeis, R; Brandys, Y; Yehuda, S (September 1989). "The use of the Morris Water Maze in the study of memory and learning".
849:
Morris, RG; Garrud, P; Rawlins, JN; O'Keefe, J (24 June 1982). "Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions".
494:
429:
174:
57:
1763:
504:
323:
955:
Wongwitdecha, N; Marsden, CA (9 April 1996). "Effects of social isolation rearing on learning in the Morris water maze".
68:
615:
209:
300:
1133:
D'Hooge, R.; De Deyn PP (August 2001). "Applications of the Morris water maze in the study of learning and memory".
806:
D'Hooge, R; De Deyn, PP (August 2001). "Applications of the Morris water maze in the study of learning and memory".
439:
368:
189:
179:
46:
645:
257:
252:
199:
184:
1345:
Morgan, D; Buccafusco, JJ (2009). "Water Maze Tasks in Mice: Special
Reference to Alzheimer's Transgenic Mice".
691:
382:
1647:
1477:
650:
608:
595:
585:
479:
424:
242:
590:
295:
93:
1297:
Morris, R (May 1984). "Developments of a water-maze procedure for studying spatial learning in the rat".
1448:
1358:
717:
675:
333:
858:
695:
499:
678:
can be assessed using a water maze paradigm in which the hidden platform is continually re-located.
1672:
1538:
1412:
1322:
1266:
1254:
1220:
1201:
1158:
980:
882:
831:
779:
363:
214:
743:, the Morris water navigation task is supposed to measure spatial memory, movement control, and
1475:
Morris, R.G.M. (May 1981). "Spatial localization does not require the presence of local cues".
1739:
1702:
1664:
1624:
1589:
1530:
1436:
1404:
1346:
1314:
1246:
1236:
1193:
1150:
1115:
1080:
1051:"Morris water maze: procedures for assessing spatial and related forms of learning and memory"
1031:
972:
934:
874:
823:
687:
567:
1731:
1656:
1616:
1579:
1569:
1520:
1486:
1396:
1306:
1228:
1185:
1142:
1107:
1070:
1062:
1021:
1013:
964:
924:
916:
866:
815:
444:
377:
344:
318:
275:
17:
1525:
1508:
1461:
1371:
1278:
998:
Mendez, IA; Montgomery, KS; LaSarge, CL; Simon, NW; Bizon, JL; Setlow, B (February 2008).
740:
537:
532:
138:
Schematic drawing of the Morris water navigation test for rats. Size and marker may vary.
862:
1693:(1999). "Methodological considerations for testing learning in mice". In Crusio, W.E.;
1584:
1557:
1075:
1050:
1026:
999:
929:
904:
654:
557:
552:
489:
328:
285:
169:
145:
1146:
819:
1757:
1735:
1694:
1660:
1490:
1310:
1258:
968:
744:
542:
527:
396:
280:
1676:
1542:
1416:
1205:
984:
1326:
1189:
1162:
886:
835:
562:
547:
1722:
Hodges, H (June 1996). "Maze procedures: the radial-arm and water maze compared".
1232:
774:
757:
219:
35:
1620:
1690:
1574:
1435:
Terry AV, Jr; Buccafusco, JJ (2009). "Spatial
Navigation (Water Maze) Tasks".
1400:
1111:
1017:
1000:"Long-term effects of prior cocaine exposure on Morris water maze performance"
920:
769:
730:
665:
434:
134:
1225:
Assessment of
Spatial Memory Using the Radial Arm Maze and Morris Water Maze
649:), is a behavioral procedure mostly used with rodents. It is widely used in
522:
392:
1593:
1534:
1440:
1408:
1350:
1250:
1197:
1154:
1084:
1066:
1035:
938:
827:
1743:
1668:
1628:
1558:"What is the Most Sensitive Measure of Water Maze Probe Test Performance?"
1318:
1119:
976:
878:
484:
1699:
Handbook of molecular-genetic techniques for brain and behavior research
373:
153:
870:
736:
1509:"Spatial Memory and Learning in Transgenic Mice: Fact or Artifact?"
1507:
Wolfer, DP; Stagljar-Bozicevic, M; Errington, ML; Lipp, HP (1998).
664:
133:
27:
Task used in experiments to measure spatial learning and memory
29:
1556:
Maei HR, Zaslavsky K, Teixeira CM, Frankland PW (2009).
903:
Sharma, S; Rakoczy, S; Brown-Borg, H (23 October 2010).
1701:(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 638–651.
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
950:
948:
686:The Morris water navigation task was conceived by
1227:. Vol. Chapter 8. pp. 8.5A.1–8.5A.12.
669:A rat undergoing a Morris water navigation test
1340:
1338:
1336:
1292:
1290:
1288:
616:
475:Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
8:
1430:
1428:
1426:
898:
896:
801:
799:
797:
795:
1640:
1638:
623:
609:
141:
1583:
1573:
1524:
1502:
1500:
1100:The International Journal of Neuroscience
1074:
1025:
928:
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1724:Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research
1049:Vorhees, C; Williams, M (27 July 2006).
205:Pain and suffering in laboratory animals
791:
576:
513:
405:
354:
309:
266:
228:
160:
144:
1526:10.1152/physiologyonline.1998.13.3.118
1457:
1446:
1367:
1356:
1274:
1264:
1135:Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews
905:"Assessment of spatial memory in mice"
808:Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews
735:Like other spatial tasks, such as the
7:
715:The earliest measure of learning is
465:New England Anti-Vivisection Society
58:adding citations to reliable sources
1388:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
1005:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
450:Foundation for Biomedical Research
25:
460:National Anti-Vivisection Society
152:
34:
1299:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
1178:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
291:Animals (Scientific Procedures)
45:needs additional citations for
1513:News in Physiological Sciences
1190:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.03.008
430:Americans for Medical Progress
175:Alternatives to animal testing
69:"Morris water navigation task"
1:
1233:10.1002/0471142301.ns0805as26
1147:10.1016/S0165-0173(01)00067-4
820:10.1016/S0165-0173(01)00067-4
505:Understanding Animal Research
324:Cambridge University primates
1736:10.1016/0926-6410(96)00004-3
1661:10.1016/0031-9384(95)00110-5
1491:10.1016/0023-9690(81)90020-5
1311:10.1016/0165-0270(84)90007-4
969:10.1016/0006-8993(95)01578-7
637:Morris water navigation task
210:Testing cosmetics on animals
18:Morris water navigation test
655:spatial learning and memory
301:International primate trade
1785:
1621:10.1037/0735-7044.99.5.979
728:
440:Cruelty Free International
369:Charles River Laboratories
190:History of model organisms
180:Animal testing regulations
1648:Physiology & Behavior
1575:10.3389/neuro.07.004.2009
1401:10.1016/j.nlm.2005.09.006
1112:10.3109/00207458909002151
1018:10.1016/j.nlm.2007.08.005
921:10.1016/j.lfs.2010.09.004
643:(not to be confused with
200:Laboratory animal sources
185:History of animal testing
725:Comparison to maze tasks
692:University of St Andrews
383:Huntingdon Life Sciences
339:UCR 1985 laboratory raid
1769:Behavioral neuroscience
1609:Behavioral Neuroscience
1478:Learning and Motivation
651:behavioral neuroscience
480:Primate Freedom Project
388:UK lab animal suppliers
1456:Cite journal requires
1366:Cite journal requires
1223:; et al. (eds.).
1067:10.1038/nprot.2006.116
670:
296:Great ape research ban
139:
1562:Front Integr Neurosci
1221:Jacqueline N. Crawley
1219:Wenk, GL (May 2004).
676:cognitive flexibility
668:
334:Silver Spring monkeys
137:
1764:Animal testing mazes
696:associative learning
639:, also known as the
500:Speaking of Research
54:improve this article
863:1982Natur.297..681M
702:Original experiment
780:Elevated plus maze
671:
364:Jackson Laboratory
215:Toxicology testing
140:
1708:978-0-444-50239-1
915:(17–18): 521–36.
745:cognitive mapping
688:Richard G. Morris
641:Morris water maze
633:
632:
568:Syed Ziaur Rahman
514:Writers/activists
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
1776:
1748:
1747:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1587:
1577:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1528:
1504:
1495:
1494:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1444:
1432:
1421:
1420:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1354:
1342:
1331:
1330:
1294:
1283:
1282:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1262:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1078:
1055:Nature Protocols
1046:
1040:
1039:
1029:
995:
989:
988:
952:
943:
942:
932:
900:
891:
890:
871:10.1038/297681a0
846:
840:
839:
803:
707:olfactory cues.
625:
618:
611:
445:Dr. Hadwen Trust
406:Groups/campaigns
345:Unnecessary Fuss
319:Brown Dog affair
276:Medical research
156:
142:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1730:(3–4): 167–81.
1721:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1644:
1643:
1636:
1615:(5): 979–1005.
1606:
1605:
1601:
1555:
1554:
1550:
1506:
1505:
1498:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1455:
1445:
1434:
1433:
1424:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1365:
1355:
1344:
1343:
1334:
1296:
1295:
1286:
1273:
1263:
1243:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1048:
1047:
1043:
997:
996:
992:
963:(1–2): 119–24.
954:
953:
946:
902:
901:
894:
857:(5868): 681–3.
848:
847:
843:
805:
804:
793:
788:
766:
753:
741:radial arm maze
733:
727:
713:
704:
684:
663:
629:
600:
572:
538:Colin Blakemore
533:Neal D. Barnard
509:
401:
350:
305:
262:
224:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1782:
1780:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1714:
1707:
1682:
1655:(4): 687–693.
1634:
1599:
1548:
1519:(3): 118–123.
1496:
1485:(2): 239–260.
1467:
1458:|journal=
1422:
1377:
1368:|journal=
1332:
1284:
1275:|journal=
1242:978-0471142300
1241:
1211:
1168:
1125:
1106:(1–2): 29–69.
1090:
1041:
990:
957:Brain Research
944:
892:
841:
790:
789:
787:
784:
783:
782:
777:
772:
765:
762:
752:
749:
726:
723:
718:escape latency
712:
709:
703:
700:
683:
680:
662:
659:
631:
630:
628:
627:
620:
613:
605:
602:
601:
599:
598:
596:Animal welfare
593:
588:
586:Animal testing
582:
579:
578:
574:
573:
571:
570:
565:
560:
558:Bernard Rollin
555:
553:Ingrid Newkirk
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
519:
516:
515:
511:
510:
508:
507:
502:
497:
492:
490:SPEAK campaign
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
411:
408:
407:
403:
402:
400:
399:
390:
385:
380:
371:
366:
360:
357:
356:
352:
351:
349:
348:
341:
336:
331:
329:Pit of despair
326:
321:
315:
312:
311:
307:
306:
304:
303:
298:
293:
288:
286:Animal welfare
283:
278:
272:
269:
268:
264:
263:
261:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
234:
231:
230:
226:
225:
223:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
170:Animal testing
166:
163:
162:
158:
157:
149:
148:
146:Animal testing
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1781:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1649:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1471:
1468:
1463:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1395:(2): 164–72.
1394:
1390:
1389:
1381:
1378:
1373:
1360:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1268:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1129:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1061:(2): 848–58.
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1012:(2): 185–91.
1011:
1007:
1006:
1001:
994:
991:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
951:
949:
945:
940:
936:
931:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
909:Life Sciences
906:
899:
897:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
842:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
802:
800:
798:
796:
792:
785:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
767:
763:
761:
759:
750:
748:
746:
742:
738:
732:
724:
722:
720:
719:
710:
708:
701:
699:
697:
693:
690:(then at the
689:
681:
679:
677:
667:
660:
658:
656:
652:
648:
647:
642:
638:
626:
621:
619:
614:
612:
607:
606:
604:
603:
597:
594:
592:
591:Animal rights
589:
587:
584:
583:
581:
580:
575:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
543:Simon Festing
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
528:Michael Balls
526:
524:
521:
520:
518:
517:
512:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
412:
410:
409:
404:
398:
397:Shamrock Farm
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
361:
359:
358:
353:
347:
346:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
314:
313:
308:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
281:Animal rights
279:
277:
274:
273:
271:
270:
265:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
238:Invertebrates
236:
235:
233:
232:
227:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
167:
165:
164:
161:Main articles
159:
155:
151:
150:
147:
143:
136:
132:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1698:
1695:Gerlai, R.T.
1685:
1652:
1646:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1565:
1561:
1551:
1516:
1512:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1449:cite journal
1392:
1386:
1380:
1359:cite journal
1305:(1): 47–60.
1302:
1298:
1224:
1214:
1184:(1): 44–52.
1181:
1177:
1171:
1141:(1): 60–90.
1138:
1134:
1128:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1058:
1054:
1044:
1009:
1003:
993:
960:
956:
912:
908:
854:
850:
844:
814:(1): 60–90.
811:
807:
754:
734:
716:
714:
705:
685:
672:
644:
640:
636:
634:
563:Jerry Vlasak
548:Gill Langley
343:
131:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1691:Crusio, Wim
775:Barnes maze
758:thigmotaxis
220:Vivisection
1758:Categories
786:References
770:Oasis maze
751:Weaknesses
731:Oasis maze
729:See also:
646:water maze
577:Categories
435:Boyd Group
229:Testing on
110:April 2009
80:newspapers
1277:ignored (
1267:cite book
1259:205151857
653:to study
523:Tipu Aziz
393:Nafovanny
355:Companies
1697:(eds.).
1677:11764808
1594:19404412
1543:10771826
1535:11390774
1441:21204326
1417:19824659
1409:16290194
1351:21204327
1251:18428607
1206:33909927
1198:21419797
1155:11516773
1085:17406317
1036:17904876
985:12321749
939:20837032
828:11516773
764:See also
711:Analysis
661:Overview
485:Pro-Test
248:Primates
1744:8806020
1669:8559777
1629:3843314
1585:2659169
1327:8292701
1319:6471907
1163:2651456
1120:2684886
1076:2895266
1027:2258220
977:8739630
930:6457258
887:4242147
879:7088155
859:Bibcode
836:2651456
682:History
374:Covance
258:Rodents
253:Rabbits
94:scholar
1742:
1705:
1675:
1667:
1627:
1592:
1582:
1541:
1533:
1439:
1415:
1407:
1349:
1325:
1317:
1257:
1249:
1239:
1204:
1196:
1161:
1153:
1118:
1083:
1073:
1034:
1024:
983:
975:
937:
927:
885:
877:
851:Nature
834:
826:
737:T-maze
378:Harlan
267:Issues
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1673:S2CID
1568:: 4.
1539:S2CID
1413:S2CID
1323:S2CID
1255:S2CID
1202:S2CID
1159:S2CID
981:S2CID
883:S2CID
832:S2CID
455:FRAME
415:AALAS
310:Cases
243:Frogs
195:IACUC
101:JSTOR
87:books
1740:PMID
1703:ISBN
1665:PMID
1625:PMID
1590:PMID
1531:PMID
1462:help
1437:PMID
1405:PMID
1372:help
1347:PMID
1315:PMID
1279:help
1247:PMID
1237:ISBN
1194:PMID
1151:PMID
1116:PMID
1081:PMID
1032:PMID
973:PMID
935:PMID
875:PMID
824:PMID
739:and
635:The
495:SHAC
470:PETA
420:AAAS
73:news
1732:doi
1657:doi
1617:doi
1580:PMC
1570:doi
1521:doi
1487:doi
1397:doi
1307:doi
1229:doi
1186:doi
1182:198
1143:doi
1108:doi
1071:PMC
1063:doi
1022:PMC
1014:doi
965:doi
961:715
925:PMC
917:doi
867:doi
855:297
816:doi
425:ALF
56:by
1760::
1738:.
1726:.
1671:.
1663:.
1653:58
1651:.
1637:^
1623:.
1613:99
1611:.
1588:.
1578:.
1564:.
1560:.
1537:.
1529:.
1517:13
1515:.
1511:.
1499:^
1483:12
1481:.
1453::
1451:}}
1447:{{
1425:^
1411:.
1403:.
1393:85
1391:.
1363::
1361:}}
1357:{{
1335:^
1321:.
1313:.
1303:11
1301:.
1287:^
1271::
1269:}}
1265:{{
1253:.
1245:.
1235:.
1200:.
1192:.
1180:.
1157:.
1149:.
1139:36
1137:.
1114:.
1104:48
1102:.
1079:.
1069:.
1057:.
1053:.
1030:.
1020:.
1010:89
1008:.
1002:.
979:.
971:.
959:.
947:^
933:.
923:.
913:87
911:.
907:.
895:^
881:.
873:.
865:.
853:.
830:.
822:.
812:36
810:.
794:^
395:,
376:,
1746:.
1734::
1728:3
1711:.
1679:.
1659::
1631:.
1619::
1596:.
1572::
1566:3
1545:.
1523::
1493:.
1489::
1464:)
1460:(
1443:.
1419:.
1399::
1374:)
1370:(
1353:.
1329:.
1309::
1281:)
1261:.
1231::
1208:.
1188::
1165:.
1145::
1122:.
1110::
1087:.
1065::
1059:1
1038:.
1016::
987:.
967::
941:.
919::
889:.
869::
861::
838:.
818::
624:e
617:t
610:v
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
