Navigation - Knowledge (XXG)

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as an informed search. In target approximation, on the other hand, the location of the destination is known to the navigator but a further distinction is made based on whether the navigator knows how to arrive or not to the destination. Path following means that the environment, the path, and the destination are all known which means that the navigator simply follows the path they already know and arrive at the destination without much thought. For example, when you are in your city and walking on the same path as you normally take from your house to your job or university. However, path finding means that the navigator knows where the destination is but does not know the route they have to take to arrive at the destination: you know where a specific store is but you do not know how to arrive there or what path to take. If the navigator does not know the environment, it is called path search which means that only the destination is known while neither the path nor the environment is: you are in a new city and need to arrive at the train station but do not know how to get there. Path planning, on the other hand, means that the navigator knows both where the destination is and is familiar with the environment so they only need to plan the route or path that they should take to arrive at their target. For example, if you are in your city and need to get to a specific store that you know the destination of but do not know the specific path you need to take to get there.

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triangular structure with a pivot at the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc", at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc". The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low power telescope. One mirror, referred to as the "index mirror" is fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc indicates the measured angle ("altitude").

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and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart. A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix. Types of radar fixes include "range and bearing to a single object," "two or more bearings," "tangent bearings," and "two or more ranges." Radar can also be used with

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position themselves, typically with the aid of electronic position fixing. While the military navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at all. If the ship is equipped with an

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Directed wayfinding, instead, can be further subdivided into search vs. target approximation. Search means that a person does not know where the destination is located and must find it either in an unfamiliar environment, which is labeled as an uninformed search, or in a familiar environment, labeled

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Navigation can be distinguished into two sptial components: locomotion and wayfinding. Locomotion is the process of movement from one place to another, both in humans and in animals. Locomotion helps you understand an environment by moving through a space in order to create a mental representation of

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The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of one year on a single set of batteries. Observations may be timed and ship's clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time and taken to the bridge wing for recording sight times. In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the

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A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people. A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, while the civilian navigator on a merchant ship or leisure craft must often take and plot their

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information on the route. In the next stage, the written plan is created. The third stage is the execution of the finalised voyage plan, taking into account any special circumstances which may arise such as changes in the weather, which may require the plan to be reviewed or altered. The final stage

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Other techniques that are less used in general navigation have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position. Another special technique, known as the Franklin

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The first inertial system is considered to be the V-2 guidance system deployed by the Germans in 1942. However, inertial sensors are traced to the early 19th century. The advantages INSs led their use in aircraft, missiles, surface ships and submarines. For example, the U.S. Navy developed the Ships

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Advantages over other navigation systems are that, once aligned, an INS does not require outside information. An INS is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed. Its disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions and

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In navigation, a rhumb line (or loxodrome) is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path derived from a defined initial bearing. That is, upon taking an initial bearing, one proceeds along the same bearing, without changing the direction as measured relative to true or

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Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning. Integrated systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course. The navigator becomes a system

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is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That height can then be used to compute distance from the subpoint to create a circular line of position. A navigator shoots a number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position. Where they intersect is the

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Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating an aircraft by visual reference to landmarks, or a water vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals. More so than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are

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Radar is an effective aid to navigation because it provides ranges and bearings to objects within range of the radar scanner. When a vessel (ship or boat) is within radar range of land or fixed objects (such as special radar aids to navigation and navigation marks) the navigator can take distances

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The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary assemblies. The frame is a rigid

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In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if possible) must be recorded. Each second of error is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the equator is a position error of .25 of a nautical mile, about the accuracy limit of

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The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes the index mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the

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were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century. For about a hundred years, from about 1767 until about 1850, mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time to find their longitude. A mariner with a chronometer

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The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for celestial observations. A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure on the mainspring, and a special

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is defined as an active process of following or deciding upon a path between one place to another through mental representations. It involves processes such as representation, planning and decision which help to avoid obstacles, to stay on course or to regulate pace when approaching particular

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Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index correction". Index correction should be checked, using the horizon or more preferably a star, each time the sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a

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A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals. The difference between GMT and chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer

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in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four-mile (6 km)

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type of navigation system that computes its position based on motion sensors. Before actually navigating, the initial latitude and longitude and the INS's physical orientation relative to the Earth (e.g., north and level) are established. After alignment, an INS receives impulses from motion

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have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy. They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals. This eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections. Should the second hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset

1263:, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to 1140:, an Inertial navigation system, and via celestial inputs entered by astronauts which were recorded by sextant and telescope. Space rated navigational computers, like those found on Apollo and later missions, are designed to be hardened against possible data corruption from radiation. 988:. Such systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating Earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above the observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that subpoint. A 612:

A line of position can refer to two different things, either a line on a chart or a line between the observer and an object in real life. A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object. If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a

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navigators for civilians who own them. Overuse of these devices, whether in the vehicle or on foot, can lead to a relative inability to learn about navigated environments, resulting in sub-optimal navigation abilities when and if these devices become unavailable. Typically a

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Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship stays on its planned course. During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn line.

1370:. The line on the radar screen is set to a specific distance and angle, then the ship's position relative to the parallel line is observed. This can provide an immediate reference to the navigator as to whether the ship is on or off its intended course for navigation. 1111:

motion sensors, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. Inertial navigation systems must therefore be frequently corrected with a location 'fix' from some other type of navigation system.

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with charitable status, aimed at furthering the development of navigation on land and sea, in the air and in space. It was founded in 1947 as a forum for mariners, pilots, engineers and academics to compare their experiences and exchange information. In the US, the

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Methods of navigation have changed through history. Each new method has enhanced the mariner's ability to complete his voyage. One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use. Some types of navigation are depicted in the table.

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detectors that measure (a) the acceleration along three axes (accelerometers), and (b) rate of rotation about three orthogonal axes (gyroscopes). These enable an INS to continually and accurately calculate its current latitude and longitude (and often velocity).

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The basic element for time generation is a quartz crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal is temperature compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope. A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal.

1968:, there are four levels of space with the third being the environmental space. The environmental space represents a very large space, like a city, and can only be fully explored through movement since all objects and space are not directly visible. Also 949:

is aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon, further easing the workload. But should the ECDIS fail, the navigator will have to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures.

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Passage planning or voyage planning is a procedure to develop a complete description of vessel's voyage from start to finish. The plan includes leaving the dock and harbor area, the en route portion of a voyage, approaching the destination, and

2001:, etc., in their navigation process which generally involves low spatial reasoning and is less cognitively demanding. Unaided wayfinding involves no such devices for the person who is navigating. Unaided wayfinding can be subdivided into a 1226:

series of letters, which the RDF can tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities.

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of the human body and its extensions: above/below, front/back and left/right. Tversky ultimately proposed a fourfold classification of navigable space: space of the body, space around the body, space of navigation and space of graphics.

945:, it is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally. If a 1710:

The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as ascertaining risks and assessing the key features of the voyage. This will involve considering the type of navigation required e.g.

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is a factor in 80 percent of navigational accidents and that in many cases the human making the error had access to information that could have prevented the accident. The practice of voyage planning has evolved from penciling lines on

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A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations. In this case, the watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain GMT of the sight.

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or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for

112:. Early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another. Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the 1298:

radio transmitters that use the time interval between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the

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In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects. On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position. Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position.

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In land navigation, courses and training is often provided to young persons as part of general or extra-curricular education. Land navigation is also an essential part of army training. Additionally, organisations such as the

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The day's work in navigation is a minimal set of tasks consistent with prudent navigation. The definition will vary on military and civilian vessels, and from ship to ship, but the traditional method takes a form resembling:

1366:. This technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance. This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from 1081:

observer's eye through the telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass.

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being the primary replacement. However, there are attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals.

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The Handbook Of The SAS And Elite Forces. How The Professionals Fight And Win. Edited by Jon E. Lewis. p.363-Tactics And Techniques, Personal Skills And Techniques. Robinson Publishing Ltd 1997. ISBN 1-85487-675-9

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Navigation is an essential everyday activity that involves a series of abilities that help humans and animals to locate, track, and follow paths in order to arrive at different destinations. Navigation, in

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Not to be confused with satellite navigation, which depends upon satellites to function, space navigation refers to the navigation of spacecraft themselves. This has historically been achieved (during the

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of tasks depending on whether it is undirected or directed, which basically makes the distinction of whether there is a precise destination or not: undirected wayfinding means that a person is simply

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the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997, and all stations ceased operation.

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source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land.

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and using sight reduction tables to correct for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, within a degree or so.

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is the discipline of following a route through terrain on foot or by vehicle, using maps with reference to terrain, a compass, and other basic navigational tools and/or using landmarks and signs.

2413:...what I have stated, will serve to show the absolute necessity of having firstrate chronometers, or the lunar observations carefully attended to; and never omitted to be taken when practicable. 1196:

and listening for the direction in which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on

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organisations are a type of sports that require navigational skills using a map and compass to navigate from point to point in diverse and usually unfamiliar terrain whilst moving at speed.

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celestial fix. The Moon and Sun may also be used. The Sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local noon) to determine a position.

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accuracy when fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across the North Pole to Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines.

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systems (GPS) became available. INSs are still in common use on submarines (since GPS reception or other fix sources are not possible while submerged) and long-range missiles.

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relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on finding intersecting

553:. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. Lacking that, one can use a 855:

uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar's use as a collision avoidance system.

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All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with a radio time signal. Times and frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as

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with varying curvature in this projection; but are actually circular with different radii. All locations with a given latitude are collectively referred to as a

1707:), and a number of professional books or publications. There are some fifty elements of a comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel. 890:

By mental navigation checks, a pilot or a navigator estimates tracks, distances, and altitudes which will then help the pilot avoid gross navigation errors.

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Since the first experimental satellite was launched in 1978, GPS has become an indispensable aid to navigation around the world, and an important tool for

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led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The

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Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small

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750 million per year, including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a

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program to ensure a reliable and accurate navigation system to initial its missile guidance systems. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until

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of passage planning consists of monitoring the vessel's progress in relation to the plan and responding to deviations and unforeseen circumstances.

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involves navigating in restricted/coastal waters with frequent determination of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.

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is probably the earliest form of open-ocean navigation; it was based on memory and observation recorded on scientific instruments like the

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Professional organisations also assist to encourage improvements in navigation or bring together navigators in learned environments. The

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important. Procedures vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels. As pilotage takes place in

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Noontime meridian or ex-meridian observation of the Sun for noon latitude line. Running fix or cross with Venus line for noon fix.

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There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse.

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Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: in the U.S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832–3–4

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There are two types of wayfinding in navigation: aided and unaided. Aided wayfinding requires a person to use various types of

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with varying curvature in this projection, but are actually halves of great ellipses, with identical radii at a given latitude.

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rolling ship, often through cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation.

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Computation of the interval to noon, watch time of local apparent noon, and constants for meridian or ex-meridian sights.

5335: 4405: 3922: 109: 5104: 4723: 4629: 4228: 3781: 1704: 558: 20: 3901: 3867: 1872:(ION) is a non-profit professional organisation advancing the art and science of positioning, navigation and timing. 5084: 4940: 4701: 4262: 4196: 1818:

Professional standards for navigation depend on the type of navigation and vary by country. For marine navigation,

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and these guidelines are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries (for example, Title 33 of the U.S.

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Gardony, Aaron L. (June 2015). "Navigational Aids and Spatial Memory Impairment: The Role of Divided Attention".

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Passage planning consists of four stages: appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring, which are specified in

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is legally responsible for passage planning, however on larger vessels, the task will be delegated to the ship's

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Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and

5220: 5024: 4891: 4786: 4479: 1495:, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The 1451: 1137: 713: 643: 4063: 4058: 2877:

Gardony, Aaron L (April 2013). "How Navigational Aids Impair Spatial Memory: Evidence for Divided Attention".

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when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with

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systematized the space, but this time taking into consideration the three dimensions that correspond to the

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are available on navigation, which are published by professional sources all over the world. In the UK, the

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terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each other,

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started during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century. The Portuguese began systematically exploring the

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Take two or more star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe six stars).

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Take two or more star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe six stars).

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provide numerous navigational publications, including the comprehensive Admiralty Manual of Navigation.

1889: 1777: 1315:, and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in the same frequency range, called 1193: 1152: 799: 440: 152:. The earliest known description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Spanish cosmographer 105: 87: 4568: 4523: 4503: 1829:. Leisure and amateur mariners may undertake lessons in navigation at local/regional training schools. 291: 48:

from one place to another. The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation,

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Poor passage planning and deviation from the plan can lead to groundings, ship damage and cargo loss.

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An Analysis Of Navigational Instruments In The Age Of Exploration: 15th Century To Mid-17th century

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Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the

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An illustration showing a compass used for navigation from Bowditch's American Practical Navigator

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Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another

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If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position. A

3551: 1642:. It may also take place in adjacent space, where chart tables and publications are available. 5281: 4805: 4576: 4332: 4257: 3873: 3803: 3763: 3733: 3712: 3693: 3639: 3620: 3571: 3515: 3474: 3436: 3428: 3382: 3332: 3286: 3239: 3231: 2952: 2817: 2740: 2569: 2510: 2395: 2385: 2186: 2147: 2126: 2085: 2053: 1965: 1957: 1921: 1754: 1737:

manager, choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.

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in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and after several stopovers rounded the southern tip of

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to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's

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is a next generation GNSS in the final deployment phase, and became operational in 2016.

2705:"NASA's Got a Plan for a 'Galactic Positioning System' to Save Astronauts Lost in Space" 2340: 2313: 1355:

as a means of position fixing with the radar image or distance/bearing overlaid onto an

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Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the

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and the Philippines. By then, only two galleons were left from the original seven. The

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The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods.

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readings. Spring-driven chronometers must be wound at about the same time each day.

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is 90° S. Mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the

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is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the

3727: 3328: 2890: 2389: 2171: 286:, but was unsuccessful. The eastward route across the Pacific, also known as the 5009: 4119: 3983: 3973: 2006: 1716: 1681: 1518: 1469: 1405: 1389: 712:, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An 251: 140:

dating from 1295. The perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to

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At least one afternoon Sun line, in case the stars are not visible at twilight.

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Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the

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In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of

75: 31: 3861:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 703–704. 3833:. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 284–298. 3786:(7th ed.). Bethesda, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from 3575: 3519: 3511: 3432: 3235: 2660:"An historical perspective on inertial navigation systems", Daniel Tazartes, 2507:

The Handbook of the SAS and Elite Forces. How the Professionals Fight and Win

1761:", short for satellite navigation), as well as any means available on water. 631:

If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the

282:

sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a maritime path back to the

4774: 4342: 4299: 4104: 4000: 1911:

is a free available encyclopedia of navigation issued by the US Government.

1773: 1674: 1473: 1417: 1393: 1362:

Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book

1280: 1242: 1058: 775:

involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables,

512: 492: 366: 117: 56: 3787: 3440: 3290: 3243: 2357:

Chronometers were not regularly supplied to the Royal Navy until about 1825

1185:

A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to a

964: 766: 3470: 3211: 3064:

Standards of Training and Certification of Watchkeeping' (STCW) Convention

1461:, transmitting signals allowing GPS receivers to determine the receiver's 996:

are used to compute the subpoint on Earth a celestial body is over, and a

846: 5299: 5266: 5129: 5124: 4876: 4749: 4639: 3893: 2002: 1925: 1838: 1750: 1401: 1397: 899: 732: 638:

Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources:

466: 383: 299: 294:

sailed from the Philippines, north to parallel 39°, and hit the eastward

283: 180: 3357: 1203:

aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas most

1143:

Another possibility that has been explored for deep space navigation is

873:

uses a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) to determine position.

5376: 5230: 5149: 5079: 4886: 4759: 4661: 4656: 4489: 4458: 4431: 4124: 4109: 3938: 1527: 1435: 1260: 1238: 1197: 1071: 1066:

is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon.

1063: 997: 834: 617:

and the navigator will be somewhere on that bearing line on the chart.

578:

could check its reading using a lunar determination of Greenwich time.

554: 500: 496: 480: 472: 413: 349: 267: 238:

The first circumnavigation of the earth was completed in 1522 with the

176: 45: 3125: 1833:

officers receive navigation training as part of their naval training.

1210:

In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of

904: 55:

It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by

5256: 5215: 5154: 4754: 4666: 4651: 4646: 3550:

Wiener, Jan M.; Büchner, Simon J.; Hölscher, Christoph (2009-05-20).

3424: 3315:

Montello, Daniel R. (2005-07-18), Shah, Priti; Miyake, Akira (eds.),

1758: 1432: 1316: 981: 709: 538: 266:. Some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet continued across the 208: 184: 116:

first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. Although

41: 3227: 2662:

2014 International Symposium on Inertial Sensors and Systems (ISISS)

2638:"How Did Aviators "Shoot" the Sun and Stars? | Time and Navigation" 968:

A celestial fix will be at the intersection of two or more circles.

840:

Availability has declined due to the development of accurate GNSS.

5381: 2043: 1879: 1727: 1656: 1655: 1539: 1447: 1413: 1352: 1341: 1312: 1304: 1207:

aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing.

1186: 1162: 1057: 963: 942: 930: 903: 358: 311: 259: 232: 220: 25: 3818: 5144: 5134: 4088: 3552:"Taxonomy of Human Wayfinding Tasks: A Knowledge-Based Approach" 1830: 1732:

Integrated Bridge System, integrated on an Offshore Service Ship

1148: 977: 271: 224: 5174: 5013: 4185: 4181: 3911: 3783:

Publication 1310: Radar Navigation and Maneuvering Board Manual

1745:

Navigation for cars and other land-based travel typically uses

917:, it typically involves following courses to ensure sufficient 4602: 3846: 1990: 1765: 1746: 1547: 1522: 1346:

Radar ranges and bearings can be used to determine a position.

973: 354: 104:, none of which were used for long voyages across open ocean. 1625:

Noontime determination the day's run and day's set and drift.

1241:

are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a

3462:

Space and Spatial Cognition: A Multidisciplinary Perspective

3323:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 257–294, 783:. It is primarily used at sea but can also be used on land. 404: 3496:"Structures Of Mental Spaces: How People Think About Space" 1825:

are trained and internationally certified according to the

1020:

balance designed to compensate for temperature variations.

569:, can be used to calculate the time at zero longitude (see 242:, a Spanish voyage of discovery led by Portuguese explorer 3907: 2951:. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Berlin. pp. 238–254. 1631:

Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun.

1616:

Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun.

3802:(4th ed.). Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. 3383:"Cognitive Maps, Spatial Abilities, and Human Wayfinding" 2559: 2557: 2009:

an environment for pleasure without any set destination.

1530:

is also provided to determine direction when not moving.

483:

to 90° at the North and South poles. The latitude of the

298:

which took its galleon across the Pacific. He arrived in

3726:

Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof; K. Legat; M. Wieser (2003).

3106:"The Royal Institute of Navigation - Aims and Objects". 2394:(Digital ed.). Harper & brothers. p. 373. 1480:

used in many applications including scientific study of

929:. It may also involve navigating a ship within a river, 3638:(15th ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. 1638:

Navigation on ships is usually always conducted on the

1564: 1270:

The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global

227:. Soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the 223:

by sailing around Africa, opening up direct trade with

3872:, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group, 3762:(64th ed.). New York: Hearst Communications Inc. 3084:. The Canadian Orienteering Federation. Archived from 1715:, the region the ship will be passing through and the 1506:. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately 1307:. Many nations are users of the system, including the 1039:

nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate.

1701:

Resolution A.893(21), Guidelines For Voyage Planning,

1613:

for longitude, or at any time for a line of position.

3043:

IMO RESOLUTION A.893(21) adopted on 25 November 1999

3018:

IMO RESOLUTION A.893(21) adopted on 25 November 1999

2986:

IMO RESOLUTION A.893(21) adopted on 25 November 1999

2279: 2277: 2209:, MA Thesis, Texas A&M University, December 2005 329:"to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from 5354: 5280: 5249: 5208: 5045: 4957: 4939: 4907: 4804: 4797: 4732: 4682: 4595: 4567: 4537: 4511: 4502: 4472: 4424: 4398: 4391: 4351: 4315: 4281: 4244: 4237: 4097: 4039: 3966: 3945: 3039:"ANNEX 25 – MCA Guidance Notes for Voyage Planning" 3014:"ANNEX 24 – MCA Guidance Notes for Voyage Planning" 2082:

Navigation: Principles of Positioning and Guidances

1956:Navigation and wayfinding can be approached in the 164:) published in 1551, based on the principle of the 3755: 3729:Navigation: principles of positioning and guidance 2858:GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office 132:, the oldest record of a sea astrolabe is that of 5372:United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System 3684:Great Britain Ministry of Defence (Navy) (1995). 1609:Morning Sun observation. Can be taken on or near 921:, ensuring a sufficient depth of water below the 821:uses radio waves to determine position by either 175:Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the 3707:Gilardoni, Eduardo O.; Presedo, Juan P. (2017). 2810:Parallel Index Techniques in Restricted Waters - 2564:Gilardoni, Eduardo O.; Presedo, Juan P. (2017). 2287:New and Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation 2256:New and Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation 215:. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by 211:by crossing the Atlantic, which resulted in the 3902:How to navigate with less than a compass or GPS 3321:The Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking 2315:An Epitome of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy 52:, aeronautic navigation, and space navigation. 3798:Turpin, Edward A.; McEwen, William A. (1980). 3601: 2848:National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:182. 2836:National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:164. 2798:National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:169. 2784:National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:163. 1942:egocentric and allocentric frames of reference 642:celestial observation (a short segment of the 254:in 1521. The fleet of seven ships sailed from 5186: 5025: 4197: 3923: 3665:. Department of the Air Force. Archived from 3267:"What determines our navigational abilities?" 3265:Wolbers, Thomas; Hegarty, Mary (March 2010). 2342:Former Clock & Watchmakers and Their Work 1669:. According to international law, a vessel's 1115:Inertial Navigation System (SINS) during the 658:on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from 635:position to establish an estimated position. 441: 110:Marshall Islands Stick Charts of Ocean Swells 8: 2345:. New York: Spon & Chamberlain. p. 2726: 2724: 1764:Computerized navigation commonly relies on 858:Primarily when within radar range of land. 5193: 5179: 5171: 5032: 5018: 5010: 4801: 4508: 4395: 4241: 4204: 4190: 4182: 3930: 3916: 3908: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 2844: 2842: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2220:"Etymonline - Online Etymology Dictionary" 2123:The Ty Pros Companion to Ships and the Sea 1603:Maintain a continuous dead reckoning plot. 1457:More than two dozen GPS satellites are in 1438:are fully globally operational GNSSs. The 1303:portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 448: 434: 344: 3613:Navigation Advanced for Mates and Masters 3358:"APA Dictionary of Psychology/Locomotion" 2733:Navigation Advanced for Mates and Masters 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 1450:has indicated it may expand its regional 628:is the intersection of two or more LOPs. 270:making a number of discoveries including 63:compared to known locations or patterns. 2525:Federal Aviation Regulations Part 1 §1.1 2493: 2491: 2386:"Chapter XXIV―departure from Mozambique" 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 1772:of roads and navigable routes, and uses 908:Manual navigation through Dutch airspace 691:Traditional navigation methods include: 676: 541:, for example, has a longitude of about 207:'s expedition to sail west to reach the 3381:GOLLEDGE, Reginald G. (December 2000). 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2065: 1909:Bowditch's American Practical Navigator 1392:receivers to determine their location ( 646:, but generally represented as a line), 479:(marked with °) ranging from 0° at the 382: 365: 3606:(2002) by the United States government 2318:(Ninth ed.). Taylor. p. 295f 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2191:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2184: 2080:Rell Pros-Wellenhof, Bernhard (2007). 1319:. LORAN use is in steep decline, with 4690:International Orienteering Federation 3869:Mobile Intelligent Autonomous Systems 3866:Raol, Jitendra; Gopal, Ajith (2013), 3545: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3310: 3308: 2290:. London. p. 221. Archived from 2259:. London. p. 222. Archived from 2049:Collision avoidance in transportation 1856:training as part of learning to fly. 1814:Standards, training and organisations 1783:Pedestrian navigation is involved in 1274:system for aircraft, operated by the 1192:RDFs works by rotating a directional 565:, or "lunar" for short) that, with a 70:. In this sense, navigation includes 7: 4305:Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area 4164: 3754:Maloney, Elbert S. (December 2003). 3147:"The Admiralty Manual of Navigation" 2142:Comandante Estácio dos Reis (2002). 1936:of our environment, also known as a 1845:teach navigation to their students. 1768:for current location information, a 652:compass bearing to a charted object, 525:. Longitude is usually expressed in 310:The term stems from the 1530s, from 187:from 1418, under the sponsorship of 4994: 3778:National Imagery and Mapping Agency 3711:. Livingston, Scotland: Witherbys. 3634:Cutler, Thomas J. (December 2003). 3556:Spatial Cognition & Computation 3068:International Maritime Organization 2914:Spatial Cognition & Computation 2879:Spatial Cognition & Computation 2568:. Livingston, Scotland: Witherbys. 1699:International Maritime Organization 1493:United States Department of Defense 1218:. The signal is typically a simple 806:using electronic means, including: 716:develops an extremely accurate EP. 475:. Latitude is usually expressed in 246:and completed by Spanish navigator 3800:Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook 3191:"The American Practical Navigator" 1894:United Kingdom Hydrographic Office 1593: 1028:Quartz crystal marine chronometers 487:is 90° N, and the latitude of the 14: 3604:The American Practical Navigator, 3494:Tversky, Barbara (January 2003). 2982:"Regulation 34 – Safe Navigation" 2339:Britten, Frederick James (1894). 1255:) that was first deployed during 4993: 4984: 4983: 4163: 4152: 4151: 4139: 3409:"Cognitive maps in rats and men" 2370:Wrinkles in Practical Navigation 2023: 1551: 1488:of telecommunications networks. 863: 845: 811: 765: 743: 724: 696: 655:radar range to a charted object, 348: 250:after the former's death in the 4295:Amateur radio direction finding 3817:Martin, William Robert (1911). 3758:Chapman Piloting and Seamanship 1915:Navigation in spatial cognition 1338:Doppler radar § navigation 925:as well as a consideration for 825:or hyperbolic systems, such as 823:radio direction finding systems 3686:Admiralty Manual of Seamanship 1852:In aviation, pilots undertake 1476:. GPS also provides a precise 786:Used primarily as a backup to 1: 5040:Seamanship (seafaring) topics 3126:"The Institute of Navigation" 2971:Turpin and McEwen, 1980:6–18. 2926:10.1080/13875868.2015.1059432 2867:. Accessed December 15, 2006. 1861:Royal Institute of Navigation 1423:As of October 2011, only the 1364:The Radar Observer's Handbook 1016:manual celestial navigation. 533:at the Greenwich meridian to 529:(marked with °) ranging from 5202:Satellite navigation systems 4869:North American Championships 3709:Navigation in Shallow Waters 3636:Dutton's Nautical Navigation 3459:Denis, Michel (2017-11-13). 3390:Geographical Review of Japan 3329:10.1017/cbo9780511610448.008 3271:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3212:"Focus on spatial cognition" 2891:10.1080/13875868.2013.792821 2566:Navigation in Shallow Waters 2054:Spatial cognition#Navigation 1780:to identify optimal routes. 1594:One day's work in navigation 1404:) within a few meters using 937:in close proximity to land. 5105:Ship-to-ship cargo transfer 4229:List of orienteering events 4084:Precession of the equinoxes 3654:Department of the Air Force 3615:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: 3222:(11): 1431. November 2017. 3171:. Witherby Publishing Group 2812:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: 2735:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: 2703:Rafi Letzter (2018-04-16). 2327:Nautical Almanac 1849-1851. 1705:Code of Federal Regulations 738:When within sight of land. 425:, and has a latitude of 0°. 199:by this route. In 1492 the 21:Navigation (disambiguation) 5424: 4941:Mountain bike orienteering 4587:WinOL / WinOL II Oriantica 4263:Mountain bike orienteering 3904:(archived 8 December 2012) 3898:by Ernest Gallaudet Draper 3407:Tolman, Edward C. (1948). 3283:10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.001 2949:Spatial Information Theory 2084:. Springer. pp. 5–6. 1802: 1789:land navigation (military) 1649: 1537: 1444:Galileo positioning system 1381: 1331: 1283:Due to the success of the 1174: 1100:Inertial navigation system 1095:Inertial navigation system 1092: 1069: 1008: 957: 897: 861: 843: 809: 797: 763: 741: 722: 694: 689: 585: 510: 464: 417:divides the planet into a 374:Lines of longitude appear 240:Magellan-Elcano expedition 91: 85: 30:A navigation system on an 18: 5140:Man overboard rescue turn 4979: 4219: 4133: 3617:Witherby Publishing Group 3568:10.1080/13875860902906496 3465:(1 ed.). Routledge. 3169:"Navigation Publications" 2814:Witherby Publishing Group 2737:Witherby Publishing Group 1898:Witherby Publishing Group 1770:navigational map database 1724:Integrated bridge systems 1589:Ships and similar vessels 1429:Global Positioning System 1357:Electronic nautical chart 1285:Global Positioning System 1214:, the radio version of a 798: 690: 391:Lines of latitude appear 213:Discovery of the Americas 168:used in constructing the 4892:Kainuu Orienteering Week 3843:Beazley, Charles Raymond 3512:10.1177/0013916502238865 3500:Environment and Behavior 3149:. The Nautical Institute 2947:Winter, Stephen (2007). 2642:timeandnavigation.si.edu 1452:Beidou navigation system 886:Mental navigation checks 876:Used in all situations. 757:is the more basic form. 644:circle of equal altitude 154:Martín Cortés de Albacar 144:navigators during early 4897:Jan Kjellström Festival 4782:Scoutcraft orienteering 4545:OpenOrienteering Mapper 4224:History of orienteering 3858:Encyclopædia Britannica 3839:Bunbury, Edward Herbert 3830:Encyclopædia Britannica 2675:"GSP Executive Summary" 2125:, Peter Kemp ed., 1976 1870:Institute of Navigation 1501:United States Air Force 1497:satellite constellation 1465:, speed and direction. 1290:LORAN is a terrestrial 1048:Radio Navigational Aids 333:"ship" and the root of 4852:European Championships 4582:Suunnistussimulaattori 3895:Lectures in Navigation 3611:Anwar, Nadeem (2015). 2808:Victor, Alain (2020). 2731:Anwar, Nadeem (2015). 2312:Taylor, Janet (1851). 1934:mental representations 1928:of the environment as 1885: 1753:, and in recent times 1733: 1661: 1454:into a global system. 1347: 1251:system (also known as 1181:Radio direction finder 1167: 1067: 969: 909: 777:spherical trigonometry 731:In marine navigation, 703:In marine navigation, 409: 146:Portuguese discoveries 34: 4683:Organisations / lists 4064:Earth's gravity field 4059:Earth's energy budget 3690:The Stationery Office 3471:10.4324/9781315103808 3108:Journal of Navigation 1890:nautical publications 1883: 1799:Underwater navigation 1778:shortest path problem 1731: 1659: 1382:Further information: 1345: 1332:Further information: 1166: 1159:Electronic navigation 1138:navigational computer 1093:Further information: 1070:Further information: 1061: 967: 907: 898:Further information: 802:covers any method of 800:Electronic navigation 597:Methods of navigation 586:Further information: 563:the lunar observation 511:Further information: 465:Further information: 408: 256:Sanlúcar de Barrameda 248:Juan Sebastián Elcano 162:The Art of Navigation 120:were invented in the 106:Polynesian navigation 101:seven mechanical arts 88:History of navigation 86:Further information: 29: 4485:Satellite navigation 4338:Mounted orienteering 3979:Computer cartography 3602:Nathaniel Bowditch, 3413:Psychological Review 3082:"About Orienteering" 2739:. pp. 133–139. 2284:Norie, J.W. (1828). 2253:Norie, J.W. (1828). 2144:Astrolábios Náuticos 1966:space classification 1930:frames of references 1809:Submarine navigation 1584:Navigation processes 1408:transmitted along a 1384:Satellite navigation 1378:Satellite navigation 1121:satellite navigation 960:Celestial navigation 954:Celestial navigation 919:under keel clearance 871:Satellite navigation 773:Celestial navigation 302:on October 8, 1565. 231:in 1512, landing in 205:Christopher Columbus 19:For other uses, see 4967:World Championships 4949:World Championships 4917:World Championships 4814:World Championships 4765:Location-based game 4379:Transmitter hunting 4098:Related disciplines 3216:Nature Neuroscience 2768:Bowditch, 2002:816. 2664:, Laguna Beach, CA 2627:Bowditch, 2002:269. 2551:Bowditch, 2002:105. 2205:Swanick, Lois Ann. 2104:Bowditch, 2003:799. 1999:directional signage 1958:environmental space 1755:computer navigation 1534:Acoustic navigation 1089:Inertial navigation 794:in the open ocean. 760:Used at all times. 719:Used at all times. 575:marine chronometers 571:Greenwich Mean Time 549:has a longitude of 423:Southern Hemisphere 419:Northern Hemisphere 126:classical antiquity 114:mariner's astrolabe 5362:GNSS reflectometry 5090:Naval architecture 4959:Trail orienteering 4707:List of orienteers 4620:cardinal direction 4323:Canoe orienteering 4273:Trail orienteering 4146:Geodesy portal 3996:Geodetic astronomy 3820:"Navigation" 3362:dictionary.apa.org 3114:(66): b1–b2. 2016. 2863:2006-09-28 at the 2759:Maloney, 2003:744. 2465:Maloney, 2003:622. 2456:Maloney, 2003:618. 2433:Maloney, 2003:615. 2224:www.etymonline.com 1902:Nautical Institute 1886: 1734: 1680:Studies show that 1662: 1563:. You can help by 1499:is managed by the 1459:medium Earth orbit 1348: 1168: 1068: 1054:The marine sextant 1011:Marine chronometer 1005:Marine chronometer 994:marine chronometer 986:navigational stars 970: 910: 792:electronic systems 714:inertial navigator 523:Greenwich meridian 410: 397:circle of latitude 292:Andrés de Urdaneta 244:Ferdinand Magellan 130:Islamic Golden Age 122:Hellenistic period 94:History of geodesy 35: 5390: 5389: 5282:GNSS augmentation 5168: 5167: 5007: 5006: 4975: 4974: 4925: 4836: 4829: 4822: 4806:Foot orienteering 4733:Non-sport related 4577:Catching Features 4563: 4562: 4498: 4497: 4387: 4386: 4333:Mountain marathon 4258:Foot orienteering 4238:Sport disciplines 4179: 4178: 3879:978-1-4398-6300-8 3809:978-0-87033-056-8 3769:978-1-58816-089-8 3739:978-3-211-00828-7 3718:978-1-85609-667-6 3699:978-0-11-772696-3 3645:978-1-55750-248-3 3626:978-1-85609-627-0 3480:978-1-315-10380-8 3338:978-0-511-61044-8 2746:978-1-85609-627-0 2575:978-1-85609-667-6 2497:Bowditch, 2002:1. 2447:Maloney, 2003:614 2243:Bowditch, 2003:4. 2153:978-972-797-037-7 2091:978-3-211-00828-7 1922:spatial cognition 1581: 1580: 1544:Acoustic location 1491:Developed by the 1145:Pulsar navigation 880: 879: 607:lines of position 603:modern navigation 458: 457: 170:Egyptian pyramids 50:marine navigation 5415: 5326:QZSS / Michibiki 5195: 5188: 5181: 5172: 5115:Passage planning 5075:Maritime studies 5034: 5027: 5020: 5011: 4997: 4996: 4987: 4986: 4921: 4909:Ski orienteering 4832: 4825: 4818: 4802: 4740:Adventure travel 4608:orienteering map 4509: 4396: 4359:Adventure racing 4328:Car orienteering 4268:Ski orienteering 4242: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4183: 4167: 4166: 4155: 4154: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4074:Gravity of Earth 4006:Gravity of Earth 3932: 3925: 3918: 3909: 3882: 3862: 3850: 3834: 3822: 3813: 3794: 3792: 3773: 3761: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3722: 3703: 3680: 3678: 3677: 3671: 3664: 3649: 3630: 3588: 3587: 3547: 3532: 3531: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3456: 3445: 3444: 3425:10.1037/h0061626 3404: 3398: 3397: 3387: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3369: 3368: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3346: 3345: 3312: 3303: 3302: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3094: 3093: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3060: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3010: 2997: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2978: 2972: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2874: 2868: 2855: 2849: 2846: 2837: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2805: 2799: 2796: 2785: 2782: 2769: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2751: 2750: 2728: 2719: 2718: 2716: 2715: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2690: 2681:. Archived from 2671: 2665: 2658: 2652: 2651: 2649: 2648: 2634: 2628: 2625: 2580: 2579: 2561: 2552: 2549: 2526: 2523: 2517: 2504: 2498: 2495: 2466: 2463: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2445: 2434: 2431: 2416: 2415: 2410: 2408: 2378: 2372: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2353: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2323: 2309: 2303: 2302: 2300: 2299: 2281: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2268: 2250: 2244: 2241: 2228: 2227: 2216: 2210: 2203: 2197: 2196: 2190: 2182: 2180: 2179: 2170:. Archived from 2164: 2158: 2157: 2139: 2133: 2120: 2114: 2111: 2105: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2077: 2039:Robot navigation 2033: 2031:Geography portal 2028: 2027: 2026: 1805:Diver navigation 1689:to a process of 1652:Passage planning 1646:Passage planning 1576: 1573: 1555: 1548: 1521:act as personal 1334:Radar navigation 1328:Radar navigation 1272:radio navigation 1249:radio navigation 1177:Radio navigation 1171:Radio navigation 1127:Space navigation 990:nautical almanac 867: 853:Radar navigation 849: 819:Radio navigation 815: 769: 747: 728: 700: 677: 593:magnetic north. 567:nautical almanac 450: 443: 436: 352: 345: 296:Kuroshio Current 235:one year later. 201:Spanish monarchs 150:Age of Discovery 5423: 5422: 5418: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5413: 5412: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5386: 5350: 5276: 5245: 5204: 5199: 5169: 5164: 5041: 5038: 5008: 5003: 4971: 4953: 4935: 4903: 4793: 4745:Bicycle touring 4728: 4678: 4672:mountain biking 4591: 4559: 4533: 4494: 4468: 4420: 4383: 4347: 4311: 4277: 4233: 4215: 4210: 4180: 4175: 4140: 4138: 4129: 4093: 4079:Plate tectonics 4054:Coriolis effect 4049:Chandler wobble 4041: 4035: 3962: 3941: 3936: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3865: 3848:"Pytheas" 3837: 3816: 3810: 3797: 3790: 3776: 3770: 3753: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3725: 3719: 3706: 3700: 3683: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3652: 3646: 3633: 3627: 3610: 3597: 3592: 3591: 3549: 3548: 3535: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3458: 3457: 3448: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3385: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3366: 3364: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3314: 3313: 3306: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3228:10.1038/nn.4666 3210: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3152: 3150: 3145: 3144: 3140: 3130: 3128: 3124: 3123: 3119: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3091: 3089: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3047: 3045: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3012: 3011: 3000: 2990: 2988: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2865:Wayback Machine 2856: 2852: 2847: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2797: 2788: 2783: 2772: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2730: 2729: 2722: 2713: 2711: 2709:livescience.com 2702: 2701: 2697: 2688: 2686: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2659: 2655: 2646: 2644: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2583: 2576: 2563: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2505: 2501: 2496: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2437: 2432: 2419: 2406: 2404: 2402: 2382:Roberts, Edmund 2380: 2379: 2375: 2368:Lecky, Squire, 2367: 2363: 2351: 2349: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2321: 2319: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2297: 2295: 2283: 2282: 2275: 2266: 2264: 2252: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2231: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2204: 2200: 2183: 2177: 2175: 2168:"Archived copy" 2166: 2165: 2161: 2154: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2121: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2099: 2092: 2079: 2078: 2067: 2062: 2029: 2024: 2022: 2019: 1983: 1970:Barbara Tversky 1960:. According to 1917: 1878: 1865:learned society 1827:STCW Convention 1816: 1811: 1803:Main articles: 1801: 1776:related to the 1743: 1741:Land navigation 1726: 1691:risk management 1687:nautical charts 1654: 1648: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1577: 1571: 1568: 1561:needs expansion 1546: 1538:Main articles: 1536: 1504:50th Space Wing 1486:synchronization 1386: 1380: 1340: 1330: 1253:multilateration 1222:broadcast of a 1183: 1175:Main articles: 1173: 1161: 1129: 1117:Polaris missile 1097: 1091: 1074: 1056: 1013: 1007: 962: 956: 902: 896: 888: 804:position fixing 751:Land navigation 599: 590: 584: 537:east and west. 515: 509: 469: 463: 454: 361: 343: 308: 193:Bartolomeu Dias 158:Arte de Navegar 124:and existed in 118:land astrolabes 96: 90: 84: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5421: 5419: 5411: 5410: 5405: 5395: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5358: 5356: 5355:Related topics 5352: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5297: 5292: 5286: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5257:BDS / BeiDou-1 5253: 5251: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5212: 5210: 5206: 5205: 5200: 5198: 5197: 5190: 5183: 5175: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5110:Propeller walk 5107: 5102: 5097: 5095:Ship stability 5092: 5087: 5085:Nautical terms 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5065:Ice navigation 5062: 5057: 5051: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5014: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5001: 4991: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4973: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4963: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4952: 4951: 4945: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4913: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4871: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4830: 4823: 4810: 4808: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4789: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4736: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4726: 4724:List of events 4721: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4704: 4699: 4698: 4697: 4686: 4684: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4644: 4643: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4599: 4597: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4573: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4515: 4513: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4454:Eye protectors 4451: 4450: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4402: 4400: 4393: 4389: 4388: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4319: 4317: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4291: 4289: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4254: 4252: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4211: 4209: 4208: 4201: 4194: 4186: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4161: 4149: 4134: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4101: 4099: 4095: 4094: 4092: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4033: 4028: 4026:Geopositioning 4023: 4021:Remote Sensing 4018: 4016:Photogrammetry 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3987: 3986: 3981: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3960: 3955: 3949: 3947: 3943: 3942: 3937: 3935: 3934: 3927: 3920: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3899: 3889: 3888:External links 3886: 3884: 3883: 3878: 3863: 3853:Chisholm, Hugh 3835: 3825:Chisholm, Hugh 3814: 3808: 3795: 3793:on 2007-03-07. 3774: 3768: 3751: 3738: 3723: 3717: 3704: 3698: 3681: 3659:Air Navigation 3656:(March 2001). 3650: 3644: 3631: 3625: 3608: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3562:(2): 152–165. 3533: 3486: 3479: 3446: 3419:(4): 189–208. 3399: 3373: 3349: 3337: 3304: 3277:(3): 138–146. 3257: 3203: 3182: 3160: 3138: 3117: 3098: 3073: 3055: 3030: 2998: 2973: 2964: 2958:978-3540747888 2957: 2939: 2920:(4): 246–284. 2904: 2885:(4): 319–350. 2869: 2850: 2838: 2829: 2822: 2800: 2786: 2770: 2761: 2752: 2745: 2720: 2695: 2666: 2653: 2629: 2581: 2574: 2553: 2527: 2518: 2499: 2467: 2458: 2449: 2435: 2417: 2400: 2373: 2361: 2331: 2304: 2273: 2245: 2229: 2211: 2198: 2159: 2152: 2134: 2115: 2106: 2097: 2090: 2064: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2057: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2018: 2015: 1982: 1979: 1916: 1913: 1877: 1874: 1854:air navigation 1815: 1812: 1800: 1797: 1742: 1739: 1725: 1722: 1713:Ice navigation 1650:Main article: 1647: 1644: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611:prime vertical 1607: 1604: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1578: 1558: 1556: 1535: 1532: 1478:time reference 1474:land surveying 1440:European Union 1431:(GPS) and the 1379: 1376: 1329: 1326: 1172: 1169: 1160: 1157: 1134:Apollo program 1128: 1125: 1104:dead reckoning 1090: 1087: 1055: 1052: 1031:electrically. 1009:Main article: 1006: 1003: 958:Main article: 955: 952: 915:shallow waters 895: 892: 887: 884: 878: 877: 874: 868: 860: 859: 856: 850: 842: 841: 838: 816: 808: 807: 796: 795: 784: 770: 762: 761: 758: 748: 740: 739: 736: 729: 721: 720: 717: 705:dead reckoning 701: 693: 692: 688: 687: 684: 681: 668: 667: 656: 653: 650: 647: 633:dead reckoning 615:nautical chart 598: 595: 583: 580: 559:lunar distance 519:prime meridian 508: 505: 462: 459: 456: 455: 453: 452: 445: 438: 430: 427: 426: 401: 400: 388: 387: 380: 379: 371: 370: 363: 362: 353: 342: 341:Basic concepts 339: 307: 304: 83: 80: 44:of a craft or 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5420: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5367:Kalman filter 5365: 5363: 5360: 5359: 5357: 5353: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5241:IRNSS / NAVIC 5239: 5237: 5236:GPS / NavStar 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5196: 5191: 5189: 5184: 5182: 5177: 5176: 5173: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5100:Hydrodynamics 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5044: 5035: 5030: 5028: 5023: 5021: 5016: 5015: 5012: 5000: 4992: 4990: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4924: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4906: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4828: 4824: 4821: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4796: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4780: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4725: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4702:List of clubs 4700: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4645: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4594: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4566: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4536: 4530: 4529:SportSoftware 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4501: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4434: 4433: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4406:Control point 4404: 4403: 4401: 4397: 4394: 4390: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4364:Alleycat race 4362: 4360: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4202: 4200: 4195: 4193: 4188: 4187: 4184: 4172: 4171: 4162: 4160: 4159: 4150: 4148: 4147: 4136: 4135: 4132: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4096: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4038: 4032: 4031:Virtual globe 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3991:Earth's orbit 3989: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3976: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3921: 3919: 3914: 3913: 3910: 3903: 3900: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3891: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3871: 3870: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3801: 3796: 3789: 3785: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3765: 3760: 3759: 3752: 3741: 3735: 3731: 3730: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3710: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3672:on 2007-03-25 3668: 3661: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3647: 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