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some high level movement characteristics; bell-shaped velocity profiles, straight line translation of the hand, and smooth, continuous movements. These movement features are recovered, despite the fact that they require startlingly different arm dynamics (i.e. torques and forces). This recovery provides evidence that what is motivating movement is a particular motor plan, and the individual is using a forward model to predict how arm dynamics change the movement of the arm to achieve particular task level characteristics. Differences between the expected arm movement and the observed arm movement produces an error signal which is used as the basis for learning. Additional evidence for forward models comes from experiments which require subjects to determine the location of an effector following an unvisualized movement
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execution of motor tasks can be accomplished by activating the relevant synergy with a single neural signal. The need to control all of the relevant components independently is removed because organization emerges automatically as a consequence of the systematic covariation of components. Similar to how reflexes are physically connected and thus do not require control of individual components by the central nervous system, actions can be executed through synergies with minimal executive control because they are functionally connected. Beside motor synergies, the term of sensory synergies has recently been introduced. Sensory synergy are believed to play an important role in integrating the mixture of environmental inputs to provide low-dimensional information to the CNS thus guiding the recruitment of motor synergies.
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correct for accumulated error by the first initial sub-movement and to successfully reach the target. A later study further explored how the CNS selects a temporary target of the initial sub-movement in different conditions. For example, when the actual target size decreases and thus complexity increases, the temporary target of the initial sub-movement moves away from the actual target in order to give more space for the final corrective action. Longer reaching distances have a similar effect, since more error is accumulated in the initial sub-movement and thus requiring more complex final correction. In less complex conditions, when the final actual target is large and the movement is short, the CNS tends to use a single movement, without splitting it into multiple competents.
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information in particular ways. Through this relationship, control of the motor system and the execution of actions is dictated by the information of the environment. As an example, a doorway "affords" passing through, but a wall does not. How one might pass through a doorway is specified by the visual information received from the environment, as well as the information perceived about one's own body. Together, this information determines the pass-ability of a doorway, but not a wall. In addition, the act of moving towards and passing through the doorway generates more information and this in turn specifies further action. The conclusion of direct perception is that actions and perceptions are critically linked and one cannot be fully understood without the other.
525:" section, many actions and movements can be executed in multiple ways because functional synergies controlling those actions are able to co-vary without changing the outcome of the action. This is possible because there are more motor components involved in the production of actions than are generally required by the physical constraints on that action. For example, the human arm has seven joints which determine the position of the hand in the world. However, only three spatial dimensions are needed to specify any location the hand could be placed in. This excess of kinematic degrees of freedom means that there are multiple arm configurations that correspond to any particular location of the hand.
395:. Reflexes are typically characterized as automatic and fixed motor responses, and they occur on a much faster time scale than what is possible for reactions that depend on perceptual processing. Reflexes play a fundamental role in stabilizing the motor system, providing almost immediate compensation for small perturbations and maintaining fixed execution patterns. Some reflex loops are routed solely through the spinal cord without receiving input from the brain, and thus do not require attention or conscious control. Others involve lower brain areas and can be influenced by prior instructions or intentions, but they remain independent of perceptual processing and online control.
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repository of such programs and where these would be kept is not clear. Aside from the enormous memory requirements such a facility would take, no motor program storage area in the brain has yet been identified. The second problem is concerned with novelty in movement. If a specific motor program is required for any particular movement, it is not clear how one would ever produce a novel movement. At best, an individual would have to practice any new movement before executing it with any success, and at worst, would be incapable of new movements because no motor program would exist for new movements. These difficulties have led to a more nuanced notion of motor programs known as
532:. Bernstein's research was primarily concerned with understanding how coordination was developed for skilled actions. He observed that the redundancy of the motor system made it possible to execute actions and movements in a multitude of different ways while achieving equivalent outcomes. This equivalency in motor action means that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the desired movements and the coordination of the motor system needed to execute those movements. Any desired movement or action does not have a particular coordination of neurons, muscles, and kinematics that make it possible. This motor equivalency problem became known as the
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transmitted back over the motor nerves of inspiration. That these respiratory movements are purely excito-motor, and performed without the intervention of sensation, in many of those instances in which the excited movements are most energetic, is proved by the case with which remarkable movements of respiration were occasioned by stimulating the surface in cases of syncope, hysteria, and epilepsy, cases in which sensation was altogether absent, and was only restored after repeatedly stimulating the surface, and so inducing deep reflex inspirations again and again by exciting the incident nerves.
318:, who used the difference in response times to a choice task to determine the length of time needed to process the stimuli and choose the correct response. While this approach is ultimately flawed, it gave rise to the idea that reaction time was made up of a stimulus identification, followed by a response selection, and ultimately culminates in carrying out the correct movement. Further research has provided evidence that these stages do exist, but that the response selection period of any reaction time increases as the number of available choices grows, a relationship known as
459:), but the control of that motor task is distributed across all components nonetheless. A simple demonstration comes from a two-finger force production task, where participants are required to generate a fixed amount of force by pushing down on two force plates with two different fingers. In this task, participants generated a particular force output by combining the contributions of independent fingers. While the force produced by any single finger can vary, this variation is constrained by the action of the other such that the desired force is always generated.
590:. The doctrine presents the finding that there are distinct nerve types for different types of sensory input, and these nerves respond in a characteristic way regardless of the method of stimulation. That is to say, the color red causes optical nerves to fire in a specific pattern that is processed by the brain as experiencing the color red. However, if that same nerve is electrically stimulated in an identical pattern, the brain could perceive the color red when no corresponding stimuli is present.
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consequence of the interaction between the organisms and the available information about the environment, which specified in body-relevant variables. Much of the research in behavioral dynamics has focused on locomotion, where visually specified information (such as optic flow, time-to-contact, optical expansion, etc.) is used to determine how to navigate the environment
Interaction forces between the human and the environment also affect behavioral dynamics as seen in by the
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muscles. These compensatory actions are reflex-like in that they occur faster than perceptual processing would seem to allow, yet they are only present in expert performance, not in novices. In the case of blacksmiths, the synergy in question is organized specifically for hammering actions and is not a general purpose organization of the muscles of the arm. Synergies have two defining characteristics in addition to being task dependent; sharing and flexibility/stability.
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disconnected from their spinal cords. Monkeys who lost all sensory information from their arms resumed normal behavior after recovering from the deafferentation procedure. Most skills were relearned, but fine motor control became very difficult. It has been shown that the open loop control can be adapted to different disease conditions and can therefore be used to extract signatures of different motor disorders by varying the cost functional governing the system.
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trajectories provides evidence for the existence of such plans. Movements that achieve these desired task-level outcomes are estimated by an inverse model. Adaptation therefore proceeds as a process of estimating the necessary movements with an inverse model, simulating with a forward model the outcome of those movement plans, observing the difference between the desired outcome and the actual outcome, and updating the models for a future attempt.
260:, monkeys, horses, cats, mice, fish lamprey, flies, locusts, and nematodes, among many others. Mammalian model systems like mice and monkeys offer the most straightforward comparative models for human health and disease. They are widely used to study the role of higher brain regions common to vertebrates, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia and deep brain medullary and reticular circuits for motor control. The
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for specific types of movements, such as fixating on a stationary object while the head is moving. Complementary to forward models, inverse models attempt to estimate how to achieve a particular perceptual outcome in order to generate the appropriate motor plan. Because inverse models and forward model are so closely associated, studies of internal models are often used as evidence for the roles of both model types in action.
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reaching, since the gained reward is perceived less valuable when spending more time on it. However, these models were deterministic and did not account for motor noise, which is an essential property of stochastic motor control that results in speed-accuracy trade-off. To address that, a new model was later proposed to incorporate the motor noise and to unify cost-benefit and speed-accuracy trade-offs.
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581:, or the notion that the world that gets perceived is not identical to the actual environment. Environmental information must go through several stages before being perceived, and the transitions between these stages introduce ambiguity. What actually gets perceived is the mind's best guess about what is occurring in the environment based on previous experience. Support for this idea comes from the
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actions are actions that continue to the end without thinking about it, even when they no longer are appropriate. Because feedback control relies on sensory information, it is as slow as sensory processing. These movements are subject to a speed-accuracy trade-off, because sensory processing is being used to control the movement, the faster the movement is carried out, the less accurate it becomes.
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occurring at all. People who attempt to execute particular movements (such as pushing with the arm), but unknowingly have the action of their body arrested before any movement can actually take place, show the same muscle activation patterns (including stabilizing and support activation that does not actually generate the movement) as when they are allowed to complete their intended action.
663:. While the problem of indirect perception proposes that physical information about object in our environment is not available due to the ambiguity of sensory information, proponents of direct perception (like Gibson) suggest that the relevant information encoded in sensory signals is not the physical properties of objects, but rather the action opportunities the environment affords. These
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335:, as it relies on sensory feedback to control movements. Feedback control is a situated form of motor control, relying on sensory information about performance and specific sensory input from the environment in which the movement is carried out. This sensory input, while processed, does not necessarily cause conscious awareness of the action.
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instead are connected by their response to perceptual information about the particular motor task being executed. Synergies are learned, rather than being hardwired like reflexes, and are organized in a task-dependent manner; a synergy is structured for a particular action and not determined generally for the components themselves.
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natural consequence of the interactions of this system. A core assumption of information based control strategies is that perceptions of the environment are rich in information and veridical for the purposes of producing actions. This runs counter to the assumptions of indirect perception made by model based control strategies.
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_____________|_________________ | __________|_______________________________ Low|__________|__________________________________________ ↑ ↑ ↑ Time Type I Recruit first Type II A Type IIB
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existing model and providing a mechanism for learning. These models explain why it is impossible to tickle yourself. A sensation is experienced as ticklish when it is unpredictable. However, forward models predict the outcome of your motor movements, meaning the motion is predictable, and therefore not ticklish.
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coordinate motor neuron activity. Invertebrate model organisms do not have the same brain regions as vertebrates, but their brains must solve similar computational issues and thus are thought to have brain regions homologous to those involved in motor control in the vertebrate nervous system, The organization of
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CNS selects a trajectory by minimizing the variance of the final position of the limb endpoint. Since there is a motor noise in the neural system that is proportional to the activation of the muscles, the faster movements induce more motor noise and are thus less precise. This is also in line with the
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are a predictive internal model of motor control that takes the available perceptual information, combined with a particular motor program, and tries to predict the outcome of the planned motor movement. Forward models structure action by determining how the forces, velocities, and positions of motor
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is a feedback based mechanism of motor control, where any act on the environment creates some sort of change that affects future performance through feedback. Closed loop motor control is best suited to continuously controlled actions, but does not work quickly enough for ballistic actions. Ballistic
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Evidence for forward models comes from studies of motor adaptation. When a person's goal-directed reaching movements are perturbed by a force field, they gradually, but steadily, adapt the movement of their arm to allow them to again reach their goal. However, they do so in such a way that preserves
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Co-variation also provides "flexibility and stability" to motor tasks. Considering again the force production task, if one finger did not produce enough force, it could be compensated for by the other. The components of a motor synergy are expected to change their action to compensate for the errors
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famously demonstrated synergies at work in the hammering actions of professional blacksmiths. The muscles of the arm controlling the movement of the hammer are informationally linked in such a way that errors and variability in one muscle are automatically compensated for by the actions of the other
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The classical definition from Jack A. Adams is: “An open loop system has no feedback or mechanisms for error regulation. The input events for a system exert their influence, the system effects its transformation on the input and the system has an output...... A traffic light with fixed timing snarls
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The nervous system produces movement by selecting which motor neurons are activated, and when. The finding that a recruitment order exists within a motor pool is thought to reflect a simplification of the problem: if a particular muscle should produce a particular force, then activate the motor pool
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Later it was argued that there is no clear explanation about how could the CNS actually estimate complex quantities such as jerk or torque change and then integrate them over the duration of a trajectory. In response, model based on signal-dependent noise was proposed instead, which states that the
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or representations of the world. The actions of the motor system are organized by information about the environment and information about the current state of the agent. Information based control strategies often treat the environment and the organism as a single system, with action proceeding as a
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predict the necessary movements of motor components to achieve a desired perceptual outcome. They can also take the outcome of a motion and attempt to determine the sequence of motor commands that resulted in that state. These types of models are particularly useful for open loop control, and allow
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is extremely important in motor control because it carries the relevant information about objects, environments and bodies which is used in organizing and executing actions and movements. What is perceived and how the subsequent information is used to organize the motor system is an ongoing area of
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Synergies are fundamental for controlling complex movements, such as the ones of the hand during grasping. Their importance has been demonstrated for both muscle control and in the kinematic domain in several studies, lately on studies including large cohorts of subjects. The relevance of synergies
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contains approximately 1 million muscle fibers, which are controlled by around 1000 motor neurons. Activity in the motor neuron causes contraction in all of the innervated muscle fibers so that they function as a unit. Increasing action potential frequency (spike rate) in the motor neuron increases
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of a limb endpoint trajectory over the time of reaching, which results in a smooth trajectory. However, this model is based solely on the kinematics of movement and does not consider the underlying dynamics of the musculoskeletal system. Hence, the minimum torque-change model was introduced as an
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Building on the assumptions of direct perception behavioral dynamics is a behavioral control theory that treats perceptual organisms as dynamic systems that respond to informational variables with actions, in a functional manner. Under this understanding of behavior, actions unfold as the natural
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Because affordances are action possibilities, perception is directly connected to the production of actions and movements. The role of perception is to provide information that specifies how actions should be organized and controlled, and the motor system is "tuned" to respond to specific type of
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Most model based strategies of motor control rely on perceptual information, but assume that this information is not always useful, veridical or constant. Optical information is interrupted by eye blinks, motion is obstructed by objects in the environment, distortions can change the appearance of
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Although the evidence for motor programs seems persuasive, there have been several important criticisms of the theory. The first is the problem of storage. If each movement an organism could generate requires its own motor program, it would seem necessary for that organism to possess an unlimited
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in the body is a challenging problem, both because of the tremendous complexity of the motor system, as well as the different levels at which this organization can occur (neural, muscular, kinematic, spatial, etc.). Because the components of a synergy are functionally coupled for a specific task,
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is a neural organization of a multi-element system that (1) organizes sharing of a task among a set of elemental variables; and (2) ensures co-variation among elemental variables with the purpose to stabilize performance variables. The components of a synergy need not be physically connected, but
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is a feed forward form of motor control, and is used to control rapid, ballistic movements that end before any sensory information can be processed. To best study this type of control, most research focuses on deafferentation studies, often involving cats or monkeys whose sensory nerves have been
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The classical definition of a closed loop system for human movement comes from Jack A. Adams (1971). A reference of the desired output is compared to the actual output via error detection mechanisms; using feedback, the error is corrected for. Most movements that are carried out during day-to-day
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The force produced in a given muscle thus depends on: 1) How many motor neurons are active, and their spike rates; 2) the contractile properties and number of muscle fibers innervated by the active neurons. To generate more force, increase the spike rates of active motor neurons and/or recruiting
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Another type of models is based on cost-benefit trade-off, where the objective function includes metabolic cost of movement and a subjective reward related to reaching the target accurately. In this case the reward for a successful reach within the desired target is discounted by the duration of
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the movement actually begins. This research suggests that once selection and execution of a motor program begins, it must run to completion before another action can be taken. This effect has been found even when the movement that is being executed by a particular motor program is prevented from
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are specific, pre-structured motor activation patterns that are generated and executed by a central controller (in the case of a biological organism, the brain). They represent at top-down approach to motor coordination, rather than the bottom-up approach offered by synergies. Motor programs are
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illusion, where a distorted room causes the viewer to see objects known to be a constant size as growing or shrinking as they move around the room. The room itself is seen as being square, or at least consisting of right angles, as all previous rooms the perceiver has encountered have had those
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that regulate the contraction of the same muscle. Thus, any stretching of a muscle automatically signals a reflexive contraction of that muscle, without any central control. As the name and the description implies, monosynaptic reflexes depend on a single synaptic connection between an afferent
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Some studies observed that the CNS can split a complex movement into sub-movements. The initial sub-movement tends to be fast and imprecise in order to bring the limb endpoint into vicinity of the target as soon as possible. Then, the final sub-movement tends to be slow and precise in order to
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Motor adaptation studies, therefore, also make a case for inverse models. Motor movements seem to follow predefined "plans" that preserve certain invariant features of the movement. In the reaching task mentioned above, the persistence of bell-shaped velocity profiles and smooth, straight hand
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Evidence for the existence of motor programs comes from studies of rapid movement execution and the difficulty associated with changing those movements once they have been initiated. For example, people who are asked to make fast arm swings have extreme difficulty in halting that movement when
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and variability in other components that could affect the outcome of the motor task. This provides flexibility because it allows for multiple motor solutions to particular tasks, and it provides motor stability by preventing errors in individual motor components from affecting the task itself.
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High| | _________________ Force required | / | | | | |
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when individuals interact with their environment. Forward models are thought to use motor programs as input to predict the outcome of an action. An error signal is generated when the predictions made by a forward model do not match the actual outcome of the movement, prompting an update of an
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or long-loop reflexes are reflex arcs which involve more than a single synaptic connection in the spinal cord. These loops may include cortical regions of the brain as well, and are thus slower than their monosynaptic counterparts due to the greater travel time. However, actions controlled by
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in the spine have also been studied in mammalian model organisms, but protective vertebrae make it difficult to study the functional role of spinal circuits in behaving animals. Here, larval and adult fish have been useful in discovering the functional logic of the local spinal circuits that
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In all these instances the act of inspiration is excited through the reflex function of the nervous system -- the sudden impression made on the skin stimulates the extremities of the incident nerves; the stimulus is conveyed by the incident nerves to the spinal nervous centre, and is thence
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Much ongoing research is dedicated to investigating how the nervous system deals with these issues, both at the behavioral level, as well as how neural circuits in the brain and spinal cord represent and deal with these factors to produce the fluid movements we witness in animals.
189:, from motor units that produce small amounts of force per spike, to those producing the largest force per spike. The gradient of motor unit force is correlated with a gradient in motor neuron soma size and motor neuron electrical excitability. This relationship was described by
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For tasks requiring small forces, such as continual adjustment of posture, motor units with fewer muscle fibers that are slowly-contracting, but less fatigueable, are used. As more force is required, motor units with fast twitch, fast-fatigeable muscle fibers are recruited.
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polysynaptic reflex loops are still faster than actions which require perceptual processing. While the actions of short-loop reflexes are fixed, polysynaptic reflexes can often be regulated by instruction or prior experience. A common example of a long loop reflex is the
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executed in an open-loop manner, although sensory information is most likely used to sense the current state of the organism and determine the appropriate goals. However, once the program has been executed, it cannot be altered online by additional sensory information.
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in driving rhythmic movements. A central pattern generator is a neural network that can generate rhythmic activity in the absence of an external control signal, such as a signal descending from the brain or feedback signals from sensors in the limbs (e.g.
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and innervate the muscles. In turn, muscles generate forces which actuate joints. Getting the pieces to work together is a challenging problem for the motor system and how this problem is resolved is an active area of study in motor control research.
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are directly perceivable without ambiguity, and thus preclude the need for internal models or representations of the world. Affordances exist only as a byproduct of the interactions between an agent and its environment, and thus perception is an
455:"Sharing" requires that the execution of a particular motor task depends on the combined actions of all the components that make up the synergy. Often, there are more components involved than are strictly needed for the particular task (
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theory was used to further extend the model based on signal-dependent noise, where the CNS optimizes an objective function that consists of a term related to accuracy and additionally a term related to metabolic cost of movement.
113:, and the computational challenges are often discussed under the term sensorimotor control. Successful motor control is crucial to interacting with the world to carry out goals as well as for posture, balance, and stability.
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sensory neuron and efferent motor neuron. In general the actions of monosynaptic reflexes are fixed and cannot be controlled or influenced by intention or instruction. However, there is some evidence to suggest that the
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of the environment, constructed from a combination of perceptual information and prior knowledge, as the primary source information for planning and executing actions, even in the absence of perceptual information.
144:. In humans, ~150,000 motor neurons control the contraction of ~600 muscles. To produce movements, a subset of 600 muscles must contract in a temporally precise pattern to produce the right force at the right time.
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the muscle fiber contraction force, up to the maximal force. The maximal force depends on the contractile properties of the muscle fibers. Within a motor unit, all the muscle fibers are of the same type (e.g.
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Nonlinearity. The effects of neural activity and muscle contraction are highly non-linear, which the nervous system must account for when predicting the consequences of a pattern of motor neuron activity.
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Delays. Motor neuron activity precedes muscle contraction, which precedes the movement. Sensory signals also reflect events that have already occurred. Such delays affect the choice of motor program.
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for hand grasps is also enforced by studies on hand grasp taxonomies, showing muscular and kinematic similarities among specific groups of grasps, leading to specific clusters of movements.
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There are several mathematical models that describe how the central nervous system (CNS) derives reaching movements of limbs and eyes. The minimum jerk model states that the CNS minimizes
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Noise. Noise is defined as small fluctuations that are unrelated to a signal, which can occur in neurons and synaptic connections at any point from sensation to muscle contraction.
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Azevedo, Anthony W; Dickinson, Evyn S; Gurung, Pralaksha; Venkatasubramanian, Lalanti; Mann, Richard S; Tuthill, John C (2020-06-03). Calabrese, Ronald L; Doe, Chris Q (eds.).
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provided with a "STOP" signal after the movement has been initiated. This reversal difficulty persists even if the stop signal is presented after the initial "GO" signal but
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Grillner S, Deliagina T, el Manira A, Hill RH, Lansner A, Orlovsky GN, Wallén P (June 1995). "Neural networks that co-ordinate locomotion and body orientation in lamprey".
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activity are formed using a continual process of accessing sensory information and using it to more accurately continue the motion. This type of motor control is called
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Nonstationarity. Even as a movement is being executed, the state of the world changes, even through such simple effects as reactive forces on the rest of the body,
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Uncertainty. Uncertainty arises because of neural noise, but also because inferences about the state of the world may not be correct (e.g. speed of on coming ball).
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in that it is predicated on the assumption that what we perceive is what is actually in the world. James J. Gibson is credited with recasting direct perception as
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that control breathing in humans. Furthermore, as a theoretical concept, CPGs have been useful to frame the possible role of sensory feedback in motor control.
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Scholz JP, Danion F, Latash ML, Schöner G (January 2002). "Understanding finger coordination through analysis of the structure of force variability".
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Mikheev M, Mohr C, Afanasiev S, Landis T, Thut G (2002). "Motor control and cerebral hemispheric specialization in highly qualified judo wrestlers".
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nervous systems into ganglia that control each leg as allowed researchers to record from neurons dedicated to moving a specific leg during behavior.
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of action, rather than a specific movement. This program is parameterized by the context of the environment and the current state of the organism.
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Redundancy. Infinite trajectories of movements can accomplish a goal (e.g. touch my nose). How is a trajectory chosen? Which trajectory is best?
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Uno Y, Kawato M, Suzuki R (1989). "Formation and control of optimal trajectory in human multijoint arm movement. Minimum torque-change model".
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Blagouchine IV, Moreau E (November 2009). "Control of a speech robot via an optimum neural-network-based internal model with constraints".
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of sensory information affects the control of movements and actions is the question of how the perception of the world structures action.
169:), and motor units of multiple types make up a given muscle. Motor units of a given muscle are collectively referred to as a motor pool.
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639:. Informational control strategies organize movements and actions based on perceptual information about the environment, rather than on
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177:, e.g. where the tendon and muscle originate (which bone, and precise location) and where the muscle inserts on the bone that it moves.
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But then how to choose what force to produce in each muscle? The nervous system faces the following issues in solving this problem.
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Monster AW, Chan H (November 1977). "Isometric force production by motor units of extensor digitorum communis muscle in man".
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In some cases the coordination of motor components is hard-wired, consisting of fixed neuromuscular pathways that are called
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Elliott D, Helsen WF, Chua R (May 2001). "A century later: Woodworth's (1899) two-component model of goal-directed aiming".
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traffic when the load is heavy and impedes the flow when the traffic is light. The system has no compensatory capability.”
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The process of becoming aware of a sensory stimulus and using that information to influence an action occurs in stages.
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1920:"Observations on the automatic compensation of reflex gain on varying the pre-existing level of motor discharge in man"
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when they deform due to the stretching of the muscle. In the spinal cord, these afferent neurons synapse directly onto
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Fitts PM (June 1954). "The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement".
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components affect changes in the environment and in the individual. It is proposed that forward models help with the
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Some of the earliest and most influential work on the study of motor redundancy came from the
Russian physiologist
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Taub E, Ellman SJ, Berman AJ (February 1966). "Deafferentation in monkeys: effect on conditioned grasp response".
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All organisms face the computational challenges above, so neural circuits for motor control have been studied in
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Strausfeld NJ, Hirth F (April 2013). "Deep homology of arthropod central complex and vertebrate basal ganglia".
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is the time it takes to complete the movement. Some of the first reaction time experiments were carried out by
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This article is about motor control by humans and other animals. For motor control by machines and robots, see
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Fajen BR, Warren WH (April 2003). "Behavioral dynamics of steering, obstacle avoidance, and route selection".
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1149:. Brain Mechanisms for the Integration of Posture and Movement. Vol. 143. Elsevier. pp. 123–129.
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4937:
4874:
4627:
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4884:
4804:
4777:
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161:
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928:
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Some movements, however, occur too quickly to integrate sensory information, and instead must rely on
5539:
5346:
5331:
5299:
5286:
5147:
5059:
4927:
4894:
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4014:
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3825:
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3225:
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Todorov E, Jordan MI (November 2002). "Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination".
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4615:
4559:
4486:
4157:
4057:
3934:
3904:
3889:
672:" endeavor, depending on the whole agent/environment system rather than on the agent in isolation.
578:
413:
82:
5657:
5644:
564:
object shape. Model based and representational control strategies are those that rely on accurate
310:
refers to the period of time between when the stimulus is presented, and the end of the response.
5564:
5407:
5397:
5366:
5161:
5109:
5019:
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4828:
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4703:
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3609:
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3534:
3349:
3145:
3102:
3059:
3008:
2723:
2583:
2521:
2404:"Kinematic synergies of hand grasps: a comprehensive study on a large publicly available dataset"
2203:
2073:
2030:
1801:"Neuromechanical Cost Functionals Governing Motor Control for Early Screening of Motor Disorders"
1781:
1631:
1555:
1469:
1318:
1142:
1088:
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While synergies represent coordination derived from peripheral interactions of motor components,
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3492:
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3478:
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2195:
2155:
2124:
2065:
2022:
1977:
1949:
1900:
1890:
1867:
1832:
1773:
1730:
1720:
1695:
1669:
1590:
1547:
1504:
1494:
1490:
The computational neurobiology of reaching and pointing : a foundation for motor learning
1461:
1412:
1402:
1377:
1359:
1310:
1272:
1223:
1168:
1158:
1123:
1113:
1109:
The computational neurobiology of reaching and pointing : a foundation for motor learning
1080:
1037:
1002:
967:
957:
909:
863:
838:
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538:
because it is a product of having redundant degrees of freedom available in the motor system.
529:
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248:"Optimal feedback control" is an influential theoretical framing of these computation issues.
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3919:
3800:
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3331:
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3129:
3086:
3043:
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2955:
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2903:
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2815:
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2707:
2662:
2652:
2610:
2567:
2513:
2476:
2466:
2425:
2415:
2374:
2364:
2323:
2313:
2272:
2262:
2187:
2143:
2114:
2104:
2057:
2014:
1939:
1931:
1859:
1822:
1812:
1765:
1661:
1621:
1582:
1539:
1451:
1443:
1367:
1349:
1302:
1262:
1254:
1213:
1205:
1150:
1072:
1029:
994:
899:
656:
466:
Synergies simplify the computational difficulty of motor control. Coordinating the numerous
332:
281:). Evidence suggests that real CPGs exist in several key motor control regions, such as the
137:
31:
5596:
5487:
5452:
5361:
5249:
5143:
5099:
5079:
4952:
4668:
4647:
4402:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4132:
4072:
4009:
3924:
3884:
3869:
3820:
3810:
3765:
3273:"Unifying Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off and Cost-Benefit Trade-Off in Human Reaching Movements"
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3419:
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2010:
1761:
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197:, a fundamental discovery of neuroscience and an organizing principle of motor control.
5089:
5069:
4979:
4672:
4564:
4439:
4218:
4188:
4117:
4092:
4082:
3929:
3909:
3899:
3785:
3705:
3436:
3403:
3299:
3272:
3248:
3213:
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1944:
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1194:"A midbrain-thalamus-cortex circuit reorganizes cortical dynamics to initiate movement"
1193:
771:
746:
703:
409:
278:
121:
117:
86:
56:
38:
3597:
2571:
1154:
5679:
5591:
5534:
5524:
5084:
4904:
4864:
4860:
4851:
4663:
4652:
4642:
4569:
4471:
4365:
4142:
4137:
4102:
3989:
3949:
3795:
3730:
3725:
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3353:
2207:
2034:
1785:
1635:
1432:"Dynamic functional connectivity in the static connectome of Caenorhabditis elegans"
1322:
5381:
4682:
4659:
4228:
4223:
4107:
3939:
3864:
3815:
3805:
3780:
3775:
3745:
3679:
3613:
3538:
3180:
3063:
3012:
2936:"The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model"
2727:
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or short-loop reflex, such as the monosynaptic stretch response. In this example,
3238:
2018:
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5520:
5432:
5376:
5214:
4999:
4698:
4517:
4097:
3944:
3380:
2931:
2767:
2144:
751:
405:
257:
60:
3427:
3214:"A model of reward- and effort-based optimal decision making and motor control"
2860:
1447:
1258:
1209:
5467:
5462:
5179:
4914:
4454:
4258:
3959:
2517:
2471:
2420:
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1626:
1609:
1192:
Inagaki HK, Chen S, Ridder MC, Sah P, Li N, Yang Z, et al. (March 2022).
998:
669:
664:
551:
400:
157:
3639:
3622:
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3530:
3482:
3289:
2369:
2267:
2109:
1904:
1817:
1734:
1363:
17:
5129:
4203:
3894:
3509:
2711:
1543:
1508:
1416:
1127:
971:
812:"On The Causes Which Excite And Influence Respiration In Health And Disease"
582:
266:
110:
52:
3605:
3445:
3388:
3344:
3308:
3257:
3198:
3141:
3098:
2917:
2884:"Direct perception of action-scaled affordances: the shrinking gap problem"
2868:
2775:
2622:
2579:
2490:
2439:
2388:
2286:
2199:
2128:
2069:
1836:
1673:
1551:
1465:
1381:
1276:
1227:
1172:
1084:
1041:
913:
517:
An important issue for coordinating the motor system is the problem of the
4306:
3055:
3004:
2969:
2719:
2676:
2337:
2191:
2093:"Muscle synergy space: learning model to create an optimal muscle synergy"
2026:
1953:
1871:
1777:
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or magnitude of these reflexes can be adjusted by context and experience.
5581:
5341:
5046:
4112:
3404:"Target of initial sub-movement in multi-component arm-reaching strategy"
2061:
1488:
1396:
1107:
1006:
369:
A core motor control issue is coordinating the various components of the
261:
72:
68:
48:
2249:
Alnajjar F, Itkonen M, Berenz V, Tournier M, Nagai C, Shimoda S (2015).
1354:
5482:
2996:
166:
153:
90:
3165:"Temporal discounting of reward and the cost of time in motor control"
306:
of simple tasks can be used to reveal information about these stages.
3335:
3090:
2899:
2641:"Adaptive representation of dynamics during learning of a motor task"
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Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance
2849:
Journal of
Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance
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Some researchers (mostly neuroscientists studying movement, such as
93:
to carry out a goal. This pathway spans many disciplines, including
3835:
3163:
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816:
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Transactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association
27:
Regulation of movement within organisms possessing a nervous system
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To control movement, the nervous system must integrate multimodal
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in the cognitive sense is related to the philosophical notion of
4310:
3652:
3648:
214:
along its recruitment hierarchy until that force is produced.
124:) argue that motor control is the reason brains exist at all.
1799:
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properties. Another example of this ambiguity comes from the
505:. A generalized motor program is a program for a particular
1652:
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1850:
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2251:"Sensory synergy as environmental input integration"
167:
type I (slow twitch) or Type II fibers (fast twitch)
5508:
5390:
5279:
5272:
5170:
5045:
4913:
4837:
4739:
4545:
4538:
4401:
4166:
4028:
3968:
3843:
3704:
2091:Alnajjar F, Wojtara T, Kimura H, Shimoda S (2013).
235:
causing translation of a joint while it is actuated
1719:. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers.
888:"Computational mechanisms of sensorimotor control"
881:
879:
521:of motor degrees of freedom. As detailed in the "
272:Model systems have also demonstrated the role of
2822:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp.
2219:
2217:
2150:. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. pp.
1288:
1286:
546:Related, yet distinct from the issue of how the
132:All movements, e.g. touching your nose, require
3324:The Psychological Review: Monograph Supplements
2634:
2632:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1889:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. pp. 713–736.
707:alternative, where the CNS minimizes the joint
2459:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation
2455:"A quantitative taxonomy of human hand grasps"
2408:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation
837:. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. p. 411.
262:genetics and neurophysiology of motor circuits
89:) and elicit the necessary signals to recruit
4322:
3664:
3621:Paul M, Ganesan S, Sandhu J, Simon J (2012).
2739:
2737:
2173:
2171:
1805:Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology
1685:
1683:
1647:
1645:
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4199:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
2791:The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception
2226:The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movement
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1852:IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering
1614:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
577:Many models of the perceptual system assume
3557:Current Directions in Psychological Science
5276:
4542:
4329:
4315:
4307:
3671:
3657:
3649:
376:Peripheral neurons receive input from the
3638:
3435:
3343:
3298:
3288:
3247:
3237:
3188:
2959:
2907:
2757:
2666:
2656:
2480:
2470:
2429:
2419:
2378:
2368:
2327:
2317:
2276:
2266:
2118:
2108:
1943:
1826:
1816:
1625:
1455:
1371:
1353:
1266:
1217:
903:
886:Franklin DW, Wolpert DM (November 2011).
635:An alternative to model based control is
85:(both from the external world as well as
5493:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2639:Shadmehr R, Mussa-Ivaldi FA (May 1994).
1694:. New York: Academic press. p. 89.
2097:Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience
1241:McLean DL, Dougherty KJ (August 2015).
802:
373:to act in unison to produce movement.
3271:Peternel L, Sigaud O, BabiÄŤ J (2017).
2302:"Postural hand synergies for tool use"
4985:Psychological effects of Internet use
3402:Peternel L, BabiÄŤ J (December 2019).
2882:Fajen BR, Matthis JS (October 2011).
954:The motoneurone and its muscle fibres
209:Computational issues of motor control
7:
4289:
1610:"On the rate of gain of information"
862:. Academic Press. pp. 137–157.
185:Motor units within a motor pool are
4965:Digital media use and mental health
1430:Flavell SW, Gordus A (April 2022).
1401:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1398:The neurobiology of an insect brain
956:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
588:doctrine of specific nerve energies
59:. Motor control includes conscious
4596:Automatic and controlled processes
3079:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2952:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.05-07-01688.1985
2658:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-05-03208.1994
2319:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-23-10105.1998
711:change over the time of reaching.
187:recruited in a stereotypical order
25:
5005:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
4179:Development of the nervous system
3467:. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
2793:. Psychology Press. p. 332.
2541:Journal of Human Movement Studies
573:Inference and indirect perception
5656:
5643:
5631:
5630:
5030:Mobile phones and driving safety
4288:
4277:
4276:
3834:
2615:10.1097/00001756-200008030-00002
1692:Motor Control, Issues and Trends
1034:10.1152/classicessays.00025.2005
698:Individual movement optimization
687:Neural control of limb stiffness
604:Neural control of limb stiffness
148:Motor units and force production
4933:Computer-mediated communication
3494:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
3277:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
2814:Michaels CF, Carello C (1981).
2560:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1493:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
1436:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1247:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1112:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
860:Encyclopedia of the Human Brain
456:
252:Model systems for motor control
140:that results in contraction of
5210:Empathising–systemising theory
4513:female intrasexual competition
4450:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3181:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1343-10.2010
1936:10.1113/jphysiol.1986.sp016066
1666:10.1080/00222895.1971.10734898
719:and speed-accuracy trade-off.
559:Model based control strategies
522:
430:asymmetrical tonic neck reflex
152:A single motor neuron and the
128:Neural control of muscle force
1:
5570:Standard social science model
4623:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
4020:Social cognitive neuroscience
3598:10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00227-5
3519:IEEE Transactions on Robotics
2572:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00028-8
1155:10.1016/s0079-6123(03)43012-4
927:Wolpert D (3 November 2011).
787:Two-alternative forced choice
5418:Missing heritability problem
5010:Social aspects of television
4633:Evolution of nervous systems
4601:Computational theory of mind
3995:Molecular cellular cognition
3490:Shadmehr R, Wise SP (2005).
3239:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002716
2019:10.1126/science.179.4072.501
1887:Principles of Neural Science
1770:10.1126/science.151.3710.593
1587:10.1016/0001-6918(69)90065-1
1487:Shadmehr R, Wise SP (2005).
1307:10.1016/0166-2236(95)80008-P
1106:Shadmehr R, Wise SP (2005).
929:"The real reason for brains"
905:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.006
5664:Evolutionary biology portal
4214:Neurodevelopmental disorder
4189:Neural network (biological)
4184:Neural network (artificial)
3463:Schmidt RA, Lee TD (2011).
3381:10.1037/0033-2909.127.3.342
3212:Rigoux L, Guigon E (2012).
3169:The Journal of Neuroscience
2940:The Journal of Neuroscience
2768:10.1037/0033-295x.113.2.358
2645:The Journal of Neuroscience
2506:Perceptual and Motor Skills
2306:The Journal of Neuroscience
818:. 5 - New Series: 181–350.
542:Perception in motor control
398:The simplest reflex is the
156:it innervates are called a
5702:
5625:Evolutionary psychologists
5498:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
5413:Human–animal communication
5125:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
4975:Imprinted brain hypothesis
4943:Human–computer interaction
3741:Computational neuroscience
3428:10.1038/s41598-019-56430-x
3218:PLOS Computational Biology
2861:10.1037/0096-1523.29.2.343
2357:Frontiers in Neurorobotics
1974:Motor control and learning
1717:Motor control and Learning
1448:10.1016/j.conb.2021.12.002
1259:10.1016/j.conb.2015.03.001
1210:10.1016/j.cell.2022.02.006
1147:Progress in Brain Research
1022:Journal of Neurophysiology
987:Journal of Neurophysiology
535:degrees of freedom problem
503:generalized motor programs
274:central pattern generators
36:
29:
5619:
5545:Environmental determinism
5516:Cultural selection theory
5403:Evolutionary epistemology
5317:evolutionary neuroscience
4990:Rank theory of depression
4492:Parent–offspring conflict
4344:
4272:
4209:Neurodegenerative disease
4053:Evolutionary neuroscience
3832:
3686:
2518:10.2466/pms.1961.13.3.351
2472:10.1186/s12984-019-0488-x
2421:10.1186/s12984-019-0536-6
2255:Frontiers in Neuroscience
1924:The Journal of Physiology
1864:10.1109/TBME.1967.4502494
1654:Journal of Motor Behavior
1627:10.1080/17470215208416600
999:10.1152/jn.1977.40.6.1432
732:Multi-component movements
693:Planning in motor control
637:information based control
631:Information based control
408:neurons are activated by
195:Henneman's size principle
5438:Cultural group selection
5322:Biocultural anthropology
5015:Societal impacts of cars
4948:Media naturalness theory
4638:Fight-or-flight response
4174:Brain–computer interface
4123:Neuromorphic engineering
4048:Educational neuroscience
3955:Nutritional neuroscience
3860:Clinical neurophysiology
3756:Integrative neuroscience
3640:10.4103/1947-489X.210753
3569:10.1177/0963721411416572
3531:10.1109/TRO.2009.2033331
3290:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00615
2370:10.3389/fnbot.2018.00057
2268:10.3389/fnins.2014.00436
2110:10.3389/fncom.2013.00136
1918:Matthews PB (May 1986).
1818:10.3389/fbioe.2017.00078
767:Multisensory integration
95:multisensory integration
5638:Evolutionary psychology
5602:Sociocultural evolution
5443:Dual inheritance theory
4900:Personality development
4361:Theoretical foundations
4338:Evolutionary psychology
3985:Behavioral neuroscience
2934:, Hogan N (July 1985).
2712:10.1126/science.7569931
1544:10.1126/science.1231828
1295:Trends in Neurosciences
657:naĂŻve or direct realism
5560:Social constructionism
5555:Psychological nativism
5530:Biological determinism
5478:Recent human evolution
5473:Punctuated equilibrium
5296:Behavioral epigenetics
5291:evolutionary economics
5260:Variability hypothesis
5205:Emotional intelligence
4938:Engineering psychology
4628:Evolution of the brain
3980:Affective neuroscience
3761:Molecular neuroscience
3716:Behavioral epigenetics
3369:Psychological Bulletin
2985:Biological Cybernetics
2180:Biological Cybernetics
931:. TED Conferences, LLC
782:Sensory-motor coupling
457:see "Redundancy" below
378:central nervous system
287:pre-Boetzinger complex
283:stomachs of arthropods
5587:Multilineal evolution
5550:Nature versus nurture
5509:Theoretical positions
5357:Functional psychology
5352:Evolutionary medicine
5327:Biological psychiatry
5035:Texting while driving
5025:Lead–crime hypothesis
4885:Cognitive development
4870:Caregiver deprivation
4381:Gene selection theory
4043:Cultural neuroscience
4038:Consumer neuroscience
3880:Neurogastroenterology
3736:Cellular neuroscience
2651:(5 Pt 2): 3208–3224.
2192:10.1007/s004220100279
833:Rosenbaum DA (1991).
661:ecological perception
432:observed in infants.
425:Polysynaptic reflexes
293:Sensorimotor feedback
47:is the regulation of
5540:Cultural determinism
5347:Evolutionary biology
5332:Cognitive psychology
5280:Academic disciplines
4928:Cognitive ergonomics
4895:Language acquisition
4875:Childhood attachment
4688:Wason selection task
4582:Behavioral modernity
4371:Cognitive revolution
4354:Evolutionary thought
4015:Sensory neuroscience
3855:Behavioral neurology
3826:Systems neuroscience
3548:Research in athletes
2746:Psychological Review
2224:Bernstein N (1967).
2062:10.1123/mcj.11.3.276
1660:(2): 111-150 (116).
1204:(6): 1065–1081.e23.
792:Psychomotor learning
354:feed forward control
5607:Unilineal evolution
5372:Population genetics
5157:Sexy son hypothesis
5095:Hormonal motivation
5075:Concealed ovulation
4616:Dual process theory
4487:Parental investment
4158:Social neuroscience
4058:Global neurosurgery
3935:Neurorehabilitation
3905:Neuro-ophthalmology
3890:Neurointensive care
3721:Behavioral genetics
3420:2019NatSR...920101P
3230:2012PLSCB...8E2716R
3175:(31): 10507–10516.
3122:Nature Neuroscience
3040:1998Natur.394..780H
2704:1995Sci...269.1880W
2698:(5232): 1880–1882.
2312:(23): 10105–10115.
2011:1973Sci...179..501E
1972:Schmidt RA (1988).
1762:1966Sci...151..593T
1715:Schmidt RA (1982).
1536:2013Sci...340..157S
1355:10.7554/eLife.56754
1141:Pearson KG (2004).
1065:Nature Neuroscience
835:Human motor control
680:Behavioral dynamics
579:indirect perception
414:alpha motor neurons
401:monosynaptic reflex
337:Closed loop control
326:Closed loop control
298:Response to stimuli
83:sensory information
61:voluntary movements
5565:Social determinism
5448:Fisher's principle
5408:Great ape language
5398:Cultural evolution
5367:Philosophy of mind
5200:Division of labour
5162:Westermarck effect
5110:Mating preferences
5020:Distracted driving
4754:Literary criticism
4611:Domain specificity
4591:modularity of mind
4234:Neuroimmune system
4128:Neurophenomenology
4068:Neural engineering
3791:Neuroendocrinology
3771:Neural engineering
3408:Scientific Reports
2997:10.1007/BF00204593
2789:Gibson JJ (1986).
1395:Burrows M (1996).
952:Kernell D (2006).
777:Sensory processing
757:Motor coordination
468:degrees of freedom
316:Franciscus Donders
162:the rectus femoris
5673:
5672:
5651:Psychology portal
5615:
5614:
5458:Hologenome theory
5428:Unit of selection
5423:Primate cognition
5337:Cognitive science
5268:
5267:
5139:Sexual attraction
5115:Mating strategies
4880:Cinderella effect
4810:Moral foundations
4714:Visual perception
4606:Domain generality
4575:Facial expression
4523:Sexual dimorphism
4482:Natural selection
4428:Hamiltonian spite
4304:
4303:
4153:Paleoneurobiology
4088:Neuroepistemology
4063:Neuroanthropology
4029:Interdisciplinary
3915:Neuropharmacology
3875:Neuroepidemiology
3501:978-0-262-19508-9
3474:978-0-7360-7961-7
3128:(11): 1226–1235.
3034:(6695): 780–784.
2833:978-0-13-214791-0
2818:Direct Perception
2800:978-0-89859-959-6
2235:978-0-08-011940-3
2161:978-0-19-533316-9
2142:Latash M (2008).
2005:(4072): 501–503.
1983:978-0-87322-115-3
1896:978-0-07-112000-5
1756:(3710): 593–594.
1726:978-0-931250-21-7
1701:978-0-12-665950-4
1575:Acta Psychologica
1530:(6129): 157–161.
1500:978-0-262-19508-9
1408:978-0-585-21080-3
1164:978-0-444-51389-2
1119:978-0-262-19508-9
1071:(11): 1226–1235.
963:978-0-19-852655-1
869:978-0-12-227210-3
844:978-0-12-597300-7
810:Sibson F (1850).
653:Direct perception
648:Direct perception
530:Nikolai Bernstein
449:Nikolai Bernstein
358:Open loop control
344:Open loop control
181:Recruitment order
138:action potentials
99:signal processing
16:(Redirected from
5693:
5660:
5647:
5634:
5633:
5277:
5273:Related subjects
5060:Adult attachment
4587:Cognitive module
4543:
4530:Social selection
4504:Costly signaling
4499:Sexual selection
4386:Modern synthesis
4331:
4324:
4317:
4308:
4292:
4291:
4280:
4279:
4194:Detection theory
4078:Neurocriminology
4005:Neurolinguistics
3920:Neuroprosthetics
3838:
3801:Neuroinformatics
3751:Imaging genetics
3673:
3666:
3659:
3650:
3644:
3642:
3617:
3592:(8): 1209–1219.
3586:Neuropsychologia
3580:
3542:
3513:
3486:
3450:
3449:
3439:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3347:
3336:10.1037/h0092992
3319:
3313:
3312:
3302:
3292:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3251:
3241:
3224:(10): e1002716.
3209:
3203:
3202:
3192:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3091:10.1037/h0055392
3074:
3068:
3067:
3023:
3017:
3016:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2963:
2946:(7): 1688–1703.
2928:
2922:
2921:
2911:
2900:10.1037/a0023510
2894:(5): 1442–1457.
2879:
2873:
2872:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2821:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2761:
2741:
2732:
2731:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2670:
2660:
2636:
2627:
2626:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2474:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2433:
2423:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2382:
2372:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2331:
2321:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2280:
2270:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2175:
2166:
2165:
2149:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2122:
2112:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2045:
2039:
2038:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1969:
1958:
1957:
1947:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1830:
1820:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1687:
1678:
1677:
1649:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1608:Hick WE (1952).
1605:
1599:
1598:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1459:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1375:
1357:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1290:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1221:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1179:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1028:(6): 3024–3026.
1017:
1011:
1010:
993:(6): 1432–1443.
982:
976:
975:
949:
940:
939:
937:
936:
924:
918:
917:
907:
883:
874:
873:
855:
849:
848:
830:
824:
823:
807:
641:cognitive models
333:feedback control
193:and is known as
67:and involuntary
32:Motor controller
21:
5701:
5700:
5696:
5695:
5694:
5692:
5691:
5690:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5669:
5611:
5597:Neoevolutionism
5504:
5488:Species complex
5453:Group selection
5391:Research topics
5386:
5362:Neuropsychology
5264:
5250:Substance abuse
5172:Sex differences
5166:
5080:Coolidge effect
5041:
4953:Neuroergonomics
4918:
4909:
4833:
4735:
4669:Folk psychology
4550:
4534:
4404:
4397:
4340:
4335:
4305:
4300:
4268:
4254:Neurotechnology
4249:Neuroplasticity
4244:Neuromodulation
4239:Neuromanagement
4162:
4133:Neurophilosophy
4030:
4024:
4010:Neuropsychology
3971:
3964:
3925:Neuropsychiatry
3885:Neuroimmunology
3870:Neurocardiology
3846:
3839:
3830:
3821:Neurophysiology
3811:Neuromorphology
3766:Neural decoding
3707:
3700:
3682:
3677:
3647:
3620:
3583:
3554:
3550:
3545:
3516:
3502:
3489:
3475:
3462:
3458:
3456:Further reading
3453:
3401:
3400:
3396:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3345:2027/hvd.hb16pk
3321:
3320:
3316:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3025:
3024:
3020:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2759:10.1.1.536.7948
2743:
2742:
2735:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2638:
2637:
2630:
2609:(11): R11–R16.
2600:
2599:
2595:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2223:
2222:
2215:
2177:
2176:
2169:
2162:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2047:
2046:
2042:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1971:
1970:
1961:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1897:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1727:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1689:
1688:
1681:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1501:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1409:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1292:
1291:
1284:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1177:
1175:
1165:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1120:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1019:
1018:
1014:
984:
983:
979:
964:
951:
950:
943:
934:
932:
926:
925:
921:
885:
884:
877:
870:
857:
856:
852:
845:
832:
831:
827:
809:
808:
804:
800:
743:
734:
721:Optimal control
700:
695:
682:
650:
633:
617:
596:
575:
566:internal models
561:
544:
515:
481:
438:
410:muscle spindles
387:
367:
346:
328:
300:
295:
254:
211:
206:
191:Elwood Henneman
183:
160:. For example,
150:
130:
63:, subconscious
55:that possess a
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5699:
5697:
5689:
5688:
5678:
5677:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5667:
5654:
5641:
5628:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5613:
5612:
5610:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5573:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5518:
5512:
5510:
5506:
5505:
5503:
5502:
5501:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5394:
5392:
5388:
5387:
5385:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5302:
5293:
5283:
5281:
5274:
5270:
5269:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5176:
5174:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5141:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5051:
5049:
5043:
5042:
5040:
5039:
5038:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4980:Mind-blindness
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4956:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4924:
4922:
4911:
4910:
4908:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4854:
4849:
4843:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4831:
4826:
4825:
4824:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4780:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4756:
4745:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4692:
4691:
4690:
4685:
4675:
4673:theory of mind
4666:
4657:
4656:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4584:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4556:
4554:
4540:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4532:
4527:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4506:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4468:
4467:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4440:Baldwin effect
4437:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4415:
4409:
4407:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4395:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4326:
4319:
4311:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4286:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4266:
4264:Self-awareness
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4219:Neurodiversity
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4118:Neuromarketing
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4093:Neuroesthetics
4090:
4085:
4083:Neuroeconomics
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4034:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3976:
3974:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3930:Neuroradiology
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3910:Neuropathology
3907:
3902:
3900:Neuro-oncology
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3851:
3849:
3841:
3840:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3786:Neurochemistry
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3712:
3710:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3653:
3646:
3645:
3618:
3581:
3563:(5): 301–306.
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3525:(1): 142–159.
3514:
3500:
3487:
3473:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3394:
3375:(3): 342–357.
3359:
3314:
3263:
3204:
3155:
3112:
3085:(6): 381–391.
3069:
3018:
2975:
2923:
2874:
2855:(2): 343–362.
2839:
2832:
2806:
2799:
2781:
2752:(2): 358–389.
2733:
2682:
2628:
2593:
2566:(6): 718–727.
2550:
2531:
2512:(3): 351–354.
2496:
2445:
2394:
2343:
2292:
2241:
2234:
2213:
2167:
2160:
2134:
2083:
2056:(3): 276–308.
2040:
1989:
1982:
1959:
1910:
1895:
1877:
1858:(3): 167–171.
1842:
1791:
1740:
1725:
1707:
1700:
1679:
1641:
1600:
1565:
1514:
1499:
1479:
1422:
1407:
1387:
1328:
1301:(6): 270–279.
1282:
1233:
1184:
1163:
1133:
1118:
1098:
1055:
1012:
977:
962:
941:
919:
898:(3): 425–442.
875:
868:
850:
843:
825:
801:
799:
796:
795:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
772:Proprioception
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
747:Motor learning
742:
739:
733:
730:
699:
696:
694:
691:
681:
678:
649:
646:
632:
629:
620:Inverse models
616:
615:Inverse models
613:
599:Forward models
595:
594:Forward models
592:
574:
571:
560:
557:
543:
540:
514:
511:
485:motor programs
480:
479:Motor Programs
477:
437:
434:
386:
383:
366:
363:
345:
342:
327:
324:
299:
296:
294:
291:
279:proprioceptors
253:
250:
242:
241:
238:
231:
228:
225:
222:
210:
207:
203:
182:
179:
149:
146:
129:
126:
122:Randy Flanagan
118:Daniel Wolpert
87:proprioception
57:nervous system
39:Motor Function
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5698:
5687:
5686:Motor control
5684:
5683:
5681:
5666:
5665:
5659:
5655:
5653:
5652:
5646:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5629:
5627:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5618:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5592:Neo-Darwinism
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5577:Functionalism
5575:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5535:Connectionism
5533:
5531:
5528:
5527:
5526:
5525:indeterminism
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5513:
5511:
5507:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5430:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5389:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5275:
5271:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5245:Schizophrenia
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5230:Mental health
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5173:
5169:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5105:Mate guarding
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5065:Age disparity
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5044:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5017:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4995:Schizophrenia
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4920:Mental health
4916:
4915:Human factors
4912:
4906:
4905:Socialization
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4865:paternal bond
4862:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4827:
4823:
4820:
4819:
4818:
4815:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4772:
4769:
4768:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4738:
4730:
4729:NaĂŻve physics
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4695:Motor control
4693:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4658:
4654:
4653:Ophidiophobia
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4643:Arachnophobia
4641:
4640:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4570:Display rules
4568:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4548:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4531:
4528:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4472:Kin selection
4470:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4400:
4394:
4391:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4366:Adaptationism
4364:
4363:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4339:
4332:
4327:
4325:
4320:
4318:
4313:
4312:
4309:
4297:
4296:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4275:
4274:
4271:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4148:Neurotheology
4146:
4144:
4143:Neurorobotics
4141:
4139:
4138:Neuropolitics
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4103:Neuroethology
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4027:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
4000:Motor control
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3990:Chronobiology
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3967:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3950:Neurovirology
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3850:
3848:
3842:
3837:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3796:Neurogenetics
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3731:Brain-reading
3729:
3727:
3726:Brain mapping
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3685:
3681:
3674:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3655:
3654:
3651:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3497:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3447:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3398:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3318:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3205:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3134:10.1038/nn963
3131:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3048:10.1038/29528
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2991:(2): 89–101.
2990:
2986:
2979:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2843:
2840:
2835:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2810:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2242:
2237:
2231:
2227:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2138:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2050:Motor Control
2044:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1990:
1985:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1483:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1185:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1111:
1110:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:10.1038/nn963
1074:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
981:
978:
973:
969:
965:
959:
955:
948:
946:
942:
930:
923:
920:
915:
911:
906:
901:
897:
893:
889:
882:
880:
876:
871:
865:
861:
854:
851:
846:
840:
836:
829:
826:
822:
817:
813:
806:
803:
797:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
744:
740:
738:
731:
729:
725:
722:
718:
712:
710:
705:
697:
692:
690:
688:
679:
677:
673:
671:
666:
662:
658:
654:
647:
645:
642:
638:
630:
628:
624:
621:
614:
612:
608:
605:
600:
593:
591:
589:
584:
580:
572:
570:
567:
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154:muscle fibers
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71:, as well as
70:
66:
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62:
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45:Motor control
40:
33:
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18:Motor Control
5662:
5649:
5636:
5623:
5382:Sociobiology
5240:Neuroscience
5220:Intelligence
4766:Anthropology
4719:Color vision
4704:Multitasking
4694:
4683:Flynn effect
4678:Intelligence
4660:Folk biology
4403:Evolutionary
4293:
4281:
4229:Neuroimaging
4224:Neurogenesis
4108:Neurohistory
4073:Neurobiotics
3999:
3972:neuroscience
3940:Neurosurgery
3865:Epileptology
3847:neuroscience
3816:Neurophysics
3806:Neurometrics
3781:Neurobiology
3776:Neuroanatomy
3746:Connectomics
3680:Neuroscience
3633:(2): 32–39.
3630:
3626:
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1439:
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1187:
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1146:
1136:
1108:
1101:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1025:
1021:
1015:
990:
986:
980:
953:
933:. Retrieved
922:
895:
891:
859:
853:
834:
828:
819:
815:
805:
762:Motor cortex
735:
726:
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271:
255:
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216:
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184:
175:biomechanics
171:
151:
131:
115:
107:biomechanics
103:coordination
80:
44:
43:
5521:Determinism
5433:Coevolution
5377:Primatology
5215:Gender role
5120:Orientation
5000:Screen time
4857:Affectional
4839:Development
4518:Mate choice
4445:By-products
4413:Adaptations
4376:Cognitivism
4098:Neuroethics
3945:Neurotology
2603:NeuroReport
1581:: 412–431.
752:Motor skill
665:affordances
406:Ia afferent
73:instinctual
5468:Population
5463:Lamarckism
5309:behavioral
5287:Behavioral
5235:Narcissism
5180:Aggression
4970:Hypophobia
4960:Depression
4847:Attachment
4829:Universals
4793:Psychology
4771:Biological
4759:Musicology
4749:Aesthetics
4648:Basophobia
4455:Exaptation
4433:Reciprocal
4259:Neurotoxin
3960:Psychiatry
1442:: 102515.
1348:: e56754.
1178:2022-08-18
935:2020-03-27
798:References
717:Fitts' Law
670:ecological
555:research.
552:Perception
548:processing
519:redundancy
513:Redundancy
320:Hick's law
158:motor unit
5313:cognitive
5305:Affective
5190:Cognition
5144:Sexuality
5130:Pair bond
4890:Education
4547:Cognition
4465:Inclusive
4405:processes
4393:Criticism
4204:Neurochip
3970:Cognitive
3895:Neurology
3483:814261802
3150:205441511
2754:CiteSeerX
2526:145550278
2465:(1): 28.
2414:(1): 63.
1905:541621060
1735:856829418
1560:206546163
1474:246873548
1364:2050-084X
1253:: 63–70.
1093:205441511
583:Ames room
523:Synergies
436:Synergies
267:arthropod
111:cognition
53:organisms
49:movements
5680:Category
5582:Memetics
5342:Ethology
5300:genetics
5135:Physical
5100:Jealousy
5055:Activity
4861:maternal
4817:Religion
4805:Morality
4783:Language
4664:taxonomy
4477:Mismatch
4423:Cheating
4418:Altruism
4283:Category
4167:Concepts
4113:Neurolaw
3845:Clinical
3606:11931924
3577:15905566
3510:54529569
3446:31882708
3389:11393300
3354:61029674
3309:29379424
3258:23055916
3199:20685993
3142:12404008
3099:13174710
2918:21500936
2869:12760620
2776:16637765
2623:10943682
2580:10607637
2491:30770759
2440:31138257
2389:30319387
2287:25628523
2208:21724369
2200:11918210
2129:24133444
2070:17715460
2035:35097073
1837:29326926
1786:23105615
1674:15155169
1636:39060506
1552:23580521
1509:54529569
1466:35183877
1417:44954885
1382:32490810
1323:15960971
1277:25820136
1228:35245431
1173:14653157
1128:54529569
1085:12404008
1042:15914463
972:68260702
914:22078503
741:See also
440:A motor
392:reflexes
385:Reflexes
136:to fire
69:reflexes
5483:Species
5255:Suicide
5090:Fantasy
5070:Arousal
4852:Bonding
4741:Culture
4565:Display
4552:Emotion
4460:Fitness
4349:History
4295:Commons
3708:science
3696:History
3691:Outline
3614:7825661
3539:8415982
3437:6934494
3416:Bibcode
3300:5770750
3249:3464194
3226:Bibcode
3190:2926660
3064:4429717
3056:9723616
3036:Bibcode
3013:8099349
3005:2742921
2970:4020415
2961:6565116
2932:Flash T
2909:3140555
2728:2321011
2720:7569931
2700:Bibcode
2692:Science
2677:8182467
2668:6577492
2547:: 3–17.
2482:6377750
2431:6540541
2380:6167452
2338:9822764
2329:6793309
2278:4292368
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2146:Synergy
2120:3796759
2103:: 136.
2078:5839709
2027:4196171
2007:Bibcode
1999:Science
1954:3746703
1945:1182707
1872:6080533
1828:5733372
1778:4955315
1758:Bibcode
1750:Science
1595:5811531
1532:Bibcode
1524:Science
1457:9621599
1373:7347388
1315:7571002
1268:4523447
1219:8990337
1050:1136763
443:synergy
285:or the
142:muscles
91:muscles
5661:
5648:
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5225:Memory
5185:Autism
5152:female
5085:Desire
4822:Origin
4798:Speech
4788:Origin
4560:Affect
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960:
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258:humans
109:, and
5195:Crime
4778:Crime
4709:Sleep
4699:skill
4539:Areas
3706:Basic
3610:S2CID
3573:S2CID
3535:S2CID
3350:S2CID
3146:S2CID
3103:S2CID
3060:S2CID
3009:S2CID
2724:S2CID
2584:S2CID
2522:S2CID
2204:S2CID
2074:S2CID
2031:S2CID
1782:S2CID
1632:S2CID
1556:S2CID
1470:S2CID
1342:eLife
1319:S2CID
1089:S2CID
1046:S2CID
507:class
76:taxis
5148:male
4509:Male
3602:PMID
3506:OCLC
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3442:PMID
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910:PMID
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