1400:
large scale nuclear energy production facilities or it is repurposed/recycled for other energy uses. Proponents of nuclear energy also bring to attention the opportunity cost of utilizing other forms of electricity. For example, the
Environmental Protection Agency estimates that coal kills 30,000 people a year, as a result of its environmental impact, while 60 people died in the Chernobyl disaster. A real world example of impact provided by proponents of nuclear energy is the 650,000 ton increase in carbon emissions in the two months following the closure of the Vermont Yankee nuclear plant.
3769:
1426:
77:
1265:
time, for new concerns. The treatment of solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect similar to heat pasteurization of liquids, such as milk. However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.
1204:
36:
3757:
1412:
3781:
179:
957:
Nuclear power is a type of nuclear technology involving the controlled use of nuclear fission to release energy for work including propulsion, heat, and the generation of electricity. Nuclear energy is produced by a controlled nuclear chain reaction which creates heat—and which is used to boil water,
1283:
Food irradiation is essentially a non-nuclear technology; it relies on the use of ionizing radiation which may be generated by accelerators for electrons and conversion into bremsstrahlung, but which may use also gamma-rays from nuclear decay. There is a worldwide industry for processing by ionizing
1264:
The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating. This is the reason for new beneficial effects, however at the same
1151:
that gives rise to a small constant current. One is closed and serves for comparison, the other is open to ambient air; it has a gridded electrode. When smoke enters the open chamber, the current is disrupted as the smoke particles attach to the charged ions and restore them to a neutral electrical
487:
In natural nuclear radiation, the byproducts are very small compared to the nuclei from which they originate. Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into roughly equal parts, and releasing energy and neutrons in the process. If these neutrons are captured by another unstable nucleus,
734:
is more complicated than it might seem. Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation. It also is quite difficult to ensure that such a chain reaction consumes a significant fraction of the fuel
1256:
for life. Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities. Spoilage causing micro-organisms cannot continue their activities. Insects do not survive or become incapable of procreation. Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process. All
868:
is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas. Such a weapon would not have the explosive capability of a fission or fusion bomb, but would kill many people and contaminate a large area. A radiological weapon has never been deployed. While considered
1399:
Proponents of nuclear energy note that annually, nuclear-generated electricity reduces 470 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions that would otherwise come from fossil fuels. Additionally, the amount of comparatively low waste that nuclear energy does create is safely disposed of by the
1240:
is a more general term of deliberate exposure of materials to radiation to achieve a technical goal (in this context 'ionizing radiation' is implied). As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for
1276:
entitled "Irradiated Foods" states: "The types of radiation sources approved for the treatment of foods have specific energy levels well below that which would cause any element in food to become radioactive. Food undergoing irradiation does not become any more radioactive than luggage passing
1046:
Level indicators: Source and detector are placed at opposite sides of a container, indicating the presence or absence of material in the horizontal radiation path. Beta or gamma sources are used, depending on the thickness and the density of the material to be measured. The method is used for
500:
larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction. A mass of fissile material large enough (and in a suitable configuration) to induce a self-sustaining chain reaction is called a
896:. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, while China continued up until 1980. The last underground test by the United States was in 1992, the Soviet Union in 1990, the United Kingdom in 1991, and both France and China continued testing until 1996. After signing the
1235:
that might be present in the food. The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators. Further applications include sprout inhibition, delay of ripening, increase of juice yield, and improvement of re-hydration.
1092:
is used to help predict the commercial viability of new or existing wells. The technology involves the use of a neutron or gamma-ray source and a radiation detector which are lowered into boreholes to determine the properties of the surrounding rock such as porosity and
1260:
The amount of energy imparted for effective food irradiation is low compared to cooking the same; even at a typical dose of 10 kGy most food, which is (with regard to warming) physically equivalent to water, would warm by only about 2.5 °C (4.5 °F).
750:, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238. The latter accounts for more than 99% of the weight of natural uranium. Therefore, some method of
508:
When a neutron is captured by a suitable nucleus, fission may occur immediately, or the nucleus may persist in an unstable state for a short time. If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be
1364:. The earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011 caused serious damage to three nuclear reactors and a spent fuel storage pond at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan. Military reactors that experienced similar accidents were
1007:
are used, sometimes attached to organic molecules, to act as radioactive tracers or contrast agents in the human body. Positron emitting nucleotides are used for high resolution, short time span imaging in applications known as
1284:
radiation, the majority by number and by processing power using accelerators. Food irradiation is only a niche application compared to medical supplies, plastic materials, raw materials, gemstones, cables and wires, etc.
1002:
to make images of the inside of the human body using x-rays. This is the largest artificial source of radiation exposure for humans. Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources. A number of
1035:
and inspection. The piece to be radiographed is placed between the source and a photographic film in a cassette. After a certain exposure time, the film is developed and it shows any internal defects of the material.
559:
In 1951, the first nuclear fission power plant was the first to produce electricity at the
Experimental Breeder Reactor No. 1 (EBR-1), in Arco, Idaho, ushering in the "Atomic Age" of more intensive human energy use.
1050:
Thickness gauges: if the material is of constant density, the signal measured by the radiation detector depends on the thickness of the material. This is useful for continuous production, like of paper, rubber,
769:
possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable. Terrestrial plutonium does not currently occur naturally in sufficient quantities for such use, so it must be manufactured in a
2532:
1390:
in Japan. In the 1950s through 1970s, several nuclear bombs were lost from submarines and aircraft, some of which have never been recovered. The last twenty years have seen a marked decline in such accidents.
1245:, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones. Compared to the amount of food irradiated, the volume of those every-day applications is huge but not noticed by the consumer.
723:. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered
919:, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people. Generations of people grew up under the shadow of nuclear devastation, portrayed in films such as
857:
646:
Of course, these natural processes of astrophysics are not examples of nuclear "technology". Because of the very strong repulsion of nuclei, fusion is difficult to achieve in a controlled fashion.
341:, which is highly radioactive. They discovered that radioactive materials produce intense, penetrating rays of three distinct sorts, which they labeled alpha, beta, and gamma after the first three
1767:
681:) investigated it as a method to build a bomb. The project abandoned fusion after concluding that it would require a fission reaction to detonate. It took until 1952 for the first full
1850:
Bennett, James E.; Tamura-Wicks, Helen; Parks, Robbie M.; Burnett, Richard T.; Pope, C. Arden; Bechle, Matthew J.; Marshall, Julian D.; Danaei, Goodarz; Ezzati, Majid (July 23, 2019).
387:
as a result of their exposure. Radioactive patent medicines mostly disappeared, but other applications of radioactive materials persisted, such as the use of radium salts to produce
2720:
1280:
Food irradiation is currently permitted by over 40 countries and volumes are estimated to exceed 500,000 metric tons (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) annually worldwide.
1444:
2247:
2542:
1386:
test in 1954 produced a larger yield than expected, which contaminated nearby islands, a
Japanese fishing boat (with one fatality), and raised concerns about contaminated
1326:. Unlike conventional weapons, the intense light, heat, and explosive force is not the only deadly component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from
345:. Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts. All of the early researchers received various
3423:
674:. Technical and theoretical difficulties have hindered the development of working civilian fusion technology, though research continues to this day around the world.
310:, and not nuclear reactions. This is because atomic nuclei are generally kept apart because they contain positive electrical charges and therefore repel each other.
1126:
in rifle sights to increase nighttime firing accuracy. Some runway markers and building exit signs use the same technology, to remain illuminated during blackouts.
739:
is also more difficult than it might seem, since sufficiently unstable substances for this process do not currently occur naturally on Earth in suitable amounts.
563:
However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of
2227:
1486:
2549:
1980:
1802:
2315:
1836:
2818:
1327:
1058:- To avoid the build-up of static electricity in production of paper, plastics, synthetic textiles, etc., a ribbon-shaped source of the alpha emitter
861:
829:
455:
200:
187:
905:
1070:- Since radioactive isotopes behave, chemically, mostly like the inactive element, the behavior of a certain chemical substance can be followed by
1273:
853:
849:
841:
571:
to be built. Fast neutrons are not easily captured by nuclei; they must be slowed (slow neutrons), generally by collision with the nuclei of a
1764:
1081:
Adding a tracer to the surface of the component of a motor makes it possible to measure wear by measuring the activity of the lubricating oil.
1062:
can be placed close to the material at the end of the production line. The source ionizes the air to remove electric charges on the material.
2242:
1573:
1345:
refers to the more serious hazard of releasing nuclear material into the surrounding environment. The most significant meltdowns occurred at
901:
603:, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed. This process of fusion occurs in
1101:- Nuclear moisture/density gauges are used to determine the density of soils, asphalt, and concrete. Typically a cesium-137 source is used.
900:
in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing. Non-signatories
241:
3064:
1338:
2981:
3057:
2527:
2492:
1785:
1516:
1027:
Since some ionizing radiation can penetrate matter, they are used for a variety of measuring methods. X-rays and gamma rays are used in
94:
49:
1302:
Nuclear accidents, because of the powerful forces involved, are often very dangerous. Historically, the first incidents involved fatal
3679:
3263:
1379:
1334:
677:
Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the
Manhattan Project (led by
394:
As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer. Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so
2343:
2222:
1733:
934:
However, the tremendous energy release in the detonation of a nuclear weapon also suggested the possibility of a new energy source.
225:
160:
63:
3573:
3438:
1973:
821:. In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending
141:
3516:
3350:
3188:
2952:
2830:
2487:
2348:
1293:
113:
1152:
state. This reduces the current in the open chamber. When the current drops below a certain threshold, the alarm is triggered.
3506:
3355:
2813:
1341:
accidents primarily involve nuclear power plants. Most common are nuclear leaks that expose workers to hazardous material. A
650:
obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled. Controlled fusion is achieved in
98:
524:— a weapon which utilized fission reactions to generate far more energy than could be created with chemical explosives. The
454:. This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block. All three types of radiation occur naturally in
1699:
461:
It has also become clear that the ultimate source of most terrestrial energy is nuclear, either through radiation from the
3280:
3113:
2537:
2465:
1669:
1454:
1192:
of tools and equipment. An advantage is that the object may be sealed in plastic before sterilization. An emerging use in
897:
120:
3785:
1805:; tutorial presented to the International Meeting on Radiation Processing. Kuala Lumpur. 2006. last visited 2007-11-16.
1569:
3623:
3360:
3069:
2823:
2320:
1734:"IRRADIATED FOODS Fifth Edition Revised and updated by Paisan Loaharanu May 2003 AMERICAN COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND HEALTH"
1009:
3807:
3773:
3686:
3658:
3615:
3580:
3418:
3245:
3183:
3008:
2912:
2798:
2266:
1966:
912:
893:
724:
1852:"Particulate matter air pollution and national and county life expectancy loss in the USA: A spatiotemporal analysis"
1539:
1185:, where male insects are sterilized by radiation and released, so they have no offspring, to reduce the population.
958:
produce steam, and drive a steam turbine. The turbine is used to generate electricity and/or to do mechanical work.
127:
3466:
3145:
2663:
2620:
2472:
1346:
952:
590:
3118:
192:
87:
3761:
3443:
3052:
2835:
1417:
636:
443:
961:
Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel
3691:
3533:
3433:
3345:
2554:
2440:
2400:
2212:
1478:
1182:
109:
492:. The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as
3312:
556:
were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.
3563:
3538:
3152:
2929:
2735:
2658:
2615:
2598:
2559:
2482:
1189:
885:
881:
782:
616:
575:, before they can be easily captured. Today, this type of fission is commonly used to generate electricity.
502:
55:
1556:
Curtin
University of Technology. Archived from the original on 18 December 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
973:(so far economics and fears in some ports have prevented the use of nuclear power in transport ships). All
781:
manufactured nuclear weapons based on each of these elements. They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a
3428:
2715:
2259:
1032:
1028:
466:
520:, this insight led multiple countries to begin programs investigating the possibility of constructing an
3722:
3458:
3413:
2875:
2803:
2730:
2725:
2690:
2477:
2445:
2232:
2159:
1723:
anon., Food
Irradiation - A technique for preserving and improving the safety of food, WHO, Geneva, 1991
1314:
which resulted from her high levels of exposure. Two scientists, an
American and Canadian respectively,
1269:
877:
798:
731:
1078:
Adding a gamma tracer to a gas or liquid in a closed system makes it possible to find a hole in a tube.
3633:
3607:
3408:
3393:
2710:
2668:
2504:
2410:
2338:
1615:
1449:
1115:
991:
The medical applications of nuclear technology are divided into diagnostics and radiation treatment.
651:
3732:
3568:
3543:
3328:
2922:
2790:
2593:
2450:
2217:
2179:
2012:
1303:
1004:
999:
974:
865:
3712:
3448:
3285:
3212:
3023:
2673:
2643:
2627:
2610:
2254:
2144:
2092:
2042:
1354:
1216:
1066:
818:
751:
510:
399:
376:
1901:
599:. This process may release or absorb energy. When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of
513:, and the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an explosion.
134:
727:, and their use and control has been a major aspect of international policy since their debut.
2780:
2573:
2460:
2435:
2373:
2330:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2007:
1883:
1643:
1110:
1016:
870:
837:
778:
655:
572:
525:
470:
395:
1782:
1508:
3628:
2683:
2648:
2405:
2395:
2283:
2271:
2112:
2107:
2097:
2087:
2082:
1873:
1863:
1633:
1623:
1342:
1197:
1174:
1094:
986:
962:
759:
712:
564:
307:
268:
264:
256:
3268:
3108:
3047:
635:). The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to
3596:
3526:
3486:
3013:
2940:
2768:
2754:
2678:
2653:
2499:
2292:
2184:
2149:
2027:
2017:
1952:
1789:
1771:
1311:
1193:
1144:
927:
921:
771:
716:
568:
553:
482:
369:
318:
314:
297:
3018:
1955:
and nuclear technology – production, research, development, distribution, and information
1740:
1604:"The somatic effects of exposure to atomic radiation: The Japanese experience, 1947–1997"
977:
use fission. No man-made fusion reaction has resulted in a viable source of electricity.
1619:
1147:. Two ionisation chambers are placed next to each other. Both contain a small source of
3501:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3221:
3128:
3097:
3079:
2603:
2509:
2455:
2420:
2353:
2300:
2154:
2047:
2032:
2022:
1878:
1851:
1369:
1365:
1315:
1297:
1242:
1178:
1136:
720:
706:
697:
than fission reactions, but starting the fusion chain reaction is much more difficult.
663:
596:
584:
533:
489:
407:
380:
357:
346:
342:
276:
272:
260:
245:
1248:
The genuine effect of processing food by ionizing radiation relates to damages to the
3801:
3666:
2957:
2363:
2204:
1638:
1603:
1431:
1220:
948:
678:
647:
529:
427:
326:
832:, no nuclear weapons have been deployed offensively. Nevertheless, they prompted an
3232:
2368:
2310:
2237:
2189:
2059:
1383:
1358:
1350:
1319:
1253:
1129:
1089:
822:
786:
736:
694:
667:
517:
388:
330:
240:
880:
conducted since 1945. In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the
666:. However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss. Controlled, viable
17:
1868:
3643:
3290:
2880:
2387:
2358:
1803:
The development of food irradiation in the Asia
Pacific, the Americas and Europe
1691:
1307:
1237:
1166:
889:
711:
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from
671:
521:
435:
403:
361:
334:
76:
1608:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
375:
Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was
1577:
1439:
1407:
1323:
1257:
these effects are beneficial to the consumer and the food industry, likewise.
966:
802:
794:
790:
439:
423:
337:
began investigating the phenomenon. In the process, they isolated the element
469:
or by radioactive decay of uranium within the Earth, the principal source of
3638:
3001:
2991:
2119:
2072:
2037:
1628:
1459:
1425:
1148:
1140:
1059:
970:
833:
810:
766:
686:
640:
632:
545:
447:
365:
356:
The new phenomenon of radioactivity was seized upon by the manufacturers of
280:
3496:
1887:
1661:
1203:
178:
1647:
1543:
1382:
usually involve the loss or unexpected detonation of nuclear weapons. The
3727:
3521:
3370:
3365:
3305:
2974:
2902:
2885:
2870:
2845:
2588:
2077:
1915:
1815:
1268:
Detractors of food irradiation have concerns about the health hazards of
1224:
1170:
1123:
995:
916:
755:
682:
608:
549:
431:
402:
that
Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more fully understood.
1662:"Nuclear-Powered Ships - Nuclear Submarines - World Nuclear Association"
1211:
logo, used to show that a food has been treated with ionizing radiation.
911:
Nuclear weapons are the most destructive weapons known - the archetypal
3696:
3648:
3511:
3491:
2890:
2865:
2305:
2194:
2136:
2124:
2102:
2067:
1943:
1361:
1162:
1119:
869:
useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over
814:
747:
743:
690:
624:
620:
415:
398:(release matter or energy) after a random interval. The three forms of
350:
322:
303:
101: in this article. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3300:
3295:
3275:
3255:
3240:
3123:
2860:
2840:
2808:
1958:
1232:
1208:
860:
component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from
628:
612:
537:
451:
419:
411:
384:
338:
302:
The vast majority of common, natural phenomena on Earth only involve
813:
on August 6, 1945, followed three days later by the plutonium-based
2850:
1277:
through an airport X-ray scanner or teeth that have been X-rayed."
3717:
3674:
3337:
3193:
2996:
2986:
1228:
1202:
845:
806:
685:
bomb to be detonated, so-called because it used reactions between
659:
541:
325:
salts when he discovered a new phenomenon which came to be called
239:
1938:
248:
is the most familiar piece of nuclear technology for some people.
3198:
3087:
2897:
2855:
1387:
1373:
604:
600:
3593:
2765:
2752:
1962:
3171:
3035:
1249:
1031:
to make images of the inside of solid products, as a means of
797:, on July 16, 1945. The test was conducted to ensure that the
462:
172:
70:
29:
540:, developed multiple fission weapons which were used against
864:
died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure. A
693:. Fusion reactions are much more energetic per unit mass of
1951:– U.S. Government source of isotopes for basic and applied
1188:
In industrial and food applications, radiation is used for
442:, which unlike alpha and beta radiation are not matter but
1792:. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:246-253. retrieved 2007-11-15.
1330:
died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.
1042:- Gauges use the exponential absorption law of gamma rays
383:. Many of the scientists working on radioactivity died of
379:, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a
627:) as well as some of the heavy elements (beyond iron and
372:
and treatments involving radioactivity were put forward.
801:
of detonation would work, which it did. A uranium bomb,
1948:
1939:
Nuclear Energy Institute – Beneficial Uses of Radiation
1597:
1595:
836:
to develop increasingly destructive bombs to provide a
27:
Technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei
840:. Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the
1445:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
1215:
Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to
735:
before the device flies apart. The procurement of a
3705:
3657:
3614:
3556:
3457:
3387:
3336:
3327:
3254:
3220:
3211:
3170:
3163:
3143:
3096:
3078:
3034:
2939:
2921:
2789:
2703:
2636:
2581:
2572:
2520:
2428:
2419:
2386:
2329:
2291:
2282:
2203:
2135:
2058:
2000:
994:Imaging - The largest use of ionizing radiation in
662:can also produce controlled fusion and is a useful
2721:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
1801:C.M. Deeley, M. Gao, R. Hunter, D.A.E. Ehlermann.
595:If nuclei are forced to collide, they can undergo
1173:to produce new or improved species, such as in
3424:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1974:
1564:
1562:
1047:containers of liquids or of grainy substances
263:. Among the notable nuclear technologies are
8:
1015:Radiation is also used to treat diseases in
1272:. A report for the industry advocacy group
670:has proven elusive, despite the occasional
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3590:
3401:
3333:
3217:
3167:
3160:
2936:
2762:
2749:
2578:
2425:
2288:
1997:
1981:
1967:
1959:
275:. It is also used, among other things, in
1877:
1867:
1637:
1627:
226:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:Learn how and when to remove this message
203:of all important aspects of the article.
1902:"Nuclear Power and Energy Independence"
1702:from the original on September 21, 2017
1470:
488:they can fission as well, leading to a
3351:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
1672:from the original on February 14, 2013
1489:from the original on September 4, 2017
1274:American Council on Science and Health
199:Please consider expanding the lead to
3356:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
1765:NUCLEUS - Food Irradiation Clearances
1574:Radiation Effects Research Foundation
908:last tested nuclear weapons in 1998.
888:in the atmosphere, underwater, or in
7:
3780:
1719:
1717:
1139:includes a tiny mass of radioactive
99:adding citations to reliable sources
3361:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1949:National Isotope Development Center
1602:Schull, William J. (May 12, 1998).
1519:from the original on April 23, 2018
1196:is the sterilization of food using
2321:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
1395:Examples of environmental benefits
25:
2344:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
2243:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
1783:Food irradiation, Position of ADA
607:, which derive their energy from
287:History and scientific background
45:This article has multiple issues.
3779:
3768:
3767:
3755:
3444:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
1479:"Henri Becquerel - Biographical"
1424:
1410:
719:or a combination of fission and
552:. During the project, the first
255:is technology that involves the
177:
75:
34:
2533:Historical stockpiles and tests
1570:"Frequently Asked Questions #1"
1509:"A Brief History of Technology"
1294:Nuclear and radiation accidents
1157:Food processing and agriculture
467:stellar thermonuclear reactions
191:may be too short to adequately
86:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
3434:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
2316:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
1837:"Radioactive Waste Management"
1169:, radiation is used to induce
1135:Smoke detector: An ionization
516:When discovered on the eve of
406:is when a nucleus releases an
201:provide an accessible overview
1:
3762:Nuclear technology portal
1455:Outline of nuclear technology
1322:, died after mishandling the
1074:the radioactivity. Examples:
898:Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
852:followed on October 2, 1952;
754:based on the weight of three
3624:Field-reversed configuration
3234:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
1869:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002856
1010:Positron emission tomography
856:, on February 13, 1960; and
368:, earlier), and a number of
353:, and thought little of it.
3581:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2528:States with nuclear weapons
1692:"ISU Health Physics Radinf"
1143:-241, which is a source of
913:weapons of mass destruction
894:underground nuclear testing
884:, pledging to refrain from
765:Alternatively, the element
725:weapons of mass destruction
360:(as had the discoveries of
3824:
3419:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
2543:Tests in the United States
1291:
984:
953:Nuclear reactor technology
946:
732:design of a nuclear weapon
704:
591:Timeline of nuclear fusion
588:
582:
480:
295:
3749:
3604:
3544:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
3439:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
3404:
3246:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
2776:
2761:
2748:
1996:
1418:Nuclear technology portal
637:supernova nucleosynthesis
444:electromagnetic radiation
3449:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3065:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
2401:Electron-beam processing
1537:"Oklo Fossil Reactors".
1183:sterile insect technique
878:over 2,000 nuclear tests
3564:Organic nuclear reactor
2736:Nuclear power phase-out
2659:Nuclear decommissioning
2599:Reactor-grade plutonium
2349:Targeted alpha-particle
2228:Accidents and incidents
1629:10.1073/pnas.95.10.5437
1105:Commercial applications
1086:Oil and Gas Exploration
1023:Industrial applications
892:. The treaty permitted
886:testing nuclear weapons
882:Limited Test Ban Treaty
762:(isolate) uranium-235.
617:stellar nucleosynthesis
389:glowing dials on meters
381:severe long-term hazard
1540:"Oklo Fossil Reactors"
1376:in the United States.
1328:Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1212:
1033:nondestructive testing
1029:industrial radiography
862:Hiroshima and Nagasaki
619:, the light elements (
567:. This is what allows
249:
2726:Anti-nuclear movement
1746:on September 26, 2011
1580:on September 19, 2007
1270:induced radioactivity
1206:
1056:Electrostatic control
985:Further information:
947:Further information:
805:, was dropped on the
758:must be performed to
652:particle accelerators
615:. They form, through
532:with the help of the
243:
3634:Reversed field pinch
3429:Traveling-wave (TWR)
2913:Supercritical (SCWR)
2411:Gemstone irradiation
1546:on December 18, 2007
1450:Nuclear power debate
1219:in order to destroy
1116:tritium illumination
1005:radiopharmaceuticals
981:Medical applications
975:nuclear power plants
846:first fission weapon
426:is the release of a
110:"Nuclear technology"
95:improve this article
2799:Aqueous homogeneous
2594:Reprocessed uranium
2267:Safety and security
1904:. October 22, 2008.
1696:www.physics.isu.edu
1620:1998PNAS...95.5437S
1324:same plutonium mass
1254:genetic information
1067:Radioactive tracers
1000:medical radiography
866:radiological weapon
654:; this is how many
3808:Nuclear technology
3713:Dense plasma focus
2628:Actinide chemistry
2093:Isotope separation
1990:Nuclear technology
1944:Nuclear Technology
1788:2016-02-16 at the
1770:2008-05-26 at the
1380:Military accidents
1304:radiation exposure
1217:ionizing radiation
1213:
752:isotope separation
656:synthetic elements
418:, equivalent to a
377:ionizing radiation
317:was investigating
253:Nuclear technology
250:
18:Nuclear Technology
3795:
3794:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3692:Magnetized-target
3589:
3588:
3552:
3551:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3323:
3322:
3207:
3206:
3139:
3138:
2744:
2743:
2699:
2698:
2568:
2567:
2555:Weapon-free zones
2382:
2381:
2374:Radiopharmacology
1666:world-nuclear.org
1614:(10): 5437–5441.
1347:Three Mile Island
1177:. Another use in
1111:radioluminescence
1099:Road Construction
1017:radiation therapy
963:aircraft carriers
915:. Throughout the
871:nuclear terrorism
838:nuclear deterrent
779:Manhattan Project
713:nuclear reactions
573:neutron moderator
565:neutron absorbers
526:Manhattan Project
471:geothermal energy
257:nuclear reactions
236:
235:
228:
218:
217:
171:
170:
163:
145:
68:
16:(Redirected from
3815:
3783:
3782:
3771:
3770:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3670:
3629:Levitated dipole
3599:
3591:
3539:Helium gas (GFR)
3402:
3397:
3334:
3218:
3168:
3161:
3156:
3155:
2937:
2933:
2932:
2771:
2763:
2755:Nuclear reactors
2750:
2649:High-level (HLW)
2579:
2426:
2406:Food irradiation
2396:Atomic gardening
2289:
2272:Nuclear meltdown
2098:Nuclear material
2088:Fissile material
2083:Fertile material
1998:
1983:
1976:
1969:
1960:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1881:
1871:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1839:. February 2022.
1833:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1812:
1806:
1799:
1793:
1780:
1774:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1745:
1739:. Archived from
1738:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1641:
1631:
1599:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1576:. Archived from
1566:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1542:. Archived from
1535:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1475:
1434:
1429:
1428:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1343:nuclear meltdown
1198:food irradiation
1175:atomic gardening
987:Nuclear medicine
876:There have been
799:implosion method
777:Ultimately, the
658:are produced. A
569:nuclear reactors
554:fission reactors
456:certain elements
450:, and therefore
430:, a high-energy
370:patent medicines
308:electromagnetism
269:nuclear medicine
265:nuclear reactors
231:
224:
213:
210:
204:
181:
173:
166:
159:
155:
152:
146:
144:
103:
79:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3823:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3756:
3754:
3737:
3701:
3668:
3653:
3610:
3600:
3595:
3585:
3548:
3453:
3398:
3391:
3390:
3375:
3319:
3250:
3225:
3203:
3175:
3157:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3135:
3101:
3092:
3074:
3039:
3030:
2944:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2917:
2831:Natural fission
2785:
2784:
2772:
2767:
2757:
2740:
2716:Nuclear weapons
2695:
2654:Low-level (LLW)
2632:
2564:
2516:
2415:
2378:
2325:
2278:
2199:
2131:
2054:
1992:
1987:
1953:nuclear science
1935:
1930:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1909:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1862:(7): e1002856.
1849:
1848:
1844:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1796:
1790:Wayback Machine
1781:
1777:
1772:Wayback Machine
1763:
1759:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1715:
1705:
1703:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1673:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1583:
1581:
1568:
1567:
1560:
1549:
1547:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1492:
1490:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1430:
1423:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1397:
1312:aplastic anemia
1300:
1292:Main articles:
1290:
1194:food production
1159:
1145:alpha radiation
1107:
1025:
989:
983:
955:
945:
940:
928:The Atomic Cafe
922:Dr. Strangelove
772:nuclear reactor
709:
703:
701:Nuclear weapons
593:
587:
581:
511:prompt critical
485:
483:Nuclear fission
479:
477:Nuclear fission
410:, which is two
347:radiation burns
319:phosphorescence
315:Henri Becquerel
300:
298:Nuclear physics
294:
289:
277:smoke detectors
273:nuclear weapons
232:
221:
220:
219:
214:
208:
205:
198:
186:This article's
182:
167:
156:
150:
147:
104:
102:
92:
80:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3821:
3819:
3811:
3810:
3800:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3777:
3765:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3723:Muon-catalyzed
3720:
3715:
3709:
3707:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3620:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3594:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3571:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3463:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3414:Integral (IFR)
3411:
3405:
3399:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3342:
3340:
3331:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3260:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3165:
3158:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3090:
3084:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3044:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2949:
2947:
2942:
2934:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2778:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2758:
2753:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2731:Uranium mining
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2613:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2604:Minor actinide
2601:
2596:
2585:
2583:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2530:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2502:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2392:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2301:Autoradiograph
2297:
2295:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2023:Atomic nucleus
2020:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1946:
1941:
1934:
1933:External links
1931:
1929:
1928:
1907:
1893:
1842:
1828:
1807:
1794:
1775:
1757:
1725:
1713:
1683:
1653:
1591:
1558:
1530:
1500:
1483:nobelprize.org
1469:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1421:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1370:United Kingdom
1316:Harry Daghlian
1298:Nuclear safety
1289:
1286:
1243:food packaging
1221:microorganisms
1179:insect control
1158:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1137:smoke detector
1133:
1127:
1113:
1106:
1103:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1024:
1021:
982:
979:
944:
941:
939:
936:
850:United Kingdom
844:detonated its
830:these bombings
707:Nuclear weapon
705:Main article:
702:
699:
664:neutron source
648:Hydrogen bombs
597:nuclear fusion
585:Nuclear fusion
583:Main article:
580:
579:Nuclear fusion
577:
534:United Kingdom
490:chain reaction
481:Main article:
478:
475:
408:alpha particle
358:quack medicine
296:Main article:
293:
290:
288:
285:
246:smoke detector
244:A residential
234:
233:
216:
215:
195:the key points
185:
183:
176:
169:
168:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3820:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3788:
3787:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3766:
3764:
3763:
3752:
3751:
3748:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3704:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3681:
3680:electrostatic
3678:
3677:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3598:
3592:
3582:
3579:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3459:Generation IV
3456:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3409:Breeder (FBR)
3407:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3395:
3386:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3314:
3311:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3154:
3147:
3142:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3095:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3033:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2920:
2914:
2911:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2782:
2775:
2770:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2711:Nuclear power
2709:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2692:
2691:Transmutation
2689:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2488:high-altitude
2486:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2478:Proliferation
2476:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:Brachytherapy
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2160:Cross section
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1856:PLOS Medicine
1853:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1817:
1811:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1758:
1742:
1735:
1729:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1584:September 18,
1579:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1432:Energy portal
1427:
1422:
1419:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:sterilization
1186:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1156:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:is used with
1121:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1006:
1001:
997:
992:
988:
980:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
959:
954:
950:
949:Nuclear power
943:Nuclear power
942:
938:Civilian uses
937:
935:
932:
930:
929:
924:
923:
918:
914:
909:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
874:
872:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
775:
773:
768:
763:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
740:
738:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
708:
700:
698:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
679:Edward Teller
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
644:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
592:
586:
578:
576:
574:
570:
566:
561:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
530:United States
528:, run by the
527:
523:
519:
514:
512:
506:
504:
503:critical mass
499:
495:
491:
484:
476:
474:
472:
468:
464:
459:
457:
453:
449:
446:of very high
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
428:beta particle
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
348:
344:
343:Greek letters
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:radioactivity
324:
320:
316:
311:
309:
305:
299:
291:
286:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
261:atomic nuclei
258:
254:
247:
242:
238:
230:
227:
212:
202:
196:
194:
189:
184:
180:
175:
174:
165:
162:
154:
151:November 2006
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
115:
112: –
111:
107:
106:Find sources:
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
78:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
3784:
3772:
3753:
3733:Pyroelectric
3687:Laser-driven
3467:Sodium (SFR)
3394:fast-neutron
3233:
2779:
2669:Reprocessing
2550:WMD treaties
2369:Radiosurgery
2339:Fast-neutron
2311:Scintigraphy
1989:
1921:February 18,
1919:. Retrieved
1910:
1896:
1859:
1855:
1845:
1831:
1821:February 18,
1819:. Retrieved
1810:
1797:
1778:
1760:
1748:. Retrieved
1741:the original
1728:
1704:. Retrieved
1695:
1686:
1674:. Retrieved
1665:
1656:
1611:
1607:
1582:. Retrieved
1578:the original
1548:. Retrieved
1544:the original
1533:
1521:. Retrieved
1513:futurism.com
1512:
1503:
1491:. Retrieved
1482:
1473:
1398:
1384:Castle Bravo
1378:
1351:Pennsylvania
1339:radiological
1332:
1320:Louis Slotin
1301:
1282:
1279:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:, the basic
1247:
1214:
1187:
1160:
1130:Betavoltaics
1098:
1097:
1093:lithography.
1090:well logging
1085:
1084:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1055:
1054:
1039:
1038:
1026:
1014:
993:
990:
960:
956:
933:
926:
920:
910:
875:
842:Soviet Union
827:
823:World War II
785:code-named "
776:
764:
741:
737:nuclear fuel
729:
710:
676:
668:fusion power
645:
594:
562:
558:
518:World War II
515:
507:
497:
496:. Values of
493:
486:
460:
393:
374:
355:
349:, much like
331:Pierre Curie
312:
301:
252:
251:
237:
222:
206:
190:
188:lead section
157:
148:
138:
131:
124:
117:
105:
93:Please help
88:verification
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
3644:Stellarator
3608:confinement
3502:Superphénix
3329:Molten-salt
3281:VHTR (HTGR)
3058:HW BLWR 250
3024:R4 Marviken
2953:Pressurized
2923:Heavy water
2907:many others
2836:Pressurized
2791:Light water
2493:underground
2451:Disarmament
2359:Tomotherapy
2354:Proton-beam
2218:Power plant
2180:Temperature
2013:Engineering
1550:January 15,
1308:Marie Curie
1238:Irradiation
1167:agriculture
967:icebreakers
890:outer space
544:in 1945 at
522:atomic bomb
436:Gamma decay
404:Alpha decay
362:electricity
335:Marie Curie
3669:(acoustic)
3286:PBR (PBMR)
2674:Spent fuel
2664:Repository
2644:Fuel cycle
2611:Activation
2388:Processing
2255:Propulsion
2213:by country
2145:Activation
1466:References
1440:Atomic age
1310:died from
1088:- Nuclear
971:submarines
803:Little Boy
795:New Mexico
791:Alamogordo
631:, via the
589:See also:
465:caused by
440:gamma rays
424:Beta decay
281:gun sights
209:March 2011
121:newspapers
50:improve it
3639:Spheromak
3338:Fluorides
3002:IPHWR-700
2997:IPHWR-540
2992:IPHWR-220
2781:Moderator
2461:Explosion
2436:Arms race
2223:Economics
2175:Reflector
2170:Radiation
2165:Generator
2120:Plutonium
2073:Deuterium
2038:Radiation
2008:Chemistry
1916:"Climate"
1816:"Climate"
1460:Radiology
1366:Windscale
1355:Chernobyl
1333:Civilian
1288:Accidents
1171:mutations
1141:americium
834:arms race
811:Hiroshima
767:plutonium
715:, either
687:deuterium
641:R-process
633:S-process
546:Hiroshima
448:frequency
438:releases
422:nucleus.
400:radiation
366:magnetism
313:In 1896,
292:Discovery
193:summarize
56:talk page
3802:Category
3774:Category
3728:Polywell
3659:Inertial
3616:Magnetic
3371:TMSR-LF1
3366:TMSR-500
3346:Fuji MSR
3306:THTR-300
3146:Graphite
3009:PHWR KWU
2975:ACR-1000
2903:IPWR-900
2886:ACPR1000
2881:HPR-1000
2871:CPR-1000
2846:APR-1400
2637:Disposal
2589:Actinide
2582:Products
2441:Delivery
2284:Medicine
2113:depleted
2108:enriched
2078:Helium-3
2043:ionizing
1888:31335874
1786:Archived
1768:Archived
1750:March 5,
1700:Archived
1670:Archived
1517:Archived
1487:Archived
1404:See also
1225:bacteria
1124:phosphor
996:medicine
917:Cold War
906:Pakistan
819:Nagasaki
807:Japanese
789:", near
756:neutrons
683:hydrogen
609:hydrogen
550:Nagasaki
432:electron
416:neutrons
414:and two
3786:Commons
3697:Z-pinch
3667:Bubble
3649:Tokamak
3512:FBR-600
3492:CFR-600
3487:BN-1200
3153:coolant
3080:Organic
2965:CANDU 9
2962:CANDU 6
2930:coolant
2891:ACP1000
2866:CAP1400
2804:Boiling
2769:Fission
2616:Fission
2560:Weapons
2500:Warfare
2483:Testing
2473:History
2466:effects
2421:Weapons
2331:Therapy
2306:RadBall
2293:Imaging
2185:Thermal
2150:Capture
2137:Neutron
2125:Thorium
2103:Uranium
2068:Tritium
2048:braking
2028:Fission
2018:Physics
2001:Science
1879:6650052
1648:9576900
1616:Bibcode
1368:in the
1362:Ukraine
1357:in the
1335:nuclear
1233:insects
1229:viruses
1181:is the
1163:biology
1120:Tritium
1072:tracing
815:Fat Man
787:Trinity
748:uranium
744:isotope
717:fission
691:tritium
625:calcium
621:lithium
412:protons
351:sunburn
323:uranium
304:gravity
135:scholar
3597:Fusion
3557:Others
3497:Phénix
3482:BN-800
3477:BN-600
3472:BN-350
3301:HTR-PM
3296:HTR-10
3276:UHTREX
3241:Magnox
3236:(UNGG)
3129:Lucens
3124:KS 150
2861:ATMEA1
2841:AP1000
2824:Kerena
2704:Debate
2456:Ethics
2446:Design
2429:Topics
2260:rocket
2238:Fusion
2233:Policy
2195:Fusion
2155:Poison
2033:Fusion
1886:
1876:
1706:May 9,
1676:May 9,
1646:
1636:
1523:May 9,
1493:May 9,
1359:Soviet
1209:Radura
1040:Gauges
998:is in
854:France
848:. The
828:Since
760:enrich
721:fusion
639:, the
629:nickel
613:helium
538:Canada
452:energy
420:helium
385:cancer
339:radium
329:. He,
137:
130:
123:
116:
108:
3718:Migma
3706:Other
3675:Fusor
3574:Piqua
3569:Arbus
3527:PRISM
3269:MHR-T
3264:GTMHR
3194:EGP-6
3189:AMB-X
3164:Water
3109:HWGCR
3048:HWLWR
2987:IPHWR
2958:CANDU
2819:ESBWR
2574:Waste
2538:Tests
2521:Lists
2505:Yield
2248:MMRTG
2205:Power
1744:(PDF)
1737:(PDF)
1639:33859
1231:, or
902:India
858:China
809:city
660:fusor
605:stars
542:Japan
396:decay
142:JSTOR
128:books
3534:Lead
3517:CEFR
3507:PFBR
3389:None
3199:RBMK
3184:AM-1
3114:EL-4
3088:WR-1
3070:AHWR
3014:MZFR
2982:CVTR
2971:AFCR
2898:VVER
2856:APWR
2851:APR+
2814:ABWR
2684:cask
2679:pool
2621:LLFP
2510:TNTe
2190:Fast
2060:Fuel
1923:2022
1884:PMID
1823:2022
1752:2012
1708:2018
1678:2018
1644:PMID
1586:2007
1552:2008
1525:2018
1495:2018
1388:fish
1374:SL-1
1372:and
1353:and
1337:and
1318:and
1296:and
1207:The
1165:and
1051:etc.
969:and
951:and
925:and
904:and
783:test
742:One
730:The
695:fuel
689:and
672:hoax
611:and
601:iron
548:and
536:and
364:and
333:and
306:and
279:and
271:and
114:news
3606:by
3522:PFR
3313:PMR
3291:AVR
3213:Gas
3151:by
3119:KKN
3053:ATR
2968:EC6
2928:by
2876:EPR
2809:BWR
1874:PMC
1864:doi
1634:PMC
1624:doi
1349:in
1250:DNA
1161:In
817:on
746:of
623:to
463:Sun
321:in
283:.
259:of
97:by
3804::
3256:He
3222:CO
3098:CO
3019:R3
1882:.
1872:.
1860:16
1858:.
1854:.
1716:^
1698:.
1694:.
1668:.
1664:.
1642:.
1632:.
1622:.
1612:95
1610:.
1606:.
1594:^
1572:.
1561:^
1515:.
1511:.
1485:.
1481:.
1306:.
1227:,
1223:,
1200:.
1149:Am
1118::
1060:Am
1019:.
1012:.
965:,
931:.
873:.
825:.
793:,
774:.
643:.
505:.
473:.
458:.
434:.
391:.
267:,
59:.
3396:)
3392:(
3224:2
3176:O
3174:2
3172:H
3100:2
3040:O
3038:2
3036:H
2945:O
2943:2
2941:D
1982:e
1975:t
1968:v
1925:.
1890:.
1866::
1825:.
1754:.
1710:.
1680:.
1650:.
1626::
1618::
1588:.
1554:.
1527:.
1497:.
1132:.
498:k
494:k
229:)
223:(
211:)
207:(
197:.
164:)
158:(
153:)
149:(
139:·
132:·
125:·
118:·
91:.
66:)
62:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
