404:
can sense the pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and microbial associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). Detection of PAMPs triggers a physiological change in the cell activated by the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) initiating a cascade response which through the recognition of PAMPs and MAMPs lead to the plant resistance. The other type of defense is also known as effector-triggered immunity (ETI) which is the second type of defense mediated by R-proteins by detecting photogenic effectors. ETI detects pathogenic factors and initiates a defense response. ETI is a much faster and amplified system than PTI and it develops onto the hypersensitive response (HR) leading the infected host cell to apoptosis. This does not terminate the pathogen cycle, it just slows the cycle down.
720:
420:
molecular patterns (DAMPs). PTI is a way of responding against pathogen actions happening outside the cell, but a much stronger response like ETI is generated in response to effectors molecules. Once there is an induced resistance also known as priming, the plant can react faster and stronger to a pathogen attack. A known priming inducer is called β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) which is a non-protein amino acid.
296:(WAKs), receptors with nucleotide-binding domain (NLRs) and leucine-rich repeats (LRRs). All these R proteins play roles in detecting and recognizing pathogen effectors, initiating multiple signal transductions inside the plant cell, these signals transductions will lead to different responses that will aid in pathogen destruction and prevention of further infection. These responses are:
331:
ability of PRRs to recognize various pathogenic components relies on a regulatory protein called brassinosteroid insensitive 1 –associated receptor kinase (BAK1). Once the pathogen has been recognized by PRRs the release of a kinase into the nucleus has been transduced triggering a transcriptional reprogramming.
465:, expense, and laboratory work over time. In the future even better results are expected from ever larger data sets, across ever larger numbers of individuals and populations, with ever greater resolution due to both more accurate sequencing and post-sequencing computational comparison between individuals.
351:
Most R genes code for these immune receptor proteins. NLRs shifts its conformation from ADP state to and ATP state which allows it to send as signal transduction. The activation of NLRs is yet to be completely understood, according to current studies suggest that it is subject to multiple regulators
330:
This receptor is often composed of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs). LRRs have a wide range of bacterial (proteins), fungal (carbohydrates) and virulent (nucleic acids) recognition, this means that LRRs recognizes many different molecules but each LRRs usually has a very specific molecule it detects. The
426:
Some viruses have mechanisms that allow them to avoid or suppress the RNA-mediated defense (RMD) that some viruses induce in non-transgenic plants. Further studies have shown that this suppression of the host defense has been done by HC-protease (HCPro) encoded in the
Potyviral genome. It was later
419:
Pathogen elicitors are molecules that stimulate any plant defense; among these elicitors we can find two types of pathogen derived elicitors, pathogen/microbe associated molecular pattern (PAMPs/MAMPs), and also there is a second type which is produced by plants known as damage or danger associated
403:
A plant defense has two different types of immune system, the one that recognizes pathogen/microbes associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and this is also known as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI). Plant defense mechanism depends on immune receptors found on the plasma membrane and then the mechanism
359:
An overall overview about the mechanical interaction about a plant defense and the ability of a pathogen to infect a plant would be for instance such a common interaction between bacterial flagellin and receptor-like kinase which triggers a basal immunity sending signals through MAP kinase cascades
355:
Despite all these differences NLRs, PRRs, WAKs, effector trigger immunity (ETI) and PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) there are certain similarities such as in the mechanism of signal transduction which includes mitogen-protein kinase (MAPK) cascades through phosphorylation which will be, calcium ion
339:
The plant cell wall is conformed of pectin and other molecules. Pectin has abundant galacturonic acids which is the compound that WAKs recognizes after a foreign invasion in the plant. Every WAKs (WAK1 & WAK2) has an N-terminal which interacts with pectin in the cell wall when pectin is being
255:
Once the R protein has detected the presence of a pathogen, the plant can mount a defence against the pathogen. Because R genes confer resistance against specific pathogens, it is possible to transfer an R gene from one plant to another and make a plant resistant to a particular pathogen.
313:
Note that plants have various mechanisms to prevent and detect pathogenic infections, but factors such as geography, environment, genetic, and timing can affect the recognition pattern of a pathogen or can have an effect on the recognition of avirulent (avr) pathogens in plants.
407:
Plants have many ways of identifying symbiotic or foreign pathogens; one of these receptors causes fluctuations in the calcium ions and this fluctuation in the calcium ions. A transcription factor plays an important role in defenses against pathogenic invasion.
287:
Plant defense mechanisms depend on detection of fungal and bacterial pathogens. R genes protein syntheses are a way of identifying the pathogen effectors and stop their infection throughout the plant system. Molecules essential for pathogen defense are
200:/GDP. The LRR domain is often involved in protein-protein interactions as well as ligand binding. NB-LRR R-genes can be further subdivided into toll interleukin 1 receptor (TIR-NB-LRR) and coiled-coil (CC-NB-LRR).
360:
and transcriptional reprogramming mediated by plant WRKY transcription factors (Stephen T). Also plant resistance protein recognize bacterial effectors and programs resistance through ETI responses.
343:
Pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMPs) are often identified by lectins which is a protein that binds specific carbohydrates.
441:
Even though HcPro and the 2b protein have different protein sequence specific to their own virus, both target the same instrument of defense through different mechanisms.
1203:Łaźniewska J, Macioszek VK, Kononowicz AK (2012). "Plant-fungus interface: The role of surface structures in plant resistance and susceptibility to pathogenic fungi".
427:
stablished that HCPro was a mechanism used to suppress post-transcriptional gene slicing (PTGs). Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) uses a different protein called 2b (
945:
identifies a cerato-platanin protein (EPL1) as a potential pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) inducing systemic resistance in sugarcane".
264:
941:
Ashwin NM, Barnabas L, Ramesh Sundar A, Malathi P, Viswanathan R, Masi A, Agrawal GK, Rakwal R (October 2017). "Comparative secretome analysis of
237:
741:
454:
416:
Despite the sophiscation of plant defenses, some pathogens have evolved ways to overcome these defenses in order to infect and spread.
352:(dimerization or oligomerization, epigenetic and transcriptional regulation, alternative splicing, and proteasome-mediated regulation)
871:"Phosphorylation of an ERF transcription factor by Arabidopsis MPK3/MPK6 regulates plant defense gene induction and fungal resistance"
260:
1166:
Punja ZK (2001). "Genetic engineering of plants to enhance resistance to fungal pathogensa review of progress and future prospects".
763:
1117:"Arabidopsis WRKY33 is a key transcriptional regulator of hormonal and metabolic responses toward Botrytis cinerea infection"
559:"From perception to activation: the molecular-genetic and biochemical landscape of disease resistance signaling in plants"
479:
474:
1278:
734:
728:
665:
Lapin D, Bhandari DD, Parker JE (August 2020). "Origins and
Immunity Networking Functions of EDS1 Family Proteins".
610:
674:
230:
223:
1226:"Recruitment and interaction dynamics of plant penetration resistance components in a plasma membrane microdomain"
215:
423:
Successful pathogens evolve changes in their chemical conformation in order to avoid detection by PRRs and WAKs.
745:
508:
181:
197:
193:
192:
domain(s) and are often referred to as (NB-LRR) R-genes or NLRs. Generally, the NB domain binds either
17:
1333:
1293:
1237:
1175:
389:
188:
by producing R proteins. The main class of R-genes consist of a nucleotide binding domain (NB) and a
826:"Active photosynthetic inhibition mediated by MPK3/MPK6 is critical to effector-triggered immunity"
189:
153:
119:
85:
51:
986:"Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of NBS-LRR-s in wild relatives of eggplant (
1191:
1136:
694:
647:
539:
369:
309:
Production of different chemical compounds (terpenes, phenolic, tannins, alkaloids, phytoalexins)
268:
509:"Resistance gene cloning from a wild crop relative by sequence capture and association genetics"
507:
Arora S, Steuernagel B, Gaurav K, Chandramohan S, Long Y, Matny O, et al. (February 2019).
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R genes synthesize proteins that will aid with the recognition of pathogenic effectors:
1149:
1116:
1098:
1059:
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1016:
895:
870:
852:
825:
807:
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583:
558:
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1017:"Microbial signature-triggered plant defense responses and early signaling mechanisms"
1327:
698:
651:
458:
272:
1195:
543:
431:
1032:
925:
462:
229:
The R protein guards another protein that detects degradation by an Avr gene (see
842:
958:
276:
1230:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1224:
Bhat RA, Miklis M, Schmelzer E, Schulze-Lefert P, Panstruga R (February 2005).
1216:
634:
1187:
625:
527:
240:
or PAMP (alternatively called MAMP for microbe-associated molecular pattern).
158:
124:
1279:"Analysis of the genome sequence of the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana"
90:
56:
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1088:
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Su J, Yang L, Zhu Q, Wu H, He Y, Liu Y, Xu J, Jiang D, Zhang S (May 2018).
816:
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797:
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Hafeez AN, Arora S, Ghosh S, Gilbert D, Bowden RL, Wulff BB (July 2021).
208:
185:
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is a family of plant disease resistance proteins including the nominate
869:
Meng X, Xu J, He Y, Yang KY, Mordorski B, Liu Y, Zhang S (March 2013).
212:
1306:
912:
Hahn MG (1996). "Microbial elicitors and their receptors in plants".
611:"Creation and judicious application of a wheat resistance gene atlas"
574:
244:
203:
Resistance can be conveyed through a number of mechanisms including:
177:
275:, providing a large part of the immunity required by agricultural
248:
174:
170:
428:
385:
779:
Andersen EJ, Ali S, Byamukama E, Yen Y, Nepal MP (July 2018).
713:
1058:
Larkan NJ, Yu F, Lydiate DJ, Rimmer SR, Borhan MH (2016).
482:, unrelated groups of diverse pathogen resistance proteins
347:
Nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeats (NLRs)
1064:
461:
has eased this process, progressively requiring less
388:. The best studied examples of EDS1 and PAD4 are the
604:
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152:
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84:
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340:degraded to galacturonic acids by fungal enzymes.
1115:Birkenbihl RP, Diezel C, Somssich IE (May 2012).
33:Leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase
1277:Arabidopsis Genome Initiative (December 2000).
8:
1205:Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology
1305:
1259:
1249:
1148:
1097:
1087:
1040:
1005:
984:Dev SS, Poornima P, Venu A (April 2018).
966:
894:
851:
841:
806:
796:
781:"Disease Resistance Mechanisms in Plants"
764:Learn how and when to remove this message
633:
582:
207:The R protein interacts directly with an
67:Leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein
727:This article includes a list of general
434:) which is also a suppressor of PTGS in
994:Indian Journal of Agricultural Research
492:
101:TIR-NBS-LRR disease resistance proteins
131:
97:
63:
29:
18:Nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat
238:Pathogen-Associated Molecular Pattern
7:
1015:Wu S, Shan L, He P (November 2014).
326:Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
1168:Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology
683:10.1146/annurev-phyto-010820-012840
300:Production of Reactive Oxygen (ROS)
271:. R genes are of large interest in
259:Many plant resistance proteins are
733:it lacks sufficient corresponding
261:single-pass transmembrane proteins
25:
453:. Every advance in techniques of
374:enhanced disease susceptibility 1
718:
914:Annual Review of Phytopathology
667:Annual Review of Phytopathology
449:R genes are common subjects of
1033:10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.03.001
926:10.1146/annurev.phyto.34.1.387
1:
480:Pathogenesis-related proteins
335:Wall associated kinase (WAKs)
290:pattern recognition receptors
222:) product of a pathogen (see
843:10.1371/journal.pbio.2004122
475:Pattern recognition receptor
959:10.1016/j.jprot.2017.05.020
236:The R protein may detect a
1350:
1217:10.1016/j.pmpp.2012.01.004
1076:Frontiers in Plant Science
635:10.1016/j.molp.2021.05.014
224:Gene-for-Gene relationship
167:Resistance genes (R-Genes)
1188:10.1080/07060660109506935
557:Knepper C, Day B (2010).
528:10.1038/s41587-018-0007-9
190:leucine rich repeat (LRR)
135:TIR domain plant proteins
182:plant disease resistance
1251:10.1073/pnas.0500012102
1089:10.3389/fpls.2016.01771
943:Colletotrichum falcatum
748:more precise citations.
382:phytoalexin deficient 4
303:Hypersensitive Response
251:produced by a pathogen.
887:10.1105/tpc.112.109074
306:Closure of the stomata
294:wall associated kinase
243:The R protein encodes
27:Genes in plant genomes
1133:10.1104/pp.111.192641
1007:10.18805/IJARe.A-4793
947:Journal of Proteomics
436:Nicotiana benthamiana
798:10.3390/genes9070339
563:The Arabidopsis Book
516:Nature Biotechnology
391:Arabidopsis thaliana
318:Pathogen recognition
1298:2000Natur.408..796T
1242:2005PNAS..102.3135B
1180:2001CaJPP..23..216P
445:Genetic engineering
399:Signal transduction
364:Various other types
269:Toll-like receptors
218:2019-11-03 at the
1292:(6814): 796–815.
988:Solanum melongena
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412:Pathogen invasion
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16:(Redirected from
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265:receptor kinases
247:that degrades a
231:Guard Hypothesis
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628:: 1053–1070.
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1072:Pathosystem"
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463:linkage drag
451:gene cloning
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277:pathosystems
258:
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202:
180:that convey
166:
165:
1334:Plant genes
920:: 387–412.
746:introducing
677:: 253–276.
380:itself and
370:EDS1 family
356:signaling.
140:Identifiers
114:TIR-NBS-LRR
106:Identifiers
72:Identifiers
38:Identifiers
1027:: 118–26.
791:(7): 339.
729:references
626:Cell Press
487:References
455:sequencing
283:Background
154:Membranome
120:Membranome
86:Membranome
52:Membranome
1211:: 24–30.
699:218617308
652:234683221
395:members.
186:pathogens
1328:Category
1316:11130711
1270:15703292
1196:55728680
1159:22392279
1141:41496262
1108:27965684
1082:: 1771.
1066:Brassica
1060:"Single
1051:25438792
977:28546091
953:: 2–20.
934:15012549
905:23524660
862:29723186
817:29973557
691:32396762
644:33991673
593:22303251
569:: e012.
544:59603668
536:30718880
469:See also
459:transfer
292:(PRRs),
216:Archived
209:Avr gene
196:/ADP or
184:against
1294:Bibcode
1238:Bibcode
1176:Bibcode
1150:3375964
1099:5124708
1042:4254448
896:3634681
853:5953503
808:6071103
742:improve
584:3244959
432:PF03263
178:genomes
1314:
1286:Nature
1268:
1261:549507
1258:
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1157:
1147:
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1106:
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815:
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731:, but
697:
689:
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785:Genes
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540:S2CID
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249:toxin
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386:PAD4
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368:The
267:and
169:are
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1184:doi
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963:hdl
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