Nyāya Sūtras - Knowledge (XXG)

3814:, or as Fowler translates, "from cause to effect or a priori". Thus, if a path or road is wet or river is swollen, states the text, then "it has rained" is a valid knowledge. The sutras assert that the "universal relationship" between the two is necessary for correct, reliable knowledge, that is "if in all cases of A, B is true, then one may correctly infer B whenever A is perceived". Further, there is a causal relation between the two, whether one knows or not of that cause, but inferred knowledge does not require one to know the cause for it to be valid knowledge, states Nyayasutra. The text states one must not confuse coexistence as a universal relation, and that while deduction and induction both are useful and valid means for gaining true knowledge, it lists rules when this method can lead to false knowledge. 4407:, Nagarjuna, takes up each of the sixteen categories of knowledge in Gautama's Nyaya-sutras at the foundation of Nyaya's discussion of "soul exists and the nature of soul in liberation process", and critiques them using the argument that these categories are relational and therefore unreal. The Nagarjuna's texts, along with Gautama's Nyaya-sutras states Sanjit Sadhukhan, influenced Vatsyayana's work who called Nagarjuna's doctrine of voidness as flawed, and presented his arguments refuting Nagarjuna's theory on "objects of knowledge are unreal, like a dream or a form of jugglery and a mirage", but by first presenting his demonstration that the theory of reason and knowledge in the Nyaya-sutras are valid. 4077:, Sanskrit: कारण), particularly Book 4. Causes, in Nyaya view states Fowler, are "antecedents of their effects invariably and unconditionally". A specific effect is produced by a specific cause (plurality in causes is accepted). A specific cause produces a specific effect and no other (plurality in effect, or contradictory effect is not accepted). There cannot be reciprocity to a cause; either we misunderstand the cause or misapprehend the effect. The text rejects remote or supernatural causes, and rejects that qualities are causes. Causes are immediately antecedent, causes exist before an effect in time, and to know something is to understand the effect and the specific cause(s). 40: 6880: 4012:

with probability when it faces incomplete or inconsistent information. It is a knowledge that is possibly partially valid and partially invalid, but doubt is a form of knowledge that has positive value. Doubt is an invitation to "proceed to further investigation", asserts the text. All four means of knowledge discovery (perception, inference, comparison and testimony) may be useful in this investigation, but doubt is both a psychological state and a means to knowledge, not in itself a valid knowledge, according to the sutras.

3623: 3892:, asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly. He must rely on others, his parents, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining correct knowledge is either spoken or written, but it is through 8186: 8196: 3342:(Siddhartha Gautama) and Mahavira, to as late as the 2nd century CE. Some scholars favor the theory that the cryptic text Nyaya-sutras was expanded over time by multiple authors, with the earliest layer from about mid-first millennium BCE that was composed by Gautama. The earliest layer is likely to be Book 1 and 5 of the text, while Book 3 and 4 may have been added last, but this is not certain. 8175: 3747:

terms as the doctrine of convergence, and this doctrine includes direct or implied perception. Gautama defines perception as the knowledge that arises by the contact of one or more senses with an object or phenomenon. Gautama dedicates many sutras to discuss both the object and subject in the process of perception, and when senses may be unreliable. Erratic eyesight or other senses (

6626: 8206: 4376:(spirit, ultimate reality) and atman (selfhood, soul) exists, and Buddhism's premise that there is voidness and anatta (no-soul). In Nyaya-sutra, the Buddhist premises and arguments to refute those premise are found in many chapters, such as sutras of chapters 3.2, 4.1 and 4.2. The text has been influential in this debate, with the 2nd-century Buddhist scholar 3725:

in every field of knowledge, which can neither be proven nor needs proof, such as "I am conscious", "I think" and "soul exists". Furthermore, the text presents its thesis that knowledge is not self-revealing, one must make effort to gain knowledge and this is a systematic process that empowers one to learn correct knowledge, and abandon incorrect knowledge.

6618: 1122: 68: 3292: 3372:, as well as Buddhism. Despite their differences, these scholars studied with each other and debated ideas, with Tibetan records suggesting that Buddhist scholars spent years residing with Hindu Nyaya scholars to master the art of reasoning and logic. This cooperation has enabled scholars to place the currently surviving version of the 1890:. The date when the text was composed, and the biography of its author is unknown, but variously estimated between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE. The text may have been composed by more than one author, over a period of time. The text consists of five books, with two chapters in each book, with a cumulative total of 528 4021:

knowledge-seeker to "test the validity of his knowledge", both in assumptions or through practice (experience), but neither the object of knowledge nor the knowledge itself is responsible for errors; only the knowledge-seeker and his process of cognition is. The Nyaya theory shares ideas on the theory of errors with

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The Nyayasutras state that one must study the means of correct knowledge and hold discussions with the learned, sincere and unenvious fellow seekers of knowledge state sutras 4.2.47 and 4.2.48. One must, translates Phillips, take into account "consideration of personal character as well as the nature

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is attributed to Gautama, who was at least the principal author. According to Karl Potter, this name has been a very common Indian name, and the author is also reverentially referred to as Gotama, Dirghatapas and Aksapada Gautama. Little is known about Gautama, or which century he lived in. Scholarly

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thesis that all things are negative in nature (inasmuch as a thing's nature is constituted by its differences from others), or the Hindu thesis counter-arguing the Buddhist thesis, have been accepted, is still unclear because nothingness cannot be proved and existence of soul has been claimed solely

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The epistemic rationale for inference as a reliable source of knowledge, and Nyaya's theory has been a major contribution to the diverse schools of Indian Darshanaparampara, and other schools looked up to Nyaya scholars for insights on correct knowledge and incorrect knowledge through inference. The

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The Nyayasutras assert that perception is the primary proper means of gaining true knowledge. All other epistemic methods are directly or indirectly based on perception, according to the text, and anything that is claimed to be "true knowledge" must be confirmed or confirmable by perception. This it

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The Nyaya-sutras assert the premise that "all knowledge is not intrinsically valid", that "most knowledge is not valid unless proven" and "truth exists whether we human beings know it or not". However, states Fowler, the text accepts the foundation that "some knowledge is self evident" and axiomatic

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The theory of doubt, according to the Nyayasutras, starts with the premise that doubt is part of the human learning process and occurs when conflicting possibilities exist with regard to a cognized object. Doubt is neither error nor absence of knowledge, but a form of uncertainty and human struggle

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Presents correct knowledge is necessary and sufficient to destroy defects. Both whole and part must be known. Establishes external world exists, and phenomenon are as real as objects. Refutes the "everything is false" theory. Presents ways to produce and maintain correct knowledge, Need to seek and

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Nyayasutras' 3.2.10–17 present its argument against Buddhist "momentariness of everything", while sutras 4.1.37–40 challenge the "voidness of everything" premise of Buddhism, sutras 4.2.6–4.2.11 question its "whole is not separate from parts" premise, and sutras 4.2.26–37 present its refutation of

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states, "Nyaya is the traditional school of Hindu logic. In the early centuries BCE the Nyaya logicians undertook the project of describing the world in a coherent rational fashion and without reliance on revelation or a commitment to any particular deity. Nyaya's primary text, the Nyaya Sutras of

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and spiritualism of yoga in sutra 4.2.46. Meditation is a treasured and recommended practice in the text, and extensively discussed by Nyaya scholars that followed Aksyapada Gautama. Vatsyayana wrote in his commentary on Nyayasutras, for example, that meditation is that which enables the mind to

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Numerous other commentaries are referenced in other Indian historical texts, but these manuscripts are either lost or yet to be found. Starting around 11th- to 12th century CE, Udayana wrote a primary work, that built upon and expanded the theories on reason found in Nyayasutras. Udayana's work

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The text seeds the theory of negative entities, where both being and non-being, presence and absence of something is considered correct and useful knowledge. Absence of a book on a table or absence of particular color in a painting has a place in its epistemic process, in addition to positively

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Presents its theory of Doubt. Discusses epistemology, when perception, inference and comparison is unreliable and reliable. Theory that the reliability of testimony depends on the reliability of the source. Theory that the testimony in the Vedas are a source of knowledge and inconsistencies are

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is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven. Sutras were compiled to be remembered, used as reference and to help teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.

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or ordinary knowledge, where the five senses directly and clearly apprehend a reality, and this is true definite knowledge according to the text. It defines indefinite knowledge as one where there is doubt, and the text gives an example of seeing a distant stationary object in the evening and

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It is likely, states Jeaneane Fowler, that Nyaya and the science of reason stretch back into the Vedic era; it developed in the ancient Indian tradition that involved "dialectical tournaments, in the halls of kings and schools of Vedic philosophers", and Gautama was the one who distilled and

4199:, interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara, a reasoning that fueled the debate and disagreements on God in Neo-Nyaya and other Hindu traditions of 2nd millennium CE. 4020:

The Nyayasutra defines error as knowledge, an opinion or a conclusion about something that is different from what it really is. Gautama states in the text that the error is always in the process of cognition itself, or the "subjective self", and not in the object. It is the duty of the

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as a means of true knowledge depends on an agreed convention on what words mean, the structure of sentences, establishing context and their import. The source must be reliable and comprehensible, and the receiver of knowledge must be able to understand the knowledge therefrom.

6344:, page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; 4269:

of beliefs held by the opponent", in deciding the nature of one's discussions, according to Nyayasutras. In some cases, asserts the text, it is better to avoid arguing with hostile opponents and use methods of knowledge like "a fence is used to safeguard the growth of seeds".

3852:(perception), states the text, in using a linguistic referent and the foundation of pre-existing knowledge within the individual and what he learnt from his teachers, friends, family and past knowledge inherited from the wise, through a process of social cooperation. The 3767:(mind) is considered an internal sense, in the text, and it can either lead to correct or incorrect knowledge depending on how it includes, excludes or integrates information. These ideas are compiled, in later chapters of the text, into its treatise on 1908:

or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books. It set the foundation for Nyaya tradition of the empirical theory of validity and truth, opposing uncritical appeals to intuition or scriptural authority.

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The Nyāya Sūtras is a Hindu text, notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals. The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge. Book two is about

3384:, explicitly states, "sutra 4.2.25 is addressed against the Madhyamika system" of Buddhism. Other ancient Buddhist texts confirm that Nyayasutras existed before them, and the text is considered the primary text of old Nyaya school of Hinduism. 3908:

of reliable sources. The schools of Indian Darshanaparampara have debated if, how and when reliability of source can be objectively established. Gautama, in the Nyayasutras, offers a description for a reliable source. Some schools, such as

4285:. Vatsyayana's commentary has been variously dated to be from the 5th century CE, or much earlier around 2nd century BCE. Another often studied surviving commentary on the text is credited to Vacaspati Mishra from about 9th century CE. 3868:

epistemic methods. Comparison is, in Nyayasutras, the process of permeating or infusing hypothesis, examples and tests, thus leading to objectivity and correct knowledge about something new and what one already presumes to know.

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How to analyze opposing views, presents its theory of five-membered arguments, correct conclusions are those where contradictions do not exist, theory of reasoning methods that are flawed, what is a quibble and how to avoid it.

6296:, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self")." 4000:(Sanskrit: संशय, doubt) in sutras 1.1.23, 2.1.1 to 2.1.7, 3.2.1, 4.2.4 among others. This discussion is similar to those found in other schools of Hindu philosophy, expands on the theory of doubt presented by Kanada in the 3837:(knowledge). It is a means of gaining knowledge based on "similarity, comparison, analogy", and considered reliable in Nyaya and many schools of Indian Darshanaparampara (but not in Vaisheshika and Charvaka, or Buddhism). 3809:

Nyayasutras defines inference as the knowledge that follows or derives from other knowledge. It always follows perception, states the text, and is a universal relation or essential principle. One form of inference is a

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Like other schools of Hinduism, the Nyaya school holds the premise, "Soul exists, and Soul (or self, Atman) is a self evident truth". Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist, and An-atman (or

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created the foundation for Navya-Nyaya (new Nyaya) school. The Hindu scholar Gangesa of 13th- or 14th-century, integrated the Gautama's Nyayasutras and Udayana's Navya-Nyaya work, to create the influential

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declares the text's goal is to study and describe the attainment of liberation of soul from wrong knowledge, faults and sorrow, through the application of above sixteen categories of perfecting knowledge.

4146:. Verses 19–21 postulate that Ishvara exists and is the cause, states a consequence of the postulate, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid. 4537:, non-self) is self evident". Buddhists do not believe that at the core of all human beings and living creatures, there is any "eternal, essential and absolute something called a soul, self or atman". 3574:

Presents its theory of defects, then its theory that "everything has cause, and consequences", and its "some things are eternal, some non-eternal" theory. Defines and describes Fruits, Pain, Release.

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wondering whether it is a post or a man standing in the distance. In some of these cases, states Nyayasutras, correct knowledge is formulated by the principle of cumulative evidence.

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presents its theory of body, followed by theory of sensory organs and their role in correct and incorrect knowledge, states that the soul is not a sense organ nor an internal organ.

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Subject matter and statement of purpose of the text. Four reliable instruments of correct knowledge. Definitions. Nature of argument and nature of the process of valid proof.

3458:, ancient texts that have survived into the modern era. There are several surviving manuscripts of the Nyayasutras, with a slight difference in number of sutras, of which the 4431:

were synonymous, states Hajime Nakamura, in the earliest Dharmasutras of 1st millennium BCE. Over time, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Vedanta became three distinct and related schools.

6313:, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism". 3557:

presents its theory of soul (self, atman), that the essence of a person and source of judgments is the soul, states its "judgment is non-eternal" theory, presents theory of

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Instruments of knowledge are fourfold, Confusion caused by presumption and prejudice, Sound is noneternal theory, Theory of three meaning of words (vyakti, akrti and jati)

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JL Shaw (2000), Conditions for Understanding the Meaning of a Sentence: The Nyāya and the Advaita Vedānta, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 28, Issue 3, pages 273–293

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In Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1 examines what causes production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in the universe. It considers many hypotheses, including

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Sanjit Sadhukhan (1990), The conflict between the Buddhist and the Naiyayika Philosophers, Journal: Bulletin of Tibetology, Vol. BT1990, Issues 1–3, pages 39–54

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The first sutra 1.1.1 of the text asserts its scope and the following sixteen categories of knowledge as a means to gain competence in any field of interest:

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contact one's soul, which is accompanied by a conscious eagerness to get at the truth, and such meditation is an essential practice to gain true knowledge.

8242: 4044:), which leads to true knowledge. The five fallacies or errors, according to Nyayasutras, are to be avoided, in addition to watching for debating tricks ( 1088: 3521:

either defects or choices in the text, the best way to understand the Vedas is to divide it into three: injunction, descriptions and reinculcations.

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Liberation is impossible without knowledge of the real nature of the world. To achieve liberation and to know the soul, one must take shelter of

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The Nyayasutra is divided into five books, each book subdivided into two chapters each. The structure of the text is, states Potter, a layout of

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English translation: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press,

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The text, in sutras 1.1.32 and 1.1.39, presents its theory of proper arguments, stating that a proper argument must include five components:

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Francis X Clooney (2001), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press,

7271: 4040:) in sutra 1.2.4, discussing each in the sutras that follow, stating that these lead to false knowledge, in contrast to proper reasoning ( 1912:

The Nyaya sutras cover a wide range of topics, including Tarka-Vidyā, the science of debate or Vāda-Vidyā, the science of discussion. The

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John A. Grimes (2006), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,

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Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Indian Darshanaparampara, Sussex Academic Press,

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The Nyayasutras were influential to the Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, and provided the epistemological foundations. The terms

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is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread", and represents a condensed manual of knowledge of a specific field or school. Each

3380:(completed before) date of about the 2nd century CE, because one of the most famous and established Buddhist scholars of that era, 5954:

KK Chakrabarti (1978), The Nyaya-Vaisesika theory of negative entities, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 6, No. 2, pages 129–144

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John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,

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One may sum up the situation pretty safely by saying that we have not the vaguest idea who wrote the Nyayasutras or when he lived.

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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For history see: VS Sowani and VV Sowani (1920), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 87–98

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass,

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John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press,

2310: 4048:) used by those whose aim isn't true knowledge. The five forms of bogus reasoning identified by the text, states Ganeri, are: 8582: 7920: 4256:

in quiet places such as a forest, cave or sandy beach in sutra 4.2.42, that the knowledge seeker should purify one's soul by

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Bimal Krishna Matilal (1975), Causality in the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika School, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 41–48

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Bimal Krishna Matilal (1975), Causality in the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika School, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 42–44

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Other historical Indian commentaries and works inspired by Nyayasutras and which have survived into the modern era, include

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Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press,

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Stephen Phillips (1992), Review: Gadadhara's Theory of Objectivity, Philosophy East and West, Volume 42, Issue 4, page 669

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Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press,

5999: 3751:) can be a source of doubt or false knowledge, as can prejudgmental or prejudicial state of mind, states the Nyayasutras. 3622: 2193: 2065: 6576: 6567: 6555: 9384: 8983: 8098: 3856:

method is secondary, it relies on perception, combined with linguistic referent and context. Comparison is not isolated

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