245:. The resulting DC current can then be used to power an external load. The resonant frequency of antennas (frequency which results in lowest impedance and thus highest efficiency) scales linearly with the physical dimensions of the antenna according to simple microwave antenna theory. The wavelengths in the solar spectrum range from approximately 0.3-2.0 μm. Thus, in order for a rectifying antenna to be an efficient electromagnetic collector in the solar spectrum, it needs to be on the order of hundreds of nm in size.
522:) lithography. This process is slow and relatively expensive because parallel processing is not possible with e-beam lithography. Typically, e-beam lithography is used only for research purposes when extremely fine resolutions are needed for minimum feature size (typically, on the order of nanometers). However, photolithographic techniques have advanced to where it is possible to have minimum feature sizes on the order of tens of nanometers, making it possible to produce rectennas by means of photolithography.
156:
explicitly stating the use of sub-micron antennas for the direct conversion of light power to electrical power. Marks's device showed substantial improvements in efficiency over Bailey's device. In 1996, Guang H. Lin reported resonant light absorption by a fabricated nanostructure and rectification of light with frequencies in the visible range. In 2002, ITN Energy
Systems, Inc. published a report on their work on optical antennas coupled with high frequency
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the ground plane, the optical resonance cavity, and the antenna. The antenna absorbs the electromagnetic wave, the ground plane acts to reflect the light back towards the antenna, and the optical resonance cavity bends and concentrates the light back towards the antenna via the ground plane. This work did not include production of the diode.
233:. Incident light on the antenna causes electrons in the antenna to move back and forth at the same frequency as the incoming light. This is caused by the oscillating electric field of the incoming electromagnetic wave. The movement of electrons is an alternating current (AC) in the antenna circuit. To convert this into
710:: A large work function (WF) difference between the MWCNT is needed to maximize diode asymmetry, which lowers the turn-on voltage required to induce a photoresponse. The WF of carbon nanotubes is 5 eV and the WF of the calcium top layer is 2.9 eV, giving a total work function difference of 2.1 eV for the MIM diode.
614:
method was devised using a new manufacturing technique based on a master pattern. This master pattern mechanically stamps the precision pattern onto an inexpensive flexible substrate and thereby creates the metallic loop elements seen in the laboratory processing steps. The master template fabricated
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As previously stated, one of the major limitations of optical rectennas is the frequency at which they operate. The high frequency of light in the ideal range of wavelengths makes the use of typical
Schottky diodes impractical. Although MIM diodes show promising features for use in optical rectennas,
194:
The air-stability of this new generation of rectenna was achieved by tailoring the diode's quantum tunneling barrier. Instead of a single dielectric insulator, they showed that the use of multiple dissimilar oxide layers enhances diode performance by modifying diode tunneling barrier. By using oxides
588:
After the proof of concept was completed, laboratory-scale silicon wafers were fabricated using standard semiconductor integrated circuit fabrication techniques. E-beam lithography was used to fabricate the arrays of loop antenna metallic structures. The optical antenna consists of three main parts:
268:
used in larger scale rectennas cannot operate at THz frequencies without large loss in power. The large loss in power is a result of the junction capacitance (also known as parasitic capacitance) found in p-n junction diodes and
Schottky diodes, which can only operate effectively at frequencies less
256:
Because of simplifications used in typical rectifying antenna theory, there are several complications that arise when discussing optical rectennas. At frequencies above infrared, almost all of the current is carried near the surface of the wire which reduces the effective cross sectional area of the
689:
Improving the diode is an important challenge. There are two challenging requirements: Speed and nonlinearity. First, the diode must have sufficient speed to rectify visible light. Second, unless the incoming light is extremely intense, the diode needs to be extremely nonlinear (much higher forward
597:
Idaho
National Labs used the following steps to fabricate their optical antenna arrays. A metallic ground plane was deposited on a bare silicon wafer, followed by a sputter deposited amorphous silicon layer. The depth of the deposited layer was about a quarter of a wavelength. A thin manganese film
186:
The primary drawback of these carbon nanotube rectenna devices is a lack of air stability. The device structure originally reported by Cola used calcium as a semitransparent top electrode because the low work function of calcium (2.9 eV) relative to MWCNTs (~5 eV) creates the diode asymmetry needed
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pointing directly at the sun; a rectenna that collects light from the whole sky, like a typical silicon solar cell does, would need the reverse-bias current to be even lower still, by orders of magnitude. (The diode simultaneously needs a high forward-bias current, related to impedance-matching to
681:
In an interview on
National Public Radio's Talk of the Nation, Dr. Novack claimed that optical rectennas could one day be used to power cars, charge cell phones, and even cool homes. Novack claimed the last of these will work by both absorbing the infrared heat available in the room and producing
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One of the biggest claimed advantages of optical rectennas is their high theoretical efficiency. When compared to the theoretical efficiency of single junction solar cells (30%), optical rectennas appear to have a significant advantage. However, the two efficiencies are calculated using different
90:
fabrication process. A third challenge is that, being very small, an optical antenna typically absorbs very little power, and therefore tend to produce a tiny voltage in the diode, which leads to low diode nonlinearity and hence low efficiency. Due to these and other challenges, optical rectennas
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Low electrical resistance: Improving device conductivity increases the rectified power output. But there are other impacts of resistance on device performance. Ideal impedance matching between the antenna and diode enhances rectified power. Lowering structure resistances also increases the diode
443:
The most apparent advantage optical rectennas have over semiconductor photovoltaics is that rectenna arrays can be designed to absorb any frequency of light. The resonant frequency of an optical antenna can be selected by varying its length. This is an advantage over semiconductor photovoltaics,
155:
to a metal surface covered with a thin oxide layer. Javan was reported as having rectified 58 THz infrared light. In 1974, T. Gustafson and coauthors demonstrated that these types of devices could rectify even visible light to DC current Alvin M. Marks received a patent in 1984 for a device
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Researchers currently hope to create a rectifier which can convert around 50% of the antenna's absorption into energy. Another focus of research will be how to properly upscale the process to mass-market production. New materials will need to be chosen and tested that will easily comply with a
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Quote: "...there have also been occasional suggestions in the literature to use rectennas or other devices to harvest energy from LWIR radiation (20-23). However, these analyses have neglected the thermal fluctuations of the diode, as discussed below and in ref. 12, which leads to the absurd
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current than reverse current), in order to avoid "reverse-bias leakage". An assessment for solar energy collection found that, to get high efficiency, the diode would need a (dark) current much lower than 1μA at 1V reverse bias. This assessment assumed (optimistically) that the antenna was a
269:
than 5 THz. The ideal wavelengths of 0.4–1.6 μm correspond to frequencies of approximately 190–750 THz, which is much larger than the capabilities of typical diodes. Therefore, alternative diodes need to be used for efficient power conversion. In current optical rectenna devices,
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are. However, he does not provide any argument for this claim. Furthermore, when the same assumptions used to obtain the 85% theoretical efficiency for rectennas are applied to single junction solar cells, the theoretical efficiency of single junction solar cells is also greater than 85%.
113:(nano-antenna) is sometimes used to refer to either an optical rectenna, or an optical antenna by itself. In 2008 it was reported that Idaho National Laboratories designed an optical antenna to absorb wavelengths in the range of 3–15 μm. These wavelengths correspond to photon energies of
175:(MWCNTs) grown on a metal-coated substrates were coated with insulating aluminum oxide and altogether capped with a metal electrode layer. The small dimensions of the nanotubes act as antennae, capable of capturing optical wavelengths. The MWCNT also doubles as one layer of a
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Researchers at the
University of Connecticut are using a technique called selective area atomic layer deposition that is capable of producing them reliably and at industrial scales. Research is ongoing to tune them to the optimal frequencies for visible and infrared light.
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Optical antennas (by itself, omitting the crucial diode and other components) are cheaper than photovoltaics (if efficiency is ignored). While materials and processing of photovoltaics are expensive (currently the cost for complete photovoltaic modules is in the order of
183:. Due to the small diameter of MWCNT tips, this combination forms a diode that is capable of rectifying the high frequency optical radiation. The overall achieved conversion efficiency of this device is around 10 %. Nonetheless, optical rectenna research is ongoing.
102:. The idea was first proposed by Robert L. Bailey in 1972. As of 2012, only a few optical rectenna devices have been built, demonstrating only that energy conversion is possible. It is unknown if they will ever be as cost-effective or efficient as conventional
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for optical rectification. However, metallic calcium is highly unstable in air and oxidizes rapidly. Measurements had to be made within a glovebox under an inert environment to prevent device breakdown. This limited practical application of the devices.
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Quote: "There has been some discussion in the literature of using infrared rectennas to harvest heat radiated from the earth’s surface. This cannot be accomplished with ambient-temperature solar cells due to the second law of thermodynamics" (page
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There are special diodes for high speed (e.g., the metal-insulator-metal tunnel diodes discussed above), and there are special diodes for high nonlinearity, but it is quite difficult to find a diode that is outstanding in both respects at once.
124:. Based on antenna theory, an optical antenna can absorb any wavelength of light efficiently provided that the size of the antenna is optimized for that specific wavelength. Ideally, antennas would be used to absorb light at wavelengths between
220:
Future efforts will be focussed on improving the device efficiency by investigating alternative materials, manipulating the MWCNTs and the insulating layers to encourage conduction at the interface, and reduce resistances within the structure.
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along with a gold frequency selective surface (to filter wanted frequency) was deposited to act as the antenna. Resist was applied and patterned via electron beam lithography. The gold film was selectively etched and the resist was removed.
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While traditional (radio- and microwave) rectennas are fundamentally similar to optical rectennas, it is vastly more challenging in practice to make an optical rectenna. One challenge is that light has such a high frequency—hundreds of
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Cola and his team later solved the challenges with device instability by modifying the diode structure with multiple layers of oxide. In 2018 they reported the first air-stable optical rectenna along with efficiency improvements.
147:) in 1973 for an "electromagnetic wave energy converter". The patented device was similar to modern day optical rectennas. The patent discusses the use of a diode "type described by in the IEEE Spectrum, October, 1971,
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cutoff frequency, which in turn enhances the effective bandwidth of rectified frequencies of light. The current attempt to use calcium in the top layer results in high resistance due to the calcium oxidizing rapidly.
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by Idaho
National Laboratories consists of approximately 10 billion antenna elements on an 8-inch round silicon wafer. Using this semi-automated process, Idaho National Labs has produced a number of 4-inch square
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because in order to absorb different wavelengths of light, different band gaps are needed. In order to vary the band gap, the semiconductor must be alloyed or a different semiconductor must be used altogether.
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160:. ITN set out to build an optical rectenna array with single digit efficiency. Although they were unsuccessful, the issues associated with building a high efficiency optical rectenna were better understood.
31:
Figure 1. Spectral irradiance of wavelengths in the solar spectrum. The red shaded area shows the irradiance at sea level. There is less irradiance at sea level due to absorption of light by the atmosphere.
217:(MIIM)) was constructed that improved the diode's asymmetric response more than 10-fold without the need for low work function calcium, and the top metal was subsequently replaced with air-stable silver.
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in 2008. With proper processing techniques and different material selection, he estimates that the overall cost of processing, once properly scaled up, will not cost much more. His prototype was a
252:
Figure 3. Image showing the skin effect at high frequencies. The dark region, at the surface, indicates electron flow where the lighter region (interior) indicates little to no electron flow.
195:
with different electron affinities, the electron tunneling can be engineered to produce an asymmetric diode response regardless of the work function of the two electrodes. By using layers of
673:. The prototype used a silicon substrate due to familiar processing techniques, but any substrate could theoretically be used as long as the ground plane material adheres properly.
261:". From a purely device perspective, the I-V characteristics would appear to no longer be ohmic, even though Ohm's law, in its generalized vector form, is still valid.
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is the temperature of the warmer body. In order for there to be an efficient energy conversion, the temperature difference between the two bodies must be significant.
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171:, developed a solar energy collector that can convert optical light to DC current, an optical rectenna using carbon nanotubes,. Vertical arrays of multiwall
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Heiblum, M.; Shihyuan Wang; Whinnery, John R.; Gustafson, T. (March 1978). "Characteristics of integrated MOM junctions at DC and at optical frequencies".
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because these wavelengths have higher energy than far-infrared (longer wavelengths) and make up about 85% of the solar radiation spectrum (see Figure 1).
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Nevertheless, it is hoped that arrays of optical rectennas could eventually be an efficient means of converting sunlight into electric power, producing
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have so far been restricted to laboratory demonstrations, typically with intense focused laser light producing a tiny but measurable amount of power.
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roll-to-roll manufacturing process. Future goals will be to attempt to manufacture devices on pliable substrates to create flexible solar cells.
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assumptions. The assumptions involved in the rectenna calculation are based on the application of the Carnot efficiency of solar collectors. The
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619:. These coupons were combined to form a broad flexible sheet of antenna arrays. This work did not include production of the diode component.
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conclusion that a room-temperature device can generate useful power from collecting the ambient radiation from room-temperature objects."
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it. Another challenge is that antennas tend to be a similar size to a wavelength, so a very tiny optical antenna requires a challenging
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High transparency: Ideally, the top electrode layers should be transparent to allow incoming light to reach the MWCNT antennae.
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electricity which could be used to further cool the room. (Other scientists have disputed this, saying it would violate the
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in 2011 and declining.), Steven Novack estimates the current cost of the antenna material itself as around
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Moddel, Garret (2013). "Will
Rectenna Solar Cells be Practical?". In Garret Moddel; Sachit Grover (eds.).
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885:"Nano-plasmonic Bundt Optenna for broadband polarization-insensitive and enhanced infrared detection"
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The theory behind optical rectennas is essentially the same as for traditional (radio or microwave)
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In moving up to a greater production scale, laboratory processing steps such as the use of
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for visible light—that only a few types of specialized diodes can switch quickly enough to
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1272:", Talk of the Nation. National Public Radio. 22 Aug. 2008. Transcript. NPR. 15 Feb. 2009.
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964:. 2nd International Conference on Energy Sustainability. INL/CON-08-13925. Archived from
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Another disadvantage is that current optical rectennas are produced using electron beam (
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1071:"United States Patent: 4445050 - Device for conversion of light power to electric power"
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Dale K. Kotter; Steven D. Novack; W. Dennis Slafer; Patrick
Pinhero (August 2008).
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51:) that works with visible or infrared light. A rectenna is a circuit containing an
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Sharma, Asha; Singh, Virendra; Bougher, Thomas L.; Cola, Baratunde A. (2015).
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wire, leading to an increase in resistance. This effect is also known as the "
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Moddel, Garret; Grover, Sachit (2013). Garret Moddel; Sachit Grover (eds.).
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1003:"Photovoltaic Technologies Beyond the Horizon: Optical Rectenna Solar Cell"
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more advances are necessary to operate efficiently at higher frequencies.
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1227:"UConn Professor's Patented Technique Key to New Solar Power Technology"
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560: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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486:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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claims that rectennas are not limited by Carnot efficiency, whereas
331:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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in 2008, with the possibility of downgrading to a material such as
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1343:"Harvesting renewable energy from Earth's mid-infrared emissions"
413:{\displaystyle \eta =1-{\frac {T_{\text{cold}}}{T_{\text{hot}}}}}
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are used. Unlike
Schottky diodes, MIM diodes are not affected by
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Robert Bailey, along with James C. Fletcher, received a patent (
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Lin, Guang H.; Reyimjan Abdu; John O'M. Bockris (1996-07-01).
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To improve the efficiency of carbon nanotube-based rectenna:
1296:. 7 Feb. 2008. 15 Feb. 2009. Interview with Dr. Novack.
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Nano-Antennas for Solar, Lighting, and Climate Control
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241:must be rectified, which is typically done with a
794:Corkish, R; M.A Green; T Puzzer (December 2002).
1341:S.J. Byrnes; R. Blanchard; F. Capasso (2014).
860:"M254 Arts & Engineering/Science Research"
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264:Another complication of scaling down is that
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1229:. University of Connecticut. 4 February 2013
427:is the temperature of the cooler body and T
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66:. While rectennas have long been used for
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958:Solar Nantenna Electromagnetic Collectors
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576:Learn how and when to remove this message
502:Learn how and when to remove this message
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347:Learn how and when to remove this message
151:", to whit, a 100 nm-diameter metal
59:, which turns electromagnetic waves into
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1008:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
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796:"Solar energy collection by antennas"
610:are slow and expensive. Therefore, a
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1310:. Springer New York. pp. 3–24.
1147:"A carbon nanotube optical rectenna"
558:adding citations to reliable sources
1021:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
98:more efficiently than conventional
281:because they work on the basis of
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1603:Research in lithium-ion batteries
653:of plastic, which contained only
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1407:, ed. Moddel and Grover, page 10
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545:needs additional citations for
215:metal-insulator-insulator-metal
169:Georgia Institute of Technology
1588:Lithium iron phosphate battery
1:
1568:Compressed-air energy storage
1249:"Solarbuzz PV module pricing"
883:Awad, Ehab (21 August 2019).
820:10.1016/S0038-092X(03)00033-1
632:Economics of optical antennas
448:Limitations and disadvantages
684:second law of thermodynamics
213:, a double-insulator diode (
1316:10.1007/978-1-4614-3716-1_1
482:the claims made and adding
327:the claims made and adding
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1421:NOVASOLIX Official Website
1251:. May 2011. Archived from
1097:Journal of Applied Physics
1001:Berland, B. (2009-04-13).
909:10.1038/s41598-019-48648-6
612:roll-to-roll manufacturing
602:Roll-to-roll manufacturing
167:'s research team at the
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1490:Artificial photosynthesis
692:directional antenna array
677:Future research and goals
608:electron beam lithography
1639:Battery electric vehicle
1634:Alternative fuel vehicle
1505:Concentrated solar power
1041:10.1109/JQE.1978.1069765
737:Metal-insulator-graphene
1644:Hybrid electric vehicle
1573:Flywheel energy storage
1545:Space-based solar power
1371:10.1073/pnas.1402036111
623:Atomic layer deposition
1613:Thermal energy storage
1171:10.1038/nnano.2015.220
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279:parasitic capacitances
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1540:Photovoltaic pavement
1485:Airborne wind turbine
1457:Emerging technologies
1151:Nature Nanotechnology
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271:metal-insulator-metal
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177:metal-insulator-metal
30:
1405:Rectenna Solar Cells
1308:Rectenna Solar Cells
770:Rectenna Solar Cells
554:improve this article
371:
1608:Silicon–air battery
1593:Molten-salt battery
1583:Lithium–air battery
1578:Grid energy storage
1530:Molten salt reactor
1500:Carbon-neutral fuel
1362:2014PNAS..111.3927B
1163:2015NatNa..10.1027S
1109:1996JAP....80..565L
1033:1978IJQE...14..159H
901:2019NatSR...912197A
812:2002SoEn...73..395C
1288:2009-04-22 at the
889:Scientific Reports
593:Lithography method
467:possibly contains
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312:possibly contains
283:electron tunneling
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104:photovoltaic cells
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1356:(11): 3927–3932.
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1103:(1): 565–568.
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1510:Fusion power
1404:
1400:
1353:
1349:
1336:
1307:
1301:
1293:
1277:
1253:the original
1243:
1231:. Retrieved
1221:
1210:. Retrieved
1203:the original
1154:
1150:
1129:the original
1100:
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1024:
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973:. Retrieved
966:the original
957:
895:(1): 12197.
892:
888:
878:
867:. Retrieved
863:
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829:1959.4/40066
803:
800:Solar Energy
799:
789:
773:. Springer.
769:
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563:
552:Please help
547:verification
544:
517:
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489:
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442:
433:R. L. Bailey
422:
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34:
1708:Solar cells
1270:Nanoheating
743:Nanoantenna
259:skin effect
100:solar cells
96:solar power
68:radio waves
64:electricity
18:Nanoantenna
1697:Categories
1649:Smart grid
1478:Production
1212:2014-05-25
1196:"NANTENNA"
869:2023-11-06
754:References
651:30 x 61 cm
526:Production
476:improve it
321:improve it
293:Advantages
237:(DC), the
139:US 3760257
72:microwaves
1125:0021-8979
1075:uspto.gov
1049:0018-9197
917:2045-2322
846:122707077
838:0038-092X
748:Nanolaser
480:verifying
384:−
375:η
325:verifying
163:In 2015,
109:The term
80:terahertz
47:ifying an
1713:Antennas
1535:Nantenna
1495:Biofuels
1390:24591604
1286:Archived
1233:22 April
1179:26414198
1057:21688285
935:31434970
726:See also
663:aluminum
655:0.60 USD
231:antennas
120:down to
111:nantenna
41:rectenna
1560:Storage
1381:3964088
1358:Bibcode
1294:Ecogeek
1159:Bibcode
1105:Bibcode
1029:Bibcode
975:12 June
926:6704059
897:Bibcode
808:Bibcode
617:coupons
474:Please
423:where T
319:Please
287:150 THz
149:page 91
132:History
122:0.08 eV
84:rectify
53:antenna
1471:Energy
1464:Fields
1388:
1378:
1322:
1177:
1123:
1055:
1047:
933:
923:
915:
844:
836:
777:
671:silver
667:copper
520:e-beam
273:(MIM)
266:diodes
225:Theory
179:(MIM)
158:diodes
144:
55:and a
1627:Other
1346:(PDF)
1206:(PDF)
1199:(PDF)
1053:S2CID
1006:(PDF)
969:(PDF)
962:(PDF)
842:S2CID
739:(MIG)
669:, or
243:diode
57:diode
49:tenna
39:is a
1681:List
1386:PMID
1350:PNAS
1320:ISBN
1235:2013
1175:PMID
1121:ISSN
1045:ISSN
977:2016
931:PMID
913:ISSN
834:ISSN
775:ISBN
706:Low
659:gold
639:430
425:cold
394:cold
206:and
115:0.4
45:rect
1376:PMC
1366:doi
1354:111
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1312:doi
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1167:doi
1113:doi
1037:doi
921:PMC
905:doi
824:hdl
816:doi
686:.)
657:of
643:/ m
641:USD
556:by
478:by
429:hot
404:hot
323:by
208:HfO
70:or
35:An
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1374:.
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1101:80
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239:AC
197:Al
117:eV
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210:2
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