317:
as "the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component", and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as "A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy". These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the "Patient interrogation of a landscape" while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo (
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critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how the world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these.
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607:, formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an "amateur" activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland, the study of natural history was believed to contribute to good mental health. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the
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of the individual—of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment, how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities" and this more recent definition by D.S. Wilcove and T. Eisner: "The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species".
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inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment".
868:
Natural history observations have contributed to scientific questioning and theory formation. In recent times such observations contribute to how conservation priorities are determined. Mental health benefits can ensue, as well, from regular and active observation of chosen components of nature, and
357:
Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting
304:
Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by
Marston Bates: "Natural history is the study of animals and Plants—of organisms. ... I like to think, then, of natural history as the study of life at the level
300:
Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field, creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them. For example, while natural history is most often defined as a
316:
A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: "Descriptive ecology and ethology". Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field
312:
Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environments, both past and present, such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: "A student of natural history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally
308:
This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: "Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what
714:, played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own
835:
Professional societies have recognized the importance of natural history and have initiated new sections in their journals specifically for natural history observations to support the discipline. These include "Natural
History Field Notes" of
623:). Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that support them),
583:
argument for the existence or goodness of God. Since early modern times, however, a great number of women made contributions to natural history, particularly in the field of botany, be it as authors, collectors, or illustrators.
465:. During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists, particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual
331:
The plurality of definitions for this field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a range of definitions has recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history.
657:—who knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of "remote" parts of the world—the
301:
type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed.
56:
433:, an arrangement of minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection, culminating in our species.
809:, founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many
805:
Microscopical and
Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society,
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The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for
328:, which often include elements of anthropology, geology, paleontology, and astronomy along with botany and zoology, or include both cultural and natural components of the world.
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353:. 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of the Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona):
794:
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619:), beetles, and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the
530:"undoubtedly the greatest scientific achievement of the Ming". His works translated to many languages direct or influence many scholars and researchers.
324:
A slightly different framework for natural history, covering a similar range of themes, is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading
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2595:
1994:
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Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the
551:, a 44-volume encyclopedia describing quadrupeds, birds, minerals, and some science and technology. Reptiles and fish were covered in supplements by
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Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as
Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the
1438:
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1912:
1859:
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631:(the study of the relationships between life forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology.
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humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as
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to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology, astronomy, technology, art, and humanity.
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1599:
Finnegan, Diarmid A. (2008), "'An aid to mental health': natural history, alienists and therapeutics in
Victorian Scotland",
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230:
126:
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165:) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also
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world, it proceeded at a much brisker pace. From the 13th century, the work of
Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into
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2758:
936:
666:
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505:. The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into
492:
46:
1162:
D. S Wilcove and T. Eisner, "The impending extinction of natural history," Chronicle of Higher
Education 15 (2000): B24
233:, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the
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38:
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and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world. Natural history was understood by
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1655:
995:
579:, who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. Many of these men wrote about nature to make the
237:, and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and
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1980:
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676:(Prussia, 1769–1859). Humboldt's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin,
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818:
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673:
410:, a Roman physician of Greek origin. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in the
325:
669:, among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory-based science.
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The understanding of "Nature" as "an organism and not as a mechanism" can be traced to the writings of
1267:
1113:
Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, "Natural order: historical studies of scientific culture", Sage, 1979.
261:, many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional
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241:, the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern
1359:
T. L. Fleischner, "Natural history and the spiral of offering", Wild Earth 11, no. 3/4 (2002): 10–13
1174:"Systematics, Natural History, and Conservation: Field Biologists Must Fight a Public-Image Problem"
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these reach beyond the benefits derived from passively walking through natural areas.
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took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in the
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1922:
Finding Order in Nature: The
Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson
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and other 18th-century naturalists, a major concept of natural history was the
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but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of
96:
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1718:
Powers, Jennifer S.; Carlo, Tomás A.; Slade, Eleanor M.; Slik, Ferry (2021).
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1905:
Cognitive
Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science
806:
689:
389:
246:
200:
196:
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1620:
1543:
The
English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion
1420:
1299:
1938:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts.
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1965:
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739:
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588:
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450:
226:
208:
72:
1720:"Biotropica announces a new paper category: Natural History Field Notes"
221:
European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions: the
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1936:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
1766:
1601:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
1401:
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1205:
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254:
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1743:
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1941:
Rainger, Ronald; Keith R. Benson; and Jane Maienschein (eds) (1988),
1767:"Editorial: Transitioning Editorial Boards Through a Global Pandemic"
763:
755:
747:
707:
446:
414:, making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books.
257:
sciences. The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the
155:
115:
80:
76:
1330:
1236:
1189:
587:
In modern Europe, professional disciplines such as botany, geology,
133:
naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a
1929:
Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology
1885:
1882:
99:
methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a
27:
Study of organisms including plants or animals in their environment
1972:
1026:
The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles
767:
751:
725:
559:
A significant contribution to English natural history was made by
537:
366:
318:
291:
159:
84:
45:
296:
A natural history collection in a French public secondary school
176:, "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with
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2650:
1976:
1574:
1530:(Vol. 5, part.3, p. 216). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
645:
Three of the greatest English naturalists of the 19th century,
994:
With "natural history" articles more often published today in
1382:
774:), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have
473:
was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with
118:
objects or organisms, so while it dates from studies in the
1481:
The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea
814:
1907:, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 376,
1315:"Wildlife Biology and Natural History: Time for a Reunion"
1056:"The enduring and elemental importance of natural history"
789:
founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858),
280:
prompted the development of geology to help find useful
1836:, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 270,
524:"the 'uncrowned king' of Chinese naturalists", and his
1484:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
854:, and the "Natural History Miscellany section" of the
509:, culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist
1221:"The Role of Natural History in Contemporary Biology"
154:
The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a
1268:"Organisms in nature as a central focus for biology"
3473:
3375:
3297:
3259:
3191:
3148:
3095:
3006:
2870:
2802:
2689:
2603:
2508:
2338:
2186:
2092:
2019:
2010:
785:Examples of these societies in Britain include the
1945:. University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia.
1854:, Beijing: Peking University Press, p. 363,
1049:
1047:
1045:
795:British Entomological and Natural History Society
481:. Other important contributors to the field were
441:Natural history was basically static through the
37:"Naturalist" redirects here. For other uses, see
180:, or used materials drawn from nature, such as
50:Black and white tables of natural history, from
627:(the scientific study of animal behavior), and
1966:The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 07 (of 10)
2984:
2910:History of the creation-evolution controversy
2662:
1988:
1172:Greene, Harry W.; Losos, Jonathan B. (1988).
1004:Natural History WordNet Search, princeton.edu
8:
1924:. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.
2526:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1834:The Naturalist in Britain: a social history
1685:. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013
490:
399:
137:umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g.,
2991:
2977:
2969:
2669:
2655:
2647:
2016:
1995:
1981:
1973:
1502:
1500:
2940:Relationship between religion and science
824:Societies in other countries include the
516:The British historian of Chinese science
2177:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
830:Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists
736:Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists
1931:. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
987:
273:—both founded during the 17th century.
141:has a strong multidisciplinary nature.
1696:
1123:Fleischner, Thomas Lowe (2011-05-01).
787:Natural History Society of Northumbria
1658:from the original on January 24, 2018
249:, while natural history included the
7:
3593:
1958:A History of the Ecological Sciences
1886:Early Modern Experimental Philosophy
1526:Needham, J., & Ling, W. (1976).
1381:American Museum of Natural History,
406:was written between 50 and 70 AD by
2404:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
1943:The American Development of Biology
2817:Central dogma of molecular biology
1677:Mabbett, Andy (20 November 2010).
1319:The Journal of Wildlife Management
791:Birmingham Natural History Society
640:National Museum of Natural History
25:
1969:, London: Macmillan and Co., 1904
1528:Science and civilization in China
1272:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
842:, "The Scientific Naturalist" of
215:, as well as animals and plants.
3592:
3583:
3582:
3572:
3140:Traditional ecological knowledge
3086:
2953:
2952:
2594:
1054:Fleischner, Thomas Lowe (2025).
921:
907:
893:
879:
351:traditional ecological knowledge
225:(primarily what is now known as
32:Natural history (disambiguation)
3438:Science, technology and society
2636:List of natural history dealers
2304:The Natural History of Selborne
1581:from the original on 2019-09-03
1266:Greene, Harry W. (2005-01-01).
1219:Bartholomew, George A. (1986).
942:History of evolutionary thought
826:American Society of Naturalists
702:List of natural history museums
2842:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
2538:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1920:Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000),
1832:Allen, David Elliston (1994),
1439:An Accepted Way of Viewing Art
636:Natural History Museum, London
1:
3279:Religion and environmentalism
1151:The nature of natural history
621:modern evolutionary synthesis
388:, natural history began with
189:
3342:Environmental interpretation
1870:Two Forms of Natural History
1452:Natural History: A Selection
1419:The Natural History Museum,
1129:. Trinity University Press.
937:Evolutionary history of life
166:
110:Natural history encompasses
3315:Environmental communication
2294:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
1765:Sundar, K. S. Gopi (2022).
1654:. whitbynaturalists.co.uk.
1613:10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.06.006
1086:Linnaeus: Nature and Nation
972:Timeline of natural history
929:Evolutionary biology portal
864:Benefits of Natural History
553:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
545:is best remembered for his
39:Naturalist (disambiguation)
3660:
3130:Environmental anthropology
2316:A History of British Birds
1927:Kohler, Robert E. (2002),
1652:"Whitby Naturalists' Club"
1540:Patrick Armstrong (2000).
1313:Herman, Steven G. (2002).
1284:10.1016/j.tree.2004.11.005
1126:The Way of Natural History
699:
611:, butterflies, seashells (
445:in Europe—although in the
271:French Academy of Sciences
186:encyclopedia of this title
36:
29:
3568:
3084:
2948:
2631:Natural History Societies
2592:
2499:The Royal Natural History
2351:Ornithological Dictionary
2260:Johan Christian Fabricius
1821:Resources in your library
1703:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
801:Natural History Society,
3639:History of Earth science
3545:Sustainable architecture
3483:Arts and Crafts movement
3347:Environmental journalism
3241:Environmental philosophy
3000:Environmental humanities
2477:The Naturalist's Library
2380:On the Origin of Species
1546:. Gracewing Publishing.
1517:". HistoryofScience.com.
1508:Natural History Timeline
1450:Pliny the Elder (2004).
1091:Harvard University Press
461:, forming the basis for
3367:Thematic interpretation
3320:Environmental education
3120:Ecological anthropology
3026:Environmental sculpture
2611:Natural history museums
2213:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1638:The Invention of Nature
947:Naturalism (philosophy)
712:cabinets of curiosities
374:from the sixth-century
345:Prior to the advent of
326:natural history museums
91:, leaning more towards
3518:Landscape architecture
3465:Sustainability studies
3274:Environmental theology
2862:Spontaneous generation
2812:Germ theory of disease
2789:Zoology (through 1859)
2463:William Jackson Hooker
2411:Alexander von Humboldt
2328:Philosophie zoologique
2111:Pinax theatri botanici
1852:Living as a Naturalist
1683:West Midland Bird Club
1063:The Ecological Citizen
1029:, Oxford : Clarendon,
1023:Brown, Lesley (1993),
848:, "From the Field" of
819:Indian natural history
743:
674:Alexander von Humboldt
667:Indonesian Archipelago
556:
491:
400:
381:
360:
297:
129:, through to European
127:mediaeval Arabic world
61:
3337:Environmental history
3236:Environmental justice
2883:Philosophy of biology
2549:The Study of Instinct
2488:Kunstformen der Natur
2392:The Malay Archipelago
2387:Alfred Russel Wallace
2323:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1934:Mayr, Ernst. (1982),
1903:Atran, Scott (1990),
1867:Peter Anstey (2011),
1679:"Older Organisations"
887:Earth sciences portal
729:
710:, which evolved from
700:Further information:
655:Alfred Russel Wallace
541:
370:
355:
295:
278:Industrial Revolution
265:meetings such as the
49:
3513:Environmental design
3393:Biophilia hypothesis
3231:Environmental ethics
3201:Aesthetics of nature
2915:Human Genome Project
2827:Great chain of being
2794:Zoology (since 1859)
2729:Evolutionary thought
2699:Agricultural science
2468:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2421:The Birds of America
1850:Liu, Huajie (2012),
1783:10.1675/063.045.0101
1454:. Penguin Classics.
629:evolutionary biology
455:Christian philosophy
431:Great Chain of Being
408:Pedanius Dioscorides
259:gentleman scientists
30:For other uses, see
3555:Sustainable fashion
2920:Humboldtian science
2857:Sequence hypothesis
2764:Molecular evolution
2516:Martinus Beijerinck
2059:De Natura Animalium
1961:by Frank N. Egerton
1736:2021Biotr..53..352P
967:Russian naturalists
857:American Naturalist
682:Henry David Thoreau
642:in Washington, DC.
493:Historiae animalium
203:, humans and their
112:scientific research
89:natural environment
18:Naturalis Historiae
3644:History of science
3634:History of biology
3578:Environment portal
3550:Sustainable design
3183:Outdoor literature
3110:Cultural landscape
3036:Landscape painting
2930:Natural philosophy
2878:History of science
2678:History of biology
2621:Parson-naturalists
2453:Philip Henry Gosse
2416:John James Audubon
2399:Henry Walter Bates
2287:Histoire Naturelle
2275:Historia Plantarum
2163:Avium Praecipuarum
2147:Historia animalium
2048:Historia Plantarum
2036:History of Animals
1894:2011-07-21 at the
1876:2011-08-09 at the
1513:2010-12-31 at the
1426:2014-12-27 at the
1407:2012-01-03 at the
1388:2011-06-04 at the
1153:, Scribners, 1954.
1009:2012-03-03 at the
952:Nature documentary
915:Environment portal
744:
647:Henry Walter Bates
561:parson-naturalists
557:
548:Histoire naturelle
457:, particularly by
421:until the work of
384:As a precursor to
382:
377:Vienna Dioscurides
298:
239:natural philosophy
193: 77 to 79 AD
163:historia naturalis
62:
3616:
3615:
3508:Educational trail
3498:Ecological design
3357:Outdoor education
3352:Environmental law
3284:Spiritual ecology
3246:Predation problem
3073:Site-specific art
3021:Environmental art
2966:
2965:
2832:Hierarchy of life
2779:Plant systematics
2759:Molecular biology
2644:
2643:
2590:
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2208:Marcello Malpighi
2102:Ulisse Aldrovandi
2082:De Materia Medica
1914:978-0-521-43871-1
1861:978-7-301-19788-2
1807:Library resources
1744:10.1111/btp.12944
1575:"Women in Botany"
1553:978-0-85244-516-7
1476:Arthur O. Lovejoy
1461:978-0-14-044413-1
1421:Mission Statement
1402:Mission Statement
1383:Mission Statement
1136:978-1-59534-074-0
1100:978-0-674-09745-2
1000:academic journals
996:science magazines
797:founded in 1872,
734:, a president of
663:Galápagos Islands
402:De Materia Medica
123:Greco-Roman world
105:natural historian
16:(Redirected from
3651:
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3221:Ecophenomenology
3206:Critical realism
3105:Cultural ecology
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2495:Richard Lydekker
2443:Jean-Henri Fabre
2428:William Buckland
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2317:
2312:
2311:Thomas Bewick
2309:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2299:Gilbert White
2297:
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2277:
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2271:
2268:
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2263:
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2258:
2256:
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2250:Georg Steller
2248:
2245:
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2239:
2238:Carl Linnaeus
2236:
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2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
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2202:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2188:Enlightenment
2185:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2164:
2160:
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2155:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
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2123:
2120:
2118:
2117:Otto Brunfels
2115:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2083:
2078:
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2071:
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2056:
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2050:
2049:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2037:
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2024:
2018:
2015:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1993:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1933:
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1926:
1923:
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1910:
1906:
1901:
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1872:
1871:
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1863:
1857:
1853:
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1843:0-691-03632-2
1839:
1835:
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1819:
1818:
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1792:
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1780:
1776:
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1768:
1761:
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1714:
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1533:
1529:
1523:
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1501:
1497:
1493:
1491:0-674-36153-9
1487:
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1471:
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1457:
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1406:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1391:
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1384:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1370:Arctic Dreams
1368:Barry Lopez,
1365:
1362:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
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1328:
1324:
1320:
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1038:
1036:0-19-861271-0
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1028:
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1016:
1012:
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833:
831:
827:
822:
820:
817:. (See also:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
783:
781:
780:microscopical
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
741:
737:
733:
728:
721:
719:
717:
716:morphological
713:
709:
703:
695:
693:
691:
687:
686:Ernst Haeckel
683:
679:
678:SimĂłn BolĂvar
675:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
643:
641:
637:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
603:were formed.
602:
598:
594:
593:palaeontology
590:
585:
582:
578:
574:
570:
569:William Kirby
566:
565:Gilbert White
562:
554:
550:
549:
544:
540:
533:
531:
529:
528:
527:Bencao gangmu
523:
519:
514:
512:
511:Carl Linnaeus
508:
504:
500:
495:
494:
488:
487:Konrad Gesner
484:
480:
476:
475:Otto Brunfels
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
436:
434:
432:
428:
427:scala naturae
424:
423:Carl Linnaeus
420:
415:
413:
409:
404:
403:
397:
395:
391:
387:
379:
378:
373:
369:
362:
359:
354:
352:
348:
340:
335:
333:
329:
327:
322:
320:
314:
310:
306:
302:
294:
287:
285:
283:
279:
274:
272:
268:
267:Royal Society
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
187:
183:
179:
175:
170:
168:
164:
161:
157:
149:
144:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
93:observational
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
59:
58:
53:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
3540:New Urbanism
3407:
3211:Deep ecology
3173:Geocriticism
3163:Ecocriticism
3135:Ethnoecology
3125:Ecosemiotics
3046:conservation
2924:
2769:Paleontology
2709:Biochemistry
2580:
2570:
2558:
2548:
2536:
2533:Hugh B. Cott
2524:
2509:20th century
2498:
2486:
2476:
2419:
2402:
2390:
2378:
2361:
2349:
2339:19th century
2326:
2314:
2302:
2285:
2273:
2265:James Hutton
2255:Joseph Banks
2241:
2201:Micrographia
2199:
2196:Robert Hooke
2176:
2166:
2162:
2145:
2110:
2080:
2068:
2058:
2046:
2043:Theophrastus
2034:
2003:
1964:
1957:
1942:
1935:
1928:
1921:
1904:
1890:
1887:
1881:
1869:
1851:
1833:
1811:
1777:(1): i–iii.
1774:
1770:
1760:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1687:. Retrieved
1672:
1660:. Retrieved
1646:
1636:
1628:
1604:
1600:
1594:
1583:. Retrieved
1569:
1557:. Retrieved
1542:
1535:
1527:
1522:
1480:
1470:
1451:
1445:
1434:
1415:
1396:
1377:
1369:
1364:
1355:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1278:(1): 23–27.
1275:
1271:
1261:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1158:
1150:
1145:
1125:
1118:
1109:
1085:
1075:
1066:
1062:
1025:
1018:
990:
957:Nature study
867:
856:
850:
844:
837:
834:
823:
784:
745:
705:
671:
659:Amazon basin
644:
633:
604:
586:
558:
546:
525:
515:
440:
426:
416:
398:
383:
375:
356:
344:
330:
323:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
275:
217:
213:superstition
188:, published
171:
162:
153:
109:
104:
100:
97:experimental
75:, including
64:
63:
55:
43:
3560:Themed walk
3289:Stewardship
3269:Ecotheology
3216:Ecofeminism
3041:Photography
2895:Ethnobotany
2784:RNA biology
2692:disciplines
2581:Shearwaters
2438:Mary Anning
2223:Hans Sloane
2173:John Gerard
2167:New Herball
2094:Renaissance
2077:Dioscorides
2013:naturalists
1689:11 February
1662:January 23,
1633:Andrea Wulf
1089:. Harvard:
750:(including
443:Middle Ages
412:Renaissance
235:Renaissance
150:Before 1900
145:Definitions
131:Renaissance
87:, in their
57:Cyclopaedia
3623:Categories
3523:assessment
3493:Biomimicry
3433:Sexecology
3330:arts-based
3193:Philosophy
3150:Literature
2837:Lamarckism
2744:Immunology
2011:Pioneering
1771:Waterbirds
1724:Biotropica
1585:2019-12-19
1225:BioScience
1178:BioScience
983:References
851:Waterbirds
839:Biotropica
803:Manchester
782:sections.
776:geological
760:entomology
718:research.
665:, and the
638:, and the
617:conchology
613:malacology
597:physiology
522:Li Shizhen
380:manuscript
372:Blackberry
341:Prehistory
288:Since 1900
284:deposits.
255:geological
251:biological
223:humanities
205:technology
139:geobiology
101:naturalist
71:involving
3503:Ecomuseum
3455:Slow food
3388:Bioethics
3168:Ecopoetry
3051:landscape
2905:Dysgenics
2888:Teleology
2852:RNA world
2847:Protocell
2822:Darwinism
2803:Theories,
2774:Phycology
2031:Aristotle
2023:antiquity
2021:Classical
1791:1524-4695
1752:0006-3606
1478:(1964) ,
1339:0022-541X
1292:0169-5347
1245:0006-3568
1198:0006-3568
807:Sheffield
722:Societies
690:John Muir
417:From the
390:Aristotle
247:chemistry
201:geography
197:astronomy
174:antiquity
73:organisms
3603:Journals
3588:Category
3528:planning
3261:Religion
3226:Ecosophy
3061:wildlife
3031:Land art
3016:Crop art
2958:Category
2900:Eugenics
2805:concepts
2749:Medicine
2734:Genetics
2682:timeline
2458:Asa Gray
2270:John Ray
1892:Archived
1874:Archived
1699:cite web
1656:Archived
1641:, Knopf
1621:18761284
1579:Archived
1559:31 March
1511:Archived
1424:Archived
1405:Archived
1386:Archived
1300:16701336
1083:(1999).
1007:Archived
998:than in
873:See also
793:(1859),
772:mycology
742:, Poland
740:Szczecin
625:ethology
589:mycology
577:John Ray
563:such as
467:monsters
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227:classics
219:Medieval
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3598:Commons
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1732:Bibcode
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756:insects
748:animals
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696:Museums
601:zoology
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336:History
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243:physics
167:History
158:of the
120:ancient
116:natural
77:animals
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1059:(PDF)
768:fungi
752:birds
319:Inuit
160:Latin
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1787:ISSN
1748:ISSN
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