Nebra sky disc - Knowledge (XXG)

1974:(on the disc) there is a distinctive rosette of seven stars clustered between the full and crescent moons. These are identified as the Pleiades or Seven Sisters, recognised by many world cultures as calendar stars, since they are last seen in the night sky in March and only reappear again in October. ... The path of the sun provides a measure of the time of day and year, while the moon can do the same in measuring out months and weeks based on its regular cycles. A problem arises, however, when it comes to equating the solar and lunar years. The former is eleven days longer than the later and after three years the difference is equivalent to about a month. To bring the two calendars into harmony a rule is needed. The first written record of such a rule comes from a Babylonian cuneiform tablet dating to the seventh or sixth centuries BC, which advises to add a leap month every third year if no new moon appears next to the Pleiades in the spring but rather a crescent moon a few days old. That arrangement of heavenly bodies is precisely what the Sky Disc seems to show, reflecting an ingenious materialisation of a complex astronomical and calendrical rule without the need for writing. 713: 2283:: "with a 4.5-day old crescent moon, not 29 or 30 days elapse since the last new light, as is usually the case, but 32 days. This corresponds with the 32 stars that were depicted on the sky disc in the first phase, so that the leap rule is probably even depicted in a doubly coded way in this, at first sight, simple pictorial work. The large round gold object could represent both the full moon and the sun. The 32 stars of the first phase then embody 32 solar years, to which - if one adds the full moon / sun - 33 lunar years correspond (Hansen 2007). 642:"When the Pleiades, daughters of Atlas, are rising, begin your harvest, and your ploughing when they are going to set. Forty nights and days they are hidden and appear again as the year moves round, when first you sharpen your sickle. This is the law of the plains, and of those who live near the sea, and who inhabit rich country, the glens and hollows far from the tossing sea,—strip to sow and strip to plough and strip to reap, if you wish to get in all Demeter's fruits in due season, and that each kind may grow in its season." 1744:

sets and rises in a solar year. The terminal of each arc inscribes the summer solstice sunrise and sunset and the winter solstice sunrise and sunset as seen from the latitude of the Mittelberg 3,600 years ago. ... The marking of solstice sunrise and sunset at monuments such as Stonehenge was about the expression of religious and symbolic ideas linking the monument to the cycles of the cosmos. The same concerns were probably true of the Sky Disc, which had the benefit of being a portable and possesable object.

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role of this goddess was correlated together with her attributes — poppies and its effects in a form of opium. The motif of a seated goddess (who was called Demeter) on a throne with poppies in her hand is found on a Greek vase (plate) of the fifth century BCE. There is presently not enough evidence to connect a real name to this so-called Poppy Goddess of the pre-Hellenic period; nevertheless there are links to the Greek pantheon and to a ritual performed, later in honor of the goddess Demeter.

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occurred when the three-and-a-half-day-old moon—the crescent moon on the disc—was visible at the same time as the Pleiades. 'The astronomical rules that are depicted wouldn't be imaginable without decades of intensive observation,' says Harald Meller, director of the State Museum for Prehistory in Halle. 'Until the Sky Disc was discovered, no one thought prehistoric people capable of such precise astronomical knowledge.'

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Germany where the disc was found, the Pleiades is last seen in the sky on 10 March, alongside the young, crescent moon. The full moon accompanies the reappearance of the constellation on 17 October. On the disc, the Pleiades is tellingly placed between the crescent and full moons, suggesting an awareness of this celestial rhythm.

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The potential observation of the horizon arc described by the Sun during its annual motion is exemplified by another impressive find from the Early Bronze Age: A diamond-shaped gold plaque of extraordinary quality was excavated in a burial under Bush Barrow in Wiltshire, southern England, less than a

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at the latitude of the Mittelberg (51°N). The arcs relate to the Sun's path – the ecliptic. Given that ancient astronomers knew the planets and many stars that mark the ecliptic, they could observe it sweep across the horizon within the arcs, in a single winter night, not just sunrise and sunset over

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from a couple who had put it on the black market for 700,000 DM. The original finders were eventually traced. In a plea bargain, they led police and archaeologists to the discovery site. Archaeologists opened a dig at the site and uncovered evidence that supported the looters' claims. There were

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This phase also includes the hoard of Nebra with its famous disc showing gold-plated heavenly bodies. Its plating technique is generally connected to Mycenaean metalwork. It will be shown, however, that this technique together with that of metal inlay had its origins in Britain, where it was already

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The image of the so-called Poppy Goddess appears in pre-Hellenic iconography. She is represented as a large female figurine with raised hands in a gesture of greeting or blessing. A goddess with the same emblems — three poppies — in her hand is depicted also in a gold signet ring from Mycenae. The

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documentary that "When I first heard about the Nebra Disc I thought it was a joke, indeed I thought it was a forgery", due to the extraordinary nature of the find, although he had not seen the sky disc at the time. The same documentary presented scientific analyses confirming the authenticity of the

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Archaeoastronomist Emília Pásztor has argued against a practical astronomical function for the disc. According to Pásztor "the close agreement of the length of the peripheral arcs with the movement of the sun's risings or settings might be a pure coincidence". This claim is undermined by the finding

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At some later date, two arcs (constructed from gold of a different origin, as shown by its chemical impurities) were added at opposite edges of the disc. To make space for these arcs, one small circle was moved from the left side toward the centre of the disc and two of the circles on the right were

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Ker and his colleagues found the pair of acute angles of the basic diamond pattern to be 81°. They realized that this was the angle between midsummer and midwinter sunrises (and sunsets of course) on a low horizon at the latitude of Stonehenge (51.17° N) four thousand years ago. ... The Nebra disc

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In its next phase of use, a third gold arc was added to the Sky Disc. Unlike the two solstice arcs, this addition did not serve to mark a particular celestial observation. It appears to be a representation of a 'sun ship'. ... Short feathered lines on each side of the gold sun boat on the Nebra Sky

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The point at the top and the bottom has a very precise angle of 81 degrees. That's the same angle between where the sun rises at midwinter and midsummer solstices, so it has an astronomical importance. And the very finely detailed embossed decoration, particularly around the outer border, is laid

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The scene on the ring shows the sun, the moon, and what looks like the Milky Way on the sky, as well as the "Poppy Goddess" seated under a tree The poppy flower of the Minoan 'Poppy Goddess' was associated in Classical Greek art with many goddesses, but, especially, it was the symbol of Demeter,

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The Greek poet Hesiod, writing in c. 700 BC, noted that 'hen the Pleiades rise it is the time to use the sickle, but the plough when they are setting'. Their disappearance and appearance has been seen historically as a marker of the beginning and end of the farming year in Europe In the region of

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Zudem vergehen bei einer 4,5 Tage alten Mondsichel nicht wie üblich 29 oder 30 Tage seit dem letzten Neulicht, sondern 32 Tage. Dies korrespondiert mit den 32 Sternen, die auf der Himmelsscheibe in der ersten Phase abgebildet waren, sodass die Schaltregel wohl sogar doppelt verschlüsselt in diesem

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The synchronisation key of the first phase allowed the longer solar year (approximately 365 days) to be harmonised with the shorter lunar year (around 354 days). Each year in spring, the crescent moon passed close to the Pleiades, appearing with different widths, depending on the lunar phase. The

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The number of stars depicted on the disc (32) is also thought to be significant, possibly encoding the calendar rule numerically. Firstly, the conjunction of lunar crescent and Pleiades depicted on the disc occurs after 32 days following the last "new light" (the first visible crescent moon of the

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both the gold arcs occupy a very precise angle of between 82 and 83 degrees, a figure that is well beyond the error expected if a right angle was intended. The reason for this seems to be connected to observations of the sun. The arcs mark the full range of points on the horizon at which the sun

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waving lines ... cut off the upper part of the field on the great signet of Mycenae, and contain above their curve a rayed disk and crescent representing the heavenly luminaries. ... the seated Goddess, whose character is there marked by the double-axe as well as by the celestial symbols, holds

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In the first phase, the disc showed the night sky with 32 gold stars, including the Pleiades, a gold orb representing the sun or a full moon, and a crescent moon. It served as a reminder of when it was necessary to synchronize the lunar and solar years by inserting a leap month. This phenomenon

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The disc, together with two bronze swords, two sets of remains of axes, a chisel, and fragments of spiral armbands were discovered in 1999 by Henry Westphal and Mario Renner while they were treasure-hunting with a metal detector. The detectorists were operating without a license and knew their

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A paper published in 2020 by Rupert Gebhard and Rudiger Krause questioned the Early Bronze Age dating of the Nebra disc and proposed a later Iron Age date instead. A response paper was published in the same year by Ernst Pernicka and colleagues, rejecting the arguments of Gebhard and Krause.

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to between 1600 and 1560 BCE, confirming this estimate. This corresponds to the date of burial, at which time the disc had likely been in existence for several generations. Analyses of metal radioactivity and the corrosion layer on the disc further support the early Bronze Age dating.

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of the disc is recent, and according to German law protected for 25 years, until 2027. Another argument concerned the question of whether a notable work of art may be registered as a trademark in the first place. The Magdeburg court decided in favour of the State of Saxony-Anhalt.

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auf den ersten Blick simplen Bildwerk dargestellt ist. Das große runde Goldobjekt könnte zugleich Vollmond und Sonne repräsentieren. Die 32 Sterne der ersten Phase verkörpern dann 32 Sonnenjahre, denen – zählt man Vollmond / Sonne hinzu – 33 Mondjahre entsprechen (Hansen 2007).

603:(365 days), 32 solar years is equal in length to 33 lunar years (with an error of only two days). That is, 32 x 365 = 11680 days, and 33 x 354 = 11682 days. This 32 solar-year cycle may be represented on the disc by 32 stars, plus the sun (or full moon), adding up to 33. 733:, and a blow torch within a short amount of time. He had to admit in court that he had never held the disc in his own hands, unlike the eighteen scientists who had examined the disc. Scientific analyses of the patina (or corrosion layer) have confirmed its authenticity. 479: 477: 476: 478: 154:

activity constituted looting and was illegal. Archaeological artefacts are the property of the state in Saxony-Anhalt. They damaged the disc with their spade and destroyed parts of the site. The next day, Westphal and Renner sold the entire hoard for 31,000

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in 2009, the initial ruling was overturned and the German Patent and Trademark Office withdrew the trademark rights. Thereafter, the state of Saxony-Anhalt registered the design of the disc as a trademark with the European Union Intellectual Property Office.

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Astronomy in Culture -- Cultures of Astronomy. Astronomie in der Kultur -- Kulturen der Astronomie. Featuring the Proceedings of the Splinter Meeting at the Annual Conference of the Astronomische Gesellschaft, Sept. 14-16, 2021. Nuncius Hamburgensis; Vol.

836:. Maurer, who was part of the European mission Cosmic Kiss, designed the mission's patch with inspiration from the Nebra Sky Disk, as well as the Pioneer plaques and Voyager Golden Records that were sent into the unknown carrying messages from Earth. 3291:"Counternotice to the DMCA 512(c) notice filed by Nordemann Czychowski & Partner Rechtsanwältinnen und Rechtsanwälte mbB (ref.: LARC60105) Oct 13th 2023 on behalf of the German State of Saxony-Anhalt regarding depictions of the Sky Disc of Nebra" 1361:

Pernicka, Ernst; Adam, Jörg; Borg, Gregor; Brügmann, Gerhard; Bunnefeld, Jan-Heinrich; Kainz, Wolfgang; Klamm, Mechthild; Koiki, Thomas; Meller, Harald; Schwarz, Ralf; Stöllner, Thomas; Wunderlich, Christian-Heinrich; Reichenberger, Alfred (2020).

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who as the great mother and fertility goddess had a cult that had its origin in Minoan-Mycenaean times as the Palaikastro mould shows, the Poppy Goddess was not only a chthonic fertility goddess, but also the goddess of celestial cycles.

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appearance of a 4.5 day-old crescent moon next to the Pleiades, as shown on the Sky Disc, meant that an extra month should have been added, since the solar and lunar years differed by approximately one month after every three years.

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dating from c. 1800-1750 BC, indicating that a connection existed between both regions when the Nebra disc was created. However some Assyriologists and astronomers have rejected the comparison of the Nebra Disc with MUL.APIN.

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Diedrich, Cajus: The "Sky Disk of Nebra" – revision to daily life "marriage and fertility" in the final Hallstatt (Early Iron Age, HaC-D) times. American Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 21, 2021, 1–26.

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Gerloff, Sabine (2010). "Von Troja an die Saale, von Wessex nach Mykene – Chronologie, Fernverbindungen und Zinnrouten der Frühbronzezeit Mittel- und Westeuropas". In Meller, Harald; Bertemes, Francois (eds.).

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and the Bush Barrow lozenge both seem to be designed to reflect the annual solar cycle at about latitude 51° north, and both have elements in their design which could refer specifically to the solar calendar.

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By the time the disc was buried it also had 38 to 40 holes punched out around its perimeter, each approximately 3 millimetres (0.12 in) in diameter. The exact number is obscured by damage to the disc

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mile away from Stonehenge. ... Both objects, the Nebra Sky Disc and the Bush Barrow Lozenge, are unique in their appearance, but they may be related in their ritual and possibly astronomical relevance.

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applied to organic material during the first phase of the Early Bronze Age, and flourished during the second and third phases when it was introduced on the continent and used on prestige metalwork.

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Some authors have argued that the number of pin holes around the rim of the disc (approximately 38 to 40) has an astronomical significance. The exact number is not known due to damage to the disc.

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suggests that knowledge of this rule may have come from Babylonia to Central Europe through long-distance trade and contacts, despite it being attested earlier on the Nebra disc than in Babylonia.

1757: 3573: 729:. Peter Schauer of the University of Regensburg, Germany, argued in 2005 that the Nebra disc was a fake and that he could prove that the patina of the disc could have been created with urine, 552:. According to one of the seven rules in the compendium, a leap month should be added when the Pleiades appear next to a crescent moon a few days old in the spring, as depicted on the disc. 670:. Opium poppy has also been found in settlements of the Unetice culture. According to Kristiansen and Larsson (2005), imagery similar to that found on Mycenaean signet rings also appears in 2211:

Bohan, Elise; Dinwiddie, Robert; Challoner, Jack; Stuart, Colin; Harvey, Derek; Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca; Chrisp, Peter; Hubbard, Ben; Parker, Phillip; et al. (Writers) (February 2016).

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Bohan, Elise; Dinwiddie, Robert; Challoner, Jack; Stuart, Colin; Harvey, Derek; Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca; Chrisp, Peter; Hubbard, Ben; Parker, Phillip; et al. (Writers) (February 2016).

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Bohan, Elise; Dinwiddie, Robert; Challoner, Jack; Stuart, Colin; Harvey, Derek; Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca; Chrisp, Peter; Hubbard, Ben; Parker, Phillip; et al. (Writers) (February 2016).

162:. The hoard changed hands, probably several times, within Germany during the next two years, being sold for up to a million DM. By 2001 knowledge of its existence had become public. 451: 1324:

The Nebra Sky Disc is dated to the early Bronze Age. It was made circa 1800 BC and was in use over several generations until around 1600 BC when it was buried and dedicated to the gods.

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Initially the disc had thirty-two small round gold circles, a large circular plate, and a large crescent-shaped plate attached. The circular plate is interpreted as either the

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The defenders argued that as a cult object, the disc had already been "published" approximately 3,500 years earlier in the Bronze Age and that consequently, all protection of

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traces of bronze artefacts in the ground, and the soil at the site matched soil samples found clinging to the artefacts. The disc and its accompanying finds are held by the

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mountains, some 80 kilometres (50 mi) to the northwest. The treasure hunters claimed the artefacts were discovered within a pit inside the bank-and-ditch enclosure.

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Rappenglück, Michael (2016). "Cosmovisions Put Upon a Disk: Another View of the Nebra Disk". In Silva, Fabio; Malville, Kim; Lomsdalen, Tore; Ventura, Frank (eds.).

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covered over, so that thirty remain visible. The two arcs span an angle of 82°, correctly indicating the angle between the positions of sunsets at summer and winter

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The Nebra sky disc features the oldest concrete depiction of astronomical phenomena known from anywhere in the world. In June 2013, it was included in the

514:, had already been used to mark the solstices, the disc presents this knowledge in the form of a portable object. The disc may have had both a practical 3754: 2784:

Carpathian heartlands: studies on the prehistory and history of Transsylvania in European contexts, dedicated to Horia Ciugudean on his 60th birthday

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out to a tolerance of less than half a millimetre. What that tells us is they understood astronomy, geometry and mathematics, 4,000 years ago.

690:, where the acute angles of the overall design (81°) are equal to the angle between the solstices at the latitude of Stonehenge. According to 3764: 3719: 3464: 3032: 2842: 2324: 2269: 2234: 2134: 2048: 1997: 1819: 1259: 1114: 694:(2009) "The Nebra disc and the Bush Barrow lozenge both seem to be designed to reflect the annual solar cycle at about latitude 51° north." 1597:"Provenance of the gold of the Early Bronze Age Nebra Sky Disk, central Germany: geochemical characterization of natural gold from Cornwall" 2965:

MacKie, E (2006). "New evidence for a professional priesthood in the European Early Bronze Age?". In Todd W. Bostwick; Bryan Bates (eds.).

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included close observation of the yearly course of the Sun and the angle between its rising and setting points at the summer and winter

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from his analysis of standing stone alignments in Britain. Both the Nebra sky disc and Bush Barrow lozenge were made with gold from

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Viewing the Sky Through Past and Present Cultures: Selected Papers from the Oxford VII International Conference on Archaeoastronomy

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Scientific analyses of the disc, the items found with the disc, and the find spot have all confirmed the Early Bronze Age dating.

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the gold plating technique used on the Nebra sky disc also originated in Britain, and was introduced from there to the continent.

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in her hand, she is identified as a goddess of nature and fertility, with a double-axe and celestoal symbols, possibly the Minoan

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MacKie further suggests that both the Nebra disc and Bush Barrow lozenge may be linked to the solar calendar reconstructed by

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court in September 2003. They appealed, but the Appeals Court raised their sentences to six and twelve months, respectively.

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on the disc in conjunction with a crescent moon has been interpreted as representing a calendar rule for synchronising

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Meller, H (2002). "Die Himmelsscheibe von Nebra – ein frühbronzezeitlicher Fund von außergewohnlicher Bedeutung".

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in Greece, dating from the fifteenth century BC. Beneath the sun and moon is a seated female figure holding three

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In February 2002, the state archaeologist, Harald Meller, acquired the disc in a police-led sting operation in

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disc of around 30 cm (12 in) diameter and a weight of 2.2 kg (4.9 lb), having a blue-green

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4) Diagram of the disc in its current condition (a star and a part of the Sun—or Full Moon—have been restored)

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The archaeologist Christoph Sommerfeld has argued that the disc encodes knowledge of the 19-year lunisolar

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Anthropological Papers. Vol. 15. City of Phoenix Parks and Recreation Department. pp. 343–362.

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The find is regarded as reconfirming that the astronomical knowledge and abilities of the people of the

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for depicting the disc design on souvenirs. Saxony-Anhalt also successfully sued the publishing houses

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Ch. Sommerfeld : ...Sterne mal Sterne durch Sonne ist Mond - Bemerkungen über die Nebra-Scheibe,

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Meller, Harald (2021). "The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power".

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Meller, Harald (2021). "The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power".

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Meller, Harald (2021). "The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power".

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Meller, Harald (2021). "The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power".

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Pernicka, E. & Wunderlich, C-H. "Naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchungen an den Funden von Nebra".

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Gold strips on the side of the disc mark the summer and winter solstices, and the top represents the

519: 503: 302: 3536: 2129:. Susanne M. Hoffmann, Susanne M. Hoffmann, Gudrun Wolfschmidt, Tredition GmbH Hamburg. Ahrensburg. 1364:"Why the Nebra Sky Disc Dates to the Early Bronze Age. An Overview of the Interdisciplinary Results" 654:

A depiction of a sun and crescent moon similar to the Nebra disc appears on a gold signet ring from

3774: 3683: 1025: 958: 702: 675: 488: 367: 3265: 943:, there can be no such copyrights on reproductions of visual works that are in the public domain. 614:, dating from c. 1500 BC. The Metonic cycle is also thought to be encoded on the Late Bronze Age 3671: 3659: 2943: 2900: 2726: 2684: 2676: 2423: 2384: 2152: 2085: 1869: 1549: 1385: 1232: 659: 538: 286: 273: 3441: 3425: 3344: 3238: 2781:

Pokutta, Dalia (2016). "Food and cooking in the Únětice culture". In Boroffka, Nikolaus (ed.).

2065: 3460: 3437: 3421: 3395: 3381: 3365: 3340: 3324: 3028: 2974: 2838: 2805: 2579: 2532: 2522: 2320: 2265: 2240: 2230: 2140: 2130: 2044: 1993: 1965: 1955: 1825: 1815: 1776: 1734: 1724: 1696: 1457: 1447: 1255: 1153: 1143: 1120: 1110: 928: 906: 859: 730: 671: 619: 129: 201: 3635: 3090: 2995:"Where did the gold from the time of Stonehenge come from? Analysing the Bush Barrow dagger" 2935: 2890: 2830: 2763: 2668: 2660: 2612: 2454: 2415: 2376: 2342:"Himmelsscheibe, Sonnenwagen und Kalenderhüte - ein Versuch zur bronzezeitlichen Astronomie" 2077: 1859: 1650: 1616: 1596: 1375: 1222: 931:, asserting that they were the "owner of the exclusive copyright in the Sky Disk of Nebra". 515: 250: 3024:

Der Griff nach den Sternen. Internationales Symposium in Halle (Saale) 16.-21. Februar 2005

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On 21 June 2007, a multimedia visitor centre was opened near the discovery site at Nebra.

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Ridderstad, Marianna (2009). "Evidence of Minoan astronomy and calendrical practices".

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associated with it has long expired. The plaintiff, on the other hand, argued that the

870:, which resulted in two lawsuits. In 2003, Saxony-Anhalt successfully sued the city of 805: 698: 634: 534: 530: 189:

The two looters received sentences of four months and ten months, respectively, from a

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and termed "one of the most important archaeological finds of the twentieth century."

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with numerous oars, although some authors have also suggested that it may represent a

3693: 2947: 2904: 2751: 2688: 2600: 2443:"Zahlensymbolik und digitales Rechnersystem in der Ornamentik des Berliner Goldhutes" 2427: 2388: 2222: 2173: 2108: 2089: 1873: 1807: 1669: 1654: 1389: 1236: 1102: 909: 863: 829: 813: 798: 768: 706: 663: 607: 507: 294: 179: 175: 155: 2924:"The Prehistoric Solar Calendar: An Out-of-fashion Idea Revisited with New Evidence" 2064:

Bunnefeld, J.; Becker, J.; Martin, L.; Pausewein, R.; Simon, S.; Meller, H. (2023).

939:, subsequently filed a DMCA counter-notice stating that since the implementation of 610:. According to Sommerfeld the Metonic cycle is similarly encoded on the disc of the 86:

Two golden arcs that were along the sides are thought to mark the angle between the

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Hoffmann, Susanne M. Meller, Harald; Reichenberger, Alfred; Risch, Roberto (eds.).

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Gold signet ring from Mycenae with similar celestial imagery, fifteenth century BC

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Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany

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Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany

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Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany

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Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany

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The Materiality of the Sky: Proceedings of the 22nd Annual SEAC Conference, 2014

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Askitopoulou, Helen; Ramoutsaki, Ioanna A.; Konsolaki, Eleni (December 2002).

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Replica of the find situation of the Nebra Sky Disc for the German exhibition

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and inlaid with gold symbols. These symbols are interpreted generally as the

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http://journalsonline.org/american-journal-of-humanities-and-social-science/

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Valavanis, Panos; Nagy, Gregory (1993). "The Sun in Greek Culture and Art".

2174:"Das babylonische Astronomie-Kompendium MUL.APIN: Messung von Zeit und Raum" 1670:"Das babylonische Astronomie-Kompendium MUL.APIN: Messung von Zeit und Raum" 1641:

Haustein, M. (2010). "Tin isotopy: a new method for solving old questions".

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Die Himmelsscheibe von Nebra – ein früher Blick des Menschen ins Universum

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Der geschmiedete Himmel. Die weite Welt im Herzen Europas vor 3600 Jahren.

2212: 1797: 1092: 30: 3131:"Nebra Sky Disc: British Museum to display world's 'oldest map of stars'" 2859:

Stonehenge's Richest Man: The Bush Barrow Chieftain (British Museum 2022)

2474:"Functional principles of early time measurement at Stonehenge and Nebra" 2380: 1758:"Where does the ecliptic cross the horizon during the course of a night?" 1177:"The Nebra Sky Disk: Is the world's oldest star map really a map at all?" 871: 780: 564: 549: 526: 492: 407: 354: 346: 310: 272:–1500 BCE. Remains of birch bark found in the sword hilts have been 226: 190: 87: 80: 76: 3541: 3512:

was created from a revision of this article dated 26 July 2019

2419: 358:

an entire year. Thus, the arcs are consistent with wholly nighttime use.

3130: 3094: 3079:"Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk" 771:

from 15 October 2004 to 22 May 2005, from 1 July to 22 October 2005 in

705:, providing a direct link between them. According to the archaeologist 667: 655: 628:

The Nebra disc has also been compared to a passage from the Greek poet

584: 422: 338: 265:

Axes and swords found buried with the disc were dated typologically to

257: 230: 219: 211: 183: 159: 114: 95: 3108: 2680: 2648: 1227: 1202: 824:

In November 2021, a replica of the Nebra Sky Disc was launched to the

313:

in England. The tin present in the bronze was also of Cornish origin.

2825:

Pásztor, Emilia (2015), "Nebra Disk", in Ruggles, Clive L. N. (ed.),

878:

and Heyne over an abstract depiction of the disc on book covers. The

776: 629: 426: 139: 103: 64: 60: 3078: 3022: 2923: 2782: 2573: 2473: 2403: 2314: 2259: 2038: 1987: 1363: 1065: 3642: 2664: 2631: 2364: 2020:

Concepts of cosmos in the world of Stonehenge (British Museum 2022)

990: – Prehistoric European culture characterized by burial mounds 682:

of a similar feature on the roughly contemporary gold lozenge from

2731: 2319:. Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). pp. 151–152. 2264:. Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). pp. 151–152. 843: 784: 711: 588: 578: 466: 366: 361:

The final addition was another arc at the bottom, identified as a

256: 244: 200:

encircling the top of a 252 metres (827 ft) elevation in the

166: 3581: 2829:, New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 1349–1356, 2752:"Archaeological evidence on the use of opium in the Minoan world" 2404:"... nach Jahr und Tag – Bemerkungen über die Trundholm-Scheiben" 1933:"The Nebra Sky Disc: decoding a prehistoric vision of the cosmos" 1509:"The Nebra Sky Disc: decoding a prehistoric vision of the cosmos" 1044:"The Nebra Sky Disc: decoding a prehistoric vision of the cosmos" 812:

from 17 February to 17 July 2022. The disc was on display at the

1337:"Nebra Sky Disc — Bronze Age representation of the sky, Germany" 678:

in Sweden, dating from the sixteenth to fifteenth centuries BC.

572: 563:

beads have been found in a foundational deposit under the large

372: 342: 298: 234: 941:

Article 14 of the Directive 2019/790 of the European Parliament

365:, again made of gold, but originating from a different source. 225:

At the enclosure's location, the sun seems to set every summer

741: 395: 326: 68: 2649:"'The Ring of Nestor': A Glimpse into the Minoan After-World" 1310: 1308: 984: – Late Nordic Bronze Age artifact discovered in Denmark 927:

requesting removal of nine images of the Nebra sky disc from

905:

The case was appealed and on the basis of decisions from the

725:

There were some initial suspicions that the disc might be an

3490: 3355:. Weihnachtsgabe der WeserStrom Genossenschaft, Bremen 2002. 1002: – Megalithic temple in Malta – The Tal-Qadi Sky Tablet 214:. The surrounding area is known to have been settled in the 978: – Solid sheet-gold object from the British Bronze Age 2178:

Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale)

1674:

Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale)

736:

Richard Harrison, professor of European prehistory at the

210:("central hill"), some 60 kilometres (37 mi) west of 3456:

Die Himmelsscheibe von Nebra und ihre anatolischen Bezüge

3320:

Sonne, Mond und Sterne. Das Geheimnis der Himmelsscheibe.

555:

This conjunction occurs approximately every three years.

1693:

Lost Treasures; Civilization's Great Riches Rediscovered

218:

era, and Ziegelroda Forest contains approximately 1,000

421:

2) Arcs were added on the horizon for the zones of the

3266:"Notice of Copyright Violation (DMCA Takedown Notice)" 3053:"Himmelsscheibe von Nebra - Eine Komödie der Irrungen" 285:

According to an initial analysis of trace elements by

109:

The disc was found buried on the Mittelberg hill near

3619: 3394:

Deutschland. Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg 2004,1, S.38–61,

321:

As preserved, the disc was developed in four stages:

3364:

Ausstellungskatalog. Theiss-Verlag, Stuttgart 2004,

1425:"The Nebra Sky Disc Dates from the Early Bronze Age" 793:

The disc is part of the permanent exhibition in the

783:, and from 29 September 2006 to 25 February 2007 in 27:

Bronze artefact, c. 1600 BC, found in Nebra, Germany

3339:Dt. Verl. d. Wissenschaften, Halle 1.2002, S.7–31. 1595:Ehser, Anja; Borg, Gregor; Pernicka, Ernst (2011). 349:, or possibly the general symbol of a star cluster. 261:

Other associated finds: chisel, axeheads, bracelets

3333:Landesamt für Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt (Hrsg.): 2798:Kristiansen, Kristian; Larsson, Thomas B. (2005). 1841: 1839: 757:The disc was the centre of an exhibition entitled 1356: 1354: 1352: 1350: 882:court assessed the case's relevance according to 483:Video explaining the significance of the sky disc 429:Sun; individual stars were shifted and/or covered 3377:Akte Nebra – Keine Sonne auf der Himmelsscheibe? 3225:Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt Dienststell Jena 2804:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–193. 2043:. Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). 1992:. Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). 3170:"Cosmic Kiss takes the Nebra Sky Disc to space" 2827:Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy 2706:Trckova-Flamee, Alena (2005). "Poppy goddess". 1277:"The Nebra Sky Disk - Ancient Map of the Stars" 3503: 2296:"The difference between solar and lunar years" 2032: 2030: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1252:Essay: What is depicted on the Nebra Sky Disc? 996: – Ancient analogue astronomical computer 3574:Eine vollständig astronomische Interpretation 2879:"Morphometric findings on the Nebra Sky Disc" 2193:Concepts of cosmos in the world of Stonehenge 1848:"Morphometric findings on the Nebra Sky Disc" 1419: 1417: 816:in Assen from 6 August to 18 September 2022. 775:, from 9 November 2005 to 5 February 2006 in 8: 3584:of using disc to declare intercalary months. 3571: 3557: 3454: 3431: 3412: 3406: 3375: 3359: 3350: 3334: 3318: 920:In 2023, the state of Saxony-Anhalt filed a 849: 758: 595:month), and not before. Secondly, because a 205: 3544:, United Press International, 2 March 2006. 3243:European Union Intellectual Property Office 3218:"Aktenzeichen: 305 07 066 - S 216/09 Lösch" 1781:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 894: 2517:Garrow, Duncan; Wilkin, Neil (June 2022). 2157:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1954:. British Museum Press. pp. 145–147. 1950:Garrow, Duncan; Wilkin, Neil (June 2022). 1723:. British Museum Press. pp. 145–147. 1719:Garrow, Duncan; Wilkin, Neil (June 2022). 1714: 1712: 1493:Meller, H. (January 2004). "Star search". 1442:Garrow, Duncan; Wilkin, Neil (June 2022). 1341:UNESCO Portal to the Heritage of Astronomy 1142:. British Museum Press. pp. 147–148. 1138:Garrow, Duncan; Wilkin, Neil (June 2022). 337:(or either the Sun or the Moon undergoing 3077:Gebhard, Rupert; Krause, Rüdiger (2020). 2894: 2787:. Muzeul Naţional al Unirii. p. 143. 2730: 2694:poppy-heads presented to her by a votary. 2472:Herten, Friedel; Waldmann, Georg (2018). 1863: 1379: 1226: 599:(354 days) is eleven days shorter than a 3542:Study: Bronze disk is astronomical clock 3520:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 2636:. Thames & Hudson. pp. 280–293. 1590: 1588: 1374:. Austrian Academy of Sciences: 89–122. 1295:"Nebra Sky Disc: The Place of Discovery" 645: 29: 3626: 2877:Dathe, Henning; Kruger, Harald (2018). 2599:Pasztor, Emilia; Roslund, Curt (2007). 2340:Hansen, Rahlf; Rink, Christine (2008). 1846:Dathe, Henning; Kruger, Harald (2018). 1066:"Pre-heraldry on the Sangerhausen Disc" 1020: 1018: 1016: 1012: 384: 2150: 1774: 1163:Disc may represent the oars of a crew. 955: – Archaeological site in England 3715:Archaeological discoveries in Germany 2601:"An interpretation of the Nebra Disc" 2521:. British Museum Press. p. 145. 1695:. London: Carlton Books. p. 16. 1446:. British Museum Press. p. 144. 716:Sky Disc at dawn near winter solstice 375:at winter solstice, as seen from 51°N 54: 7: 3264:Nordemann Czychowski & Partner. 1059: 1057: 797:(Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte) in 196:The discovery site is a prehistoric 3180:from the original on 31 March 2022. 2578:. Sophia Centre Press. p. 58. 2447:Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica 2346:Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica 832:mission, taken by German astronaut 779:, from 10 March to 16 July 2006 in 548:collection of texts with the title 34:The Nebra sky disc, c. 1800–1600 BC 1201:Mentock, Richard (November 2021). 1175:Joshua Rapp Learn (May 11, 2021). 966: – Bronze Age Europe artifact 810:The World Of Stonehenge Exhibition 666:, or an early form of the goddess 25: 2103:Feller, Manfred; Koch, Johannes. 56:[ˈhɪml̩sˌʃaɪbəfɔnˈneːbra] 3755:Halle State Museum of Prehistory 3677: 3665: 3653: 3641: 3629: 3548:Calendar question over star disc 3502: 1655:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2010.00515.x 1621:10.1127/0935-1221/2011/0023-2140 1531:Halle State Museum of Prehistory 1408:Halle State Museum of Prehistory 1299:Halle State Museum of Prehistory 1030:Halle State Museum of Prehistory 795:Halle State Museum of Prehistory 450: 434: 414: 387: 3705:1999 archaeological discoveries 2653:The Journal of Hellenic Studies 1203:"Rethinking the Nebra Sky Disk" 804:The disc was on display at the 618:, which features a band of 19 " 3336:Archäologie in Sachsen-Anhalt. 3057:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 2801:The rise of Bronze Age society 2363:Sommerfeld, Christoph (2012). 1889:Archäeologie in Sachsen-Anhalt 1601:European Journal of Mineralogy 1254:. tredition. pp. 87–102. 1: 3578:, 17 May 2005 (astronomie.de) 3537:Official Landesmuseum website 3420:Heidelberg 2004,11, S.52–59. 3380:Naether, Wilhelmshorst 2004, 2896:10.1080/1751696X.2018.1433358 2835:10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_128 2768:10.1016/S0531-5131(02)00769-0 2756:International Congress Series 2402:Sommerfel, Christoph (2010). 1865:10.1080/1751696X.2018.1433358 1575:Archäologie in Sachsen-Anhalt 541:. This rule is known from an 537:, enabling the creation of a 406:, and between and above, the 266: 122: 3765:Memory of the World Register 3720:Archaeology of Saxony-Anhalt 3109:"Arche Nebra Visitor Centre" 3083:Archäologische Informationen 2478:Archäologische Informationen 2369:Preaehistorische Zeitschrift 2122:Wolfschmidt, Gudrun (2022). 1429:Austrian Academy of Sciences 1316:"Nebra Sky Disc: Nomination" 333:, the crescent shape as the 289:by E. Pernicka, then at the 143:Memory of the World Register 3433:Praehistorische Zeitschrift 3374:Katja Näther, Sven Näther: 3323:Anderbeck, Anderbeck 2004, 3195:(in German). Archived from 2922:MacKie, Euan (March 2009). 2408:Praehistorische Zeitschrift 1762:astronomy.stackexchange.com 826:International Space Station 301:was thought to be from the 293:, the copper originated at 3801: 3436:, 87(1) 2012, S. 110–131. 3349:Frank Hagen von Liegnitz: 3239:"Himmelsscheibe von Nebra" 3193:"Himmelsscheibe von Nebra" 2441:Menghin, Wilfried (2008). 1550:"Secrets of the Star Disc" 1480:UNESCO Memory of the World 1381:10.1553/archaeologia104s89 1320:UNESCO Memory of the World 1281:World History Encyclopedia 972: – Barrow in Cornwall 233:, the highest peak of the 172:State Museum of Prehistory 3550:, BBC News, 25 June 2007. 3415:Spektrum der Wissenschaft 3190:Himmelsscheibe von Nebra 2617:10.1017/S0003598X00095168 2459:10.11588/apa.2008.0.71505 2221:(1st American ed.). 2082:10.1163/16000390-20210031 1806:(1st American ed.). 1101:(1st American ed.). 866:registered the disc as a 854:(German "The forged sky") 638:, written around 700 BC: 3760:Archaeological artifacts 3582:Simulation and procedure 3408:Der geschmiedete Himmel. 2940:10.2752/175169709X374263 1554:BBC Science & Nature 1527:"Nebra Sky Disc: Dating" 1404:"Nebra Sky Disc: Dating" 1275:Haughton, Brian (2011). 914:Federal Court of Justice 48:Himmelsscheibe von Nebra 3358:Harald Meller (Hrsg.): 3289:Wikimedia Deutschland. 2673:2027/mdp.39015008678354 2633:The Sun in Myth and Art 2519:The World of Stonehenge 1952:The World of Stonehenge 1721:The World of Stonehenge 1691:McIntosh, Jane (2010). 1444:The World of Stonehenge 1140:The World of Stonehenge 1064:Eiland, Murray (2003). 851:Der geschmiedete Himmel 760:Der geschmiedete Himmel 297:in Austria, whilst the 3572: 3558: 3498: 3478:Listen to this article 3455: 3453:Andreas Müller-Karpe, 3432: 3413: 3407: 3376: 3360: 3351: 3335: 3319: 2647:Evans, Arthur (1925). 1368:Archaeologia Austriaca 1076:(2): 1, 9 – via 895: 855: 850: 759: 727:archaeological forgery 717: 651: 644: 591: 504:astronomical complexes 484: 376: 291:University of Freiberg 262: 254: 206: 128:and attributed to the 47: 35: 3750:Forgery controversies 3700:17th-century BC works 3606:51.28389°N 11.52000°E 3497: 3174:European Space Agency 1250:Crocco, Juan (2022). 994:Antikythera mechanism 982:Trundholm sun chariot 933:Wikimedia Deutschland 891:intellectual property 847: 808:in London as part of 765:Trundholm sun chariot 738:University of Bristol 715: 674:petroglyphs from the 649: 640: 612:Trundholm sun chariot 582: 525:The depiction of the 518:purpose as well as a 482: 370: 260: 248: 33: 3785:Ancient art in metal 3556:Wolfhard Schlosser, 3529:More spoken articles 2971:Pueblo Grande Museum 2708:Encyclopedia Mythica 2381:10.1515/pz-2012-0006 1907:"The Nebra Sky Disc" 937:Wikimedia Foundation 884:German copyright law 441:3) Addition of the " 303:Carpathian Mountains 281:Origin of the metals 253:found with the disc 3725:Art discs and ovals 3602: / 3392:National Geographic 2420:10.1515/pz.2010.012 2281:English translation 2172:Hoffmann, Susanne. 1613:2011EJMin..23..895E 1495:National Geographic 1219:2021PhT....74k..10M 959:Bell Beaker culture 935:, a chapter of the 495:. While much older 489:European Bronze Age 402:, on the right the 394:1) On the left the 341:), and the dots as 126: 1800–1600 BC 3735:Bronze Age Germany 3611:51.28389; 11.52000 3499: 3095:10.11588/ai.2020.1 2070:Acta Archaeologica 1109:. pp. 20–21. 1070:The Armiger's News 856: 820:Replica on the ISS 718: 676:Kivik King's Grave 652: 592: 539:lunisolar calendar 485: 377: 287:x-ray fluorescence 263: 255: 36: 3495: 3465:978-3-8185-0563-9 3034:978-3-939414-28-5 2844:978-1-4614-6140-1 2504:Perseus.tufts.edu 2326:978-3-948618-22-3 2271:978-3-948618-22-3 2236:978-1-4654-5443-0 2136:978-3-347-71293-5 2050:978-3-948618-22-3 1999:978-3-948618-22-3 1821:978-1-4654-5443-0 1261:978-3-347-71288-1 1228:10.1063/PT.3.4868 1116:978-1-4654-5443-0 929:Wikimedia Commons 907:Oberlandesgericht 731:hydrochloric acid 672:Nordic Bronze Age 620:star and crescent 480: 274:Radiocarbon dated 202:Ziegelroda Forest 117:. It is dated by 16:(Redirected from 3792: 3710:Archaeoastronomy 3682: 3681: 3680: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3658: 3657: 3656: 3646: 3645: 3634: 3633: 3632: 3625: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3607: 3603: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3595: 3577: 3569: 3563: 3555: 3519: 3517: 3506: 3505: 3496: 3486: 3484: 3479: 3459:, Marburg 2021, 3458: 3435: 3419: 3410: 3379: 3363: 3354: 3338: 3322: 3305: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3295: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3270: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3235: 3229: 3228: 3222: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3204: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3156:"Nebra Sky Disc" 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3142: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3065: 3064: 3059:. March 17, 2005 3049: 3043: 3042: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2999:Wiltshire Museum 2991: 2985: 2984: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2898: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2854: 2848: 2847: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2795: 2789: 2788: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2734: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2644: 2638: 2637: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2585:978-1907767-09-8 2569: 2563: 2562: 2551: 2545: 2544: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2188: 2182: 2181: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2156: 2148: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2107:. Archived from 2100: 2094: 2093: 2061: 2055: 2054: 2034: 2025: 2024: 2017:Meller, Harald. 2014: 2008: 2007: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1929:Symonds, Matthew 1925: 1919: 1918: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1867: 1843: 1834: 1833: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1780: 1772: 1770: 1768: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1716: 1707: 1706: 1688: 1682: 1681: 1665: 1659: 1658: 1638: 1632: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1592: 1583: 1582: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1546: 1535: 1534: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1505: 1499: 1498: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1476:"Nebra Sky Disc" 1472: 1466: 1465: 1439: 1433: 1432: 1421: 1412: 1411: 1400: 1394: 1393: 1383: 1358: 1345: 1344: 1333: 1327: 1326: 1312: 1303: 1302: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1272: 1266: 1265: 1247: 1241: 1240: 1230: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1189: 1187: 1172: 1166: 1165: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1088: 1082: 1081: 1061: 1052: 1051: 1040: 1034: 1033: 1026:"Nebra Sky Disc" 1022: 925:take down notice 912:in 2005 and the 900: 853: 762: 481: 454: 438: 418: 391: 271: 268: 209: 130:Early Bronze Age 127: 124: 102:, a comet, or a 58: 53: 21: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3789: 3780:Unetice culture 3745:Burgenlandkreis 3690: 3689: 3688: 3678: 3676: 3666: 3664: 3654: 3652: 3640: 3630: 3628: 3620: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3588: 3570:Norbert Gasch, 3567: 3564:(astronomie.de) 3553: 3533: 3532: 3521: 3515: 3513: 3510:This audio file 3507: 3500: 3491: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3314: 3312:Further reading 3309: 3308: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3288: 3287: 3283: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3248: 3246: 3237: 3236: 3232: 3227:. 27 July 2010. 3220: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3202: 3200: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3140: 3138: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3062: 3060: 3051: 3050: 3046: 3035: 3019: 3018: 3014: 3004: 3002: 2993: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2856: 2855: 2851: 2845: 2824: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2780: 2779: 2775: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2705: 2704: 2700: 2646: 2645: 2641: 2629: 2628: 2624: 2611:(312): 267–78. 2598: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2529: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2494: 2493: 2489: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2440: 2439: 2435: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2362: 2361: 2357: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2294: 2293: 2289: 2272: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2237: 2219:David Christian 2210: 2209: 2205: 2190: 2189: 2185: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2149: 2137: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2063: 2062: 2058: 2051: 2036: 2035: 2028: 2016: 2015: 2011: 2000: 1985: 1984: 1980: 1962: 1949: 1948: 1944: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1886: 1885: 1881: 1845: 1844: 1837: 1822: 1804:David Christian 1795: 1794: 1790: 1773: 1766: 1764: 1755: 1754: 1750: 1731: 1718: 1717: 1710: 1703: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1667: 1666: 1662: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1625: 1623: 1594: 1593: 1586: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1562:. 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WD 387)" 2498:Works and Days 2487: 2464: 2433: 2414:(2): 207–242. 2394: 2375:(1): 110–131. 2355: 2332: 2325: 2305: 2287: 2270: 2250: 2235: 2229:. p. 20. 2217:. Foreword by 2203: 2198:British Museum 2183: 2180:(24): 251–275. 2164: 2135: 2114: 2111:on 2016-03-04. 2095: 2076:(2): 228–243. 2056: 2049: 2026: 2009: 1998: 1978: 1960: 1942: 1931:(2022-05-25). 1920: 1898: 1879: 1835: 1820: 1814:. p. 21. 1802:. Foreword by 1788: 1748: 1729: 1708: 1701: 1683: 1660: 1649:(5): 816–832. 1633: 1607:(6): 895–910. 1584: 1565: 1536: 1518: 1515:. 25 May 2022. 1500: 1485: 1467: 1452: 1434: 1413: 1395: 1346: 1328: 1304: 1286: 1267: 1260: 1242: 1193: 1167: 1148: 1130: 1115: 1097:. 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