1844:, which assumes a connectionless network, RM/OSI assumed a connection-oriented network. Connection-oriented networks are more suitable for wide area networks and connectionless networks are more suitable for local area networks. Connection-oriented communication requires some form of session and (virtual) circuits, hence the (in the TCP/IP model lacking) session layer. The constituent members of ISO were mostly concerned with wide area networks, so the development of RM/OSI concentrated on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks were first mentioned in an addendum to RM/OSI and later incorporated into an update to RM/OSI.
1022:. BSC is an early link-level protocol used to connect two separate nodes. It was originally not intended to be used in a multinode network, but doing so revealed several deficiencies of the protocol. In the absence of standardization, manufacturers and organizations felt free to enhance the protocol, creating incompatible versions on their networks. In some cases, this was deliberately done to discourage users from using equipment from other manufacturers. There are more than 50 variants of the original bi-sync protocol. One can assume, that a standard would have prevented at least some of this from happening.
1906:
research are affected by metadata encryption; protocol designers must balance observability for operability and research against ossification resistance and end-user privacy. The IETF announced in 2014 that it had determined that large-scale surveillance of protocol operations is an attack due to the ability to infer information from the wire image about users and their behaviour, and that the IETF would "work to mitigate pervasive monitoring" in its protocol designs; this had not been done systematically previously. The
913:
821:
1039:). They can hold a market in a very negative grip, especially when used to scare away competition. From a historical perspective, standardization should be seen as a measure to counteract the ill-effects of de facto standards. Positive exceptions exist; a de facto standard operating system like Linux does not have this negative grip on its market, because the sources are published and maintained in an open way, thus inviting competition.
888:
1006:, which initiates the standardization process. The members of the standards organization agree to adhere to the work result on a voluntary basis. Often the members are in control of large market shares relevant to the protocol and in many cases, standards are enforced by law or the government because they are thought to serve an important public interest, so getting approval can be very important for the protocol.
6643:
5623:
6653:
5633:
6663:
477:. The functionalities are mapped onto the layers, each layer solving a distinct class of problems relating to, for instance: application-, transport-, internet- and network interface-functions. To transmit a message, a protocol has to be selected from each layer. The selection of the next protocol is accomplished by extending the message with a protocol selector for each layer.
5612:
5643:
1755:. To communicate, two peer entities at a given layer use a protocol specific to that layer which is implemented by using services of the layer below. For each layer, there are two types of standards: protocol standards defining how peer entities at a given layer communicate, and service standards defining how a given layer communicates with the layer above it.
1902:), which can influence protocol operation. Even if authenticated, if a portion is not encrypted, it will form part of the wire image, and intermediate parties may intervene depending on its content (e.g., dropping packets with particular flags). Signals deliberately intended for intermediary consumption may be left authenticated but unencrypted.
2120:
1792:
may provide the following services to the presentation layer: establishment and release of session connections, normal and expedited data exchange, a quarantine service which allows the sending presentation entity to instruct the receiving session entity not to release data to its presentation entity
1090:
International standards organizations are supposed to be more impartial than local organizations with a national or commercial self-interest to consider. Standards organizations also do research and development for standards of the future. In practice, the standards organizations mentioned, cooperate
828:
In modern protocol design, protocols are layered to form a protocol stack. Layering is a design principle that divides the protocol design task into smaller steps, each of which accomplishes a specific part, interacting with the other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-defined ways.
442:
had proven to be a successful design approach for both compiler and operating system design and, given the similarities between programming languages and communication protocols, the originally monolithic networking programs were decomposed into cooperating protocols. This gave rise to the concept of
2610:
The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and
2534:
In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and
Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who
1878:
of a protocol is the information that a non-participant observer is able to glean from observing the protocol messages, including both information explicitly given meaning by the protocol, but also inferences made by the observer. Unencrypted protocol metadata is one source making up the wire image,
924:
To send a message on system A, the top-layer software module interacts with the module directly below it and hands over the message to be encapsulated. The lower module fills in the header data in accordance with the protocol it implements and interacts with the bottom module which sends the message
903:
is some kind of message flow diagram. To visualize protocol layering and protocol suites, a diagram of the message flows in and between two systems, A and B, is shown in figure 3. The systems, A and B, both make use of the same protocol suite. The vertical flows (and protocols) are in-system and the
2267:
As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to
1910:
recommended in 2023 that disclosure of information by a protocol to the network should be intentional, performed with the agreement of both recipient and sender, authenticated to the degree possible and necessary, only acted upon to the degree of its trustworthiness, and minimised and provided to a
1782:
may provide the following services to the application layer: a request for the establishment of a session, data transfer, negotiation of the syntax to be used between the application layers, any necessary syntax transformations, formatting and special purpose transformations (e.g., data compression
791:
is the synchronization of software for receiving and transmitting messages of communication in proper sequencing. Concurrent programming has traditionally been a topic in operating systems theory texts. Formal verification seems indispensable because concurrent programs are notorious for the hidden
422:
To implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machine's operating system. This framework implements the networking functionality of the operating system. When protocol algorithms are expressed in a portable programming language
1812:
does the setup, maintenance and release of network paths between transport peer entities. When relays are needed, routing and relay functions are provided by this layer. The quality of service is negotiated between network and transport entities at the time the connection is set up. This layer is
1768:
may provide the following services to the application processes: identification of the intended communication partners, establishment of the necessary authority to communicate, determination of availability and authentication of the partners, agreement on privacy mechanisms for the communication,
811:
The literature presents numerous analogies between computer communication and programming. In analogy, a transfer mechanism of a protocol is comparable to a central processing unit (CPU). The framework introduces rules that allow the programmer to design cooperating protocols independently of one
704:
Error detection is necessary on networks where data corruption is possible. In a common approach, a CRC of the data area is added to the end of packets, making it possible for the receiver to detect differences caused by corruption. The receiver rejects the packets on CRC differences and arranges
657:
Addresses are used to identify both the sender and the intended receiver(s). The addresses are carried in the header area of the bitstrings, allowing the receivers to determine whether the bitstrings are of interest and should be processed or should be ignored. A connection between a sender and a
998:
For communication to occur, protocols have to be selected. The rules can be expressed by algorithms and data structures. Hardware and operating system independence is enhanced by expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language. Source independence of the specification provides wider
947:
Although the use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking, it has been historically criticized by many researchers as abstracting the protocol stack in this way may cause a higher layer to duplicate the functionality of a lower layer, a prime example being
934:
The modules below the application layer are generally considered part of the operating system. Passing data between these modules is much less expensive than passing data between an application program and the transport layer. The boundary between the application layer and the transport layer is
2340:
Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his
1905:
The wire image can be deliberately engineered, encrypting parts that intermediaries should not be able to observe and providing signals for what they should be able to. If provided signals are decoupled from the protocol's operation, they may become untrustworthy. Benign network management and
1746:
In the OSI model, communicating systems are assumed to be connected by an underlying physical medium providing a basic transmission mechanism. The layers above it are numbered. Each layer provides service to the layer above it using the services of the layer immediately below it. The top layer
1115:
In the ISO, the standardization process starts off with the commissioning of a sub-committee workgroup. The workgroup issues working drafts and discussion documents to interested parties (including other standards bodies) in order to provoke discussion and comments. This will generate a lot of
758:
If long bitstrings are divided into pieces and then sent on the network individually, the pieces may get lost or delayed or, on some types of networks, take different routes to their destination. As a result, pieces may arrive out of sequence. Retransmissions can result in duplicate pieces. By
2012:
combines both function and domain of use. The dominant layering schemes are the ones developed by the IETF and by ISO. Despite the fact that the underlying assumptions of the layering schemes are different enough to warrant distinguishing the two, it is a common practice to compare the two by
783:
principles have been applied to create a set of common network protocol design principles. The design of complex protocols often involves decomposition into simpler, cooperating protocols. Such a set of cooperating protocols is sometimes called a protocol family or a protocol suite, within a
79:
Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses predetermined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be
1773:, synchronization between cooperating application processes, identification of any constraints on syntax (e.g. character sets and data structures), determination of cost and acceptable quality of service, selection of the dialogue discipline, including required logon and logoff procedures.
2086:
Failure to receive an acknowledgment indicates that either the original transmission or the acknowledgment was lost. The sender has no means to distinguish these cases and therefore, to ensure all data is received, must make the conservative assumption that the original transmission was
1094:
Multiple standards bodies may be involved in the development of a protocol. If they are uncoordinated, then the result may be multiple, incompatible definitions of a protocol, or multiple, incompatible interpretations of messages; important invariants in one definition (e.g., that
895:
Protocol layering forms the basis of protocol design. It allows the decomposition of single, complex protocols into simpler, cooperating protocols. The protocol layers each solve a distinct class of communication problems. Together, the layers make up a layering scheme or model.
4486:
Papastergiou, Giorgos; Fairhurst, Gorry; Ros, David; Brunstrom, Anna; Grinnemo, Karl-Johan; Hurtig, Per; Khademi, Naeem; TĂĽxen, Michael; Welzl, Michael; Damjanovic, Dragana; Mangiante, Simone (2017). "De-Ossifying the
Internet Transport Layer: A Survey and Future Perspectives".
1847:
At the time, the IETF had to cope with this and the fact that the
Internet needed protocols that simply were not there. As a result, the IETF developed its own standardization process based on "rough consensus and running code". The standardization process is described by
618:
Getting the data across a network is only part of the problem for a protocol. The data received has to be evaluated in the context of the progress of the conversation, so a protocol must include rules describing the context. These kinds of rules are said to express the
1802:
provides reliable and transparent data transfer in a cost-effective way as required by the selected quality of service. It may support the multiplexing of several transport connections on to one network connection or split one transport connection into several network
410:
Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate with each other. This communication is governed by well-understood protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no
1067:(IETF). The IETF maintains the protocols in use on the Internet. The IEEE controls many software and hardware protocols in the electronics industry for commercial and consumer devices. The ITU is an umbrella organization of telecommunication engineers designing the
916:
Figure 5: Protocol and software layering. The software modules implementing the protocols are represented by cubes. The information flow between the modules is represented by arrows. The (top two horizontal) red arrows are virtual. The blue lines mark the layer
1826:
does the setup, maintenance and release of data link connections. Errors occurring in the physical layer are detected and may be corrected. Errors are reported to the network layer. The exchange of data link units (including flow control) is defined by this
1739:(such as layered protocols) and their standardization. This would prevent protocol standards with overlapping functionality and would allow clear definition of the responsibilities of a protocol at the different levels (layers). This gave rise to the
1859:
Nowadays, the IETF has become a standards organization for the protocols in use on the
Internet. RM/OSI has extended its model to include connectionless services and because of this, both TCP and IP could be developed into international standards.
1793:
without permission, interaction management so presentation entities can control whose turn it is to perform certain control functions, resynchronization of a session connection, reporting of unrecoverable exceptions to the presentation entity.
247:
responsible for the reliable delivery of data on a packet-switched network, rather than this being a service of the network itself. His team was the first to tackle the highly complex problem of providing user applications with a reliable
666:
s address could be taken to mean an addressing of all stations on the network, so sending to this address would result in a broadcast on the local network. The rules describing the meanings of the address value are collectively called an
394:
The information exchanged between devices through a network or other media is governed by rules and conventions that can be set out in communication protocol specifications. The nature of communication, the actual data exchanged and any
721:
Packets may be lost on the network or be delayed in transit. To cope with this, under some protocols, a sender may expect an acknowledgment of correct reception from the receiver within a certain amount of time. Thus, on
726:, the sender may need to retransmit the information. In case of a permanently broken link, the retransmission has no effect, so the number of retransmissions is limited. Exceeding the retry limit is considered an error.
904:
horizontal message flows (and protocols) are between systems. The message flows are governed by rules, and data formats specified by protocols. The blue lines mark the boundaries of the (horizontal) protocol layers.
677:
Sometimes protocols need to map addresses of one scheme on addresses of another scheme. For instance, to translate a logical IP address specified by the application to an
Ethernet MAC address. This is referred to as
2268:
him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.
1974:
protocol metadata, and ensuring that extension points are exercised and wire image variability is exhibited as fully as possible; remedying existing ossification requires coordination across protocol participants.
859:
was developed internationally based on experience with networks that predated the internet as a reference model for general communication with much stricter rules of protocol interaction and rigorous layering.
765:
Flow control is needed when the sender transmits faster than the receiver or intermediate network equipment can process the transmissions. Flow control can be implemented by messaging from receiver to sender.
630:
Messages are sent and received on communicating systems to establish communication. Protocols should therefore specify rules governing the transmission. In general, much of the following should be addressed:
771:
Communicating processes or state machines employ queues (or "buffers"), usually FIFO queues, to deal with the messages in the order sent, and may sometimes have multiple queues with different prioritization.
943:
Strictly adhering to a layered model, a practice known as strict layering, is not always the best approach to networking. Strict layering can have a negative impact on the performance of an implementation.
925:
over the communications channel to the bottom module of system B. On the receiving system B the reverse happens, so ultimately the message gets delivered in its original form to the top module of system B.
590:
encoding. Binary protocols are intended to be read by a machine rather than a human being. Binary protocols have the advantage of terseness, which translates into speed of transmission and interpretation.
638:
Digital message bitstrings are exchanged. The bitstrings are divided in fields and each field carries information relevant to the protocol. Conceptually the bitstring is divided into two parts called the
1940:
that are sensitive to the wire image of the protocol, and which can interrupt or interfere with messages that are valid but which the middlebox does not correctly recognize. This is a violation of the
931:
is divided into subproblems. As a result, the translation software is layered as well, allowing the software layers to be designed independently. The same approach can be seen in the TCP/IP layering.
3425:
F. Buschmann, K. Henney, and D. C. Schmidt, Pattern-Oriented
Software Architecture Volume 4: A Pattern Language for Distributed Computing, Volume 4 edition. Chichester England; New York: Wiley, 2007.
1951:
protocol design and deployment, as it can prevent new protocols or extensions from being deployed on the
Internet, or place strictures on the design of new protocols; new protocols may have to be
543:
Network applications have various methods of encapsulating data. One method very common with
Internet protocols is a text oriented representation that transmits requests and responses as lines of
107:
Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a
867:
in the
Internet. Packet relaying across networks happens over another layer that involves only network link technologies, which are often specific to certain physical layer technologies, such as
692:
to the intended receiver(s) need to forward messages on behalf of the sender. On the
Internet, the networks are connected using routers. The interconnection of networks through routers is called
2498:
In addition to the NPL Network and the ARPANET, CYCLADES, an academic and research experimental network, also played an important role in the development of computer networking technologies
840:
are designed to function in diverse and complex settings. Internet protocols are designed for simplicity and modularity and fit into a coarse hierarchy of functional layers defined in the
759:
marking the pieces with sequence information at the sender, the receiver can determine what was lost or duplicated, ask for necessary retransmissions and reassemble the original message.
2044:
for transport. In the common case of TCP and UDP, services are distinguished by port numbers. Conformance to these port numbers is voluntary, so in content inspection systems the term
566:
Text-based protocols are typically optimized for human parsing and interpretation and are therefore suitable whenever human inspection of protocol contents is required, such as during
808:. Mealy and Moore machines are in use as design tools in digital electronics systems encountered in the form of hardware used in telecommunication or electronic devices in general.
1836:
describes details like the electrical characteristics of the physical connection, the transmission techniques used, and the setup, maintenance and clearing of physical connections.
891:
Figure 3. Message flows using a protocol suite. Black loops show the actual messaging loops, red loops are the effective communication between layers enabled by the lower layers.
1735:, the predecessor of the Internet, was that protocols need a framework to operate. It is therefore important to develop a general-purpose, future-proof framework suitable for
1911:
minimum number of entities. Engineering the wire image and controlling what signals are provided to network elements was a "developing field" in 2023, according to the IAB.
863:
Typically, application software is built upon a robust data transport layer. Underlying this transport layer is a datagram delivery and routing mechanism that is typically
2468:
In fact, CYCLADES, unlike ARPANET, had been explicitly designed to facilitate internetworking; it could, for instance, handle varying formats and varying levels of service
623:
of the communication. Other rules determine whether the data is meaningful for the context in which the exchange takes place. These kinds of rules are said to express the
1060:
532:
The immediate human readability stands in contrast to native binary protocols which have inherent benefits for use in a computer environment (such as ease of mechanical
547:
text, terminated by a newline character (and usually a carriage return character). Examples of protocols that use plain, human-readable text for its commands are FTP (
3342:
3265:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.3 - The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, p. 179, the first two paragraphs describe the sending of a message through successive layers.
1052:
973:
123:
2914:
Marsden 1986, Section 6.1 - Why are standards necessary?, p. 64-65, uses BSC as an example to show the need for both standard protocols and a standard framework.
2869:
2510:
647:. The actual message is carried in the payload. The header area contains the fields with relevance to the operation of the protocol. Bitstrings longer than the
178:
852:(IP) resulted from the decomposition of the original Transmission Control Program, a monolithic communication protocol, into this layered communication suite.
2923:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, explains this by drawing analogies between computer communication and programming languages.
5595:
5567:
5562:
4587:
3301:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.10 - The Disadvantage Of Layering, p. 192, explains why "strict layering can be extremely inefficient" giving examples of optimizations.
3160:
Marsden 1986, Section 3.3 - Acknowledgement, p. 28-33, explains the advantages of positive only acknowledgment and mentions datagram protocols as exceptions.
2111:, Hilpisch, Robert E.; Duchscher, Rob & Seel, Mark et al., "Wireless communication protocol", published 2009-05-05, assigned to
2837:
1883:
including packet timing also contribute. Different observers with different vantages may see different wire images. The wire image is relevant to end-user
2003:, which is used to encapsulate packets in a high-level protocol so that the packets can be passed across a transport system using the high-level protocol.
5679:
2594:
4489:
2167:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, "They (protocols) are to communication what programming languages are to computation"
3124:
Comer 2000, Sect. 7.7.4 - Datagram Size, Network MTU, and Fragmentation, p. 104, Explains fragmentation and the effect on the header of the fragments.
2983:
2956:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.3 - The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, p. 178, "Each layer takes responsibility for handling one part of the problem."
3274:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The need for multiple protocols, p. 178, explains similarities protocol software and compiler, assembler, linker, loader.
1080:
607:
6396:
6368:
5589:
1615:
6421:
5584:
5574:
5554:
5356:
4539:
3665:
This Basic Reference Model of Open Systems Interconnection is based on the assumption that a connection is required for the transfer of data.
2762:
2461:
2291:
2202:
1579:
1056:
446:
Systems typically do not use a single protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a
4153:
Describes TCP/IP to the implementors of protocolsoftware. In particular the introduction gives an overview of the design goals of the suite.
1743:(OSI model), which is used as a framework for the design of standard protocols and services conforming to the various layer specifications.
6272:
1381:
1376:
1249:
6426:
5698:
5579:
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301:
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135:
84:. Communication protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved. To reach an agreement, a protocol may be developed into a
3543:"X.225 : Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Connection-oriented Session protocol: Protocol specification"
485:
There are two types of communication protocols, based on their representation of the content being carried: text-based and binary.
1025:
In some cases, protocols gain market dominance without going through a standardization process. Such protocols are referred to as
6666:
5760:
5230:
4778:
4580:
1630:
1173:
3178:
Marsden 1986, Section 3.5 - Direction of information flow, p. 34-35, explains master/slave and the negotiations to gain control.
6054:
5341:
3292:
IETF 1989, Sect 1.3.1 - Organization, p. 15, 2nd paragraph: many design choices involve creative "breaking" of strict layering.
2258:
1525:
1064:
921:
The software supporting protocols has a layered organization and its relationship with protocol layering is shown in figure 5.
749:
115:
6307:
3717:
Comer 2000, Section 1.9 - Internet Protocols And Standardization, p. 12, explains why the IETF did not use existing protocols.
977:
6345:
5964:
5672:
5336:
4887:
4378:
Considerations around Transport Header Confidentiality, Network Operations, and the Evolution of Internet Transport Protocols
3679:
ISO 7498:1984/ADD 1:1987 – Information processing systems — Open Systems Interconnection — Basic Reference Model — Addendum 1
3546:
2491:
1635:
1163:
792:
and sophisticated bugs they contain. A mathematical approach to the study of concurrency and communication is referred to as
745:
65:
3151:
Marsden 1986, Section 3.2 - Detection and transmission errors, p. 27, explains the advantages of backward error correction.
3033:
3006:
6487:
6464:
6194:
6184:
5361:
1956:
1515:
1510:
1500:
1366:
1327:
1223:
1128:. International standards are reissued periodically to handle the deficiencies and reflect changing views on the subject.
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552:
257:
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1992:
1967:
on the Internet, and TCP itself has significantly ossified, making extension or modification of the protocol difficult.
1747:
provides services to the application process. The layers communicate with each other by means of an interface, called a
1505:
1449:
1337:
1276:
990:
models are used to formally describe the possible interactions of the protocol. and communicating finite-state machines
969:
329:
282:
53:
3346:
2786:
371:, laid the foundation for the growth of TCP/IP as a comprehensive protocol suite as the core component of the emerging
312:
in 1975 but was not adopted by the CCITT nor by the ARPANET. Separate international research, particularly the work of
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6391:
5889:
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5133:
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In particular Ch.11 Protocol layering. Also has a RFC guide and a Glossary of Internetworking Terms and Abbreviations.
2862:
1991:
Classification schemes for protocols usually focus on the domain of use and function. As an example of domain of use,
1907:
1495:
1193:
1168:
871:. Layering provides opportunities to exchange technologies when needed, for example, protocols are often stacked in a
399:-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by
3187:
Marsden 1986, Section 3.6 - Sequence control, p. 35-36, explains how packets get lost and how sequencing solves this.
2399:
3115:
Marsden 1986, Chapter 3 - Fundamental protocol concepts and problem areas, p. 26-42, explains much of the following.
2181:
Comer 2000, Sect. 1.3 - Internet Services, p. 3, "Protocols are to communication what algorithms are to computation"
1120:
is produced by the working group. After feedback, modification, and compromise the proposal reaches the status of a
419:. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems.
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382:, published in 1984. For a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations became
139:
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1999:
are used on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks respectively. An example of function is a
1291:
396:
3532:
Marsden 1986, Section 6.4 - Some problems with standardisation, p. 67, follows HDLC to illustrate the process.
899:
Computations deal with algorithms and data; Communication involves protocols and messages; So the analog of a
92:
describes the same for computations, so there is a close analogy between protocols and programming languages:
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1996:
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Commonly recurring problems in the design and implementation of communication protocols can be addressed by
875:
arrangement to accommodate the connection of dissimilar networks. For example, IP may be tunneled across an
841:
830:
386:, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks.
352:
224:
to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the
2975:
586:, as opposed to a text-based protocol which only uses values corresponding to human-readable characters in
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in an already-deployed protocol or mimic the wire image of another protocol. Because of ossification, the
1371:
1183:
1048:
1003:
788:
548:
3585:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.3 - Layering concepts and general definitions, p. 183-185, explains terminology.
3256:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, introduces the decomposition in layers.
3142:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.3 - Layering concepts and general definitions, p. 187, explains address mapping.
2965:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.11 - The Basic Idea Behind Multiplexing And Demultiplexing, p. 192, states the same.
2935:
Sect. 11.10 - The Disadvantage Of Layering, p. 192, states: layering forms the basis for protocol design.
6593:
6563:
6553:
6449:
6363:
6239:
6179:
6146:
6136:
6019:
5984:
5974:
5911:
5780:
5755:
5750:
5715:
5279:
5083:
5048:
4968:
4948:
4870:
4758:
4679:
2550:
2013:
relating common protocols to the layers of the two schemes. The layering scheme from the IETF is called
1925:
1920:
1540:
1469:
1208:
502:
337:
275:
37:
3567:
Marsden 1986, Section 6.1 - Why are standards necessary?, p. 65, explains lessons learned from ARPANET.
2709:
Rybczynski, Tony (2009). "Commercialization of packet switching (1975-1985): A Canadian perspective ".
2666:
Schwartz, Mischa (2010). "X.25 Virtual Circuits - TRANSPAC IN France - Pre-Internet Data Networking ".
3283:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.9.1 - Operating System Boundary, p. 192, describes the operating system boundary.
2108:
1116:
questions, much discussion and usually some disagreement. These comments are taken into account and a
6353:
6325:
6297:
6292:
6121:
6097:
6049:
6032:
6027:
6009:
5999:
5994:
5956:
5906:
5901:
5818:
5764:
5193:
5153:
5123:
4880:
4815:
4706:
4448:
4420:
4392:
4364:
4336:
4308:
4280:
4145:
3704:
ISO 7498:1994 – Information processing systems - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model
3660:
ISO 7498:1984 – Information processing systems - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model
3372:. ICSEA 2016, The Eleventh International Conference on Software Engineering Advances. pp. 22–30.
1941:
1535:
987:
797:
741:
537:
325:
240:
221:
89:
6618:
6543:
6459:
6444:
6209:
5989:
5946:
5941:
5838:
5828:
5800:
5203:
5143:
4902:
4864:
4721:
4662:
4647:
4241:
1880:
1296:
1203:
1100:
928:
780:
723:
416:
253:
3094:
912:
473:
The protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance, there is a group of
122:(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) handles wired and wireless networking and the
6583:
6482:
6358:
6315:
6224:
6166:
6151:
6141:
5926:
5725:
5430:
5387:
5318:
5188:
5118:
5093:
5028:
4875:
4596:
4516:
4078:
3494:
2734:
2691:
2648:
2239:
2000:
1964:
1814:
1778:
1704:
1264:
1178:
1076:
872:
732:
Direction needs to be addressed if transmissions can only occur in one direction at a time as on
474:
131:
85:
313:
2423:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate"
407:. Protocols are to communication what algorithms or programming languages are to computations.
6603:
6533:
6512:
6474:
6282:
6249:
6229:
5921:
5833:
5707:
5470:
5392:
5306:
5289:
5252:
5138:
5098:
4928:
4897:
4763:
4657:
4535:
4249:
4227:
4208:
4189:
4165:
4110:
4088:
4060:
3406:
2902:
Ben-Ari 1982, Section 2.7 - Summary, p. 27, summarizes the concurrent programming abstraction.
2758:
2752:
2726:
2683:
2640:
2623:
McKenzie, Alexander (2011). "INWG and the Conception of the Internet: An Eyewitness Account".
2586:
2518:
2487:
2457:
2451:
2375:
2331:
2287:
2281:
2198:
2192:
1933:
1764:
1412:
1188:
1156:
1145:
1027:
900:
849:
439:
182:
69:
45:
2481:
2134:
6436:
6320:
6287:
6082:
6004:
5893:
5879:
5874:
5823:
5810:
5735:
5688:
5475:
5435:
5415:
5382:
5311:
5269:
5183:
5038:
5023:
4998:
4973:
4933:
4783:
4642:
4637:
4627:
4506:
4498:
4472:
4464:
4438:
4410:
4382:
4354:
4326:
4298:
4270:
4135:
4102:
3484:
3444:
3385:
Service Design Patterns: Fundamental Design Solutions for SOAP/WSDL and RESTful Web Services
2893:
Ben-Ari 1982, chapter 2 - The concurrent programming abstraction, p. 18-19, states the same.
2718:
2675:
2632:
2578:
2323:
2298:
Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.
2231:
2066:
1884:
1849:
518:
424:
364:
356:
286:
174:
2353:
6507:
6401:
6373:
6267:
6219:
6204:
6189:
6044:
6039:
5979:
5869:
5843:
5795:
5740:
5103:
4958:
4726:
4689:
3240:
3064:
2422:
2032:
In networking equipment configuration, a term-of-art distinction is often drawn: The term
1822:
1798:
1483:
1359:
694:
560:
321:
263:
249:
197:
57:
4701:
4072:
2263:
Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988
1758:
In the OSI model, the layers and their functionality are (from highest to lowest layer):
2809:
2354:
Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP
1031:. De facto standards are common in emerging markets, niche markets, or markets that are
6613:
6517:
6416:
6262:
6234:
5301:
5173:
5148:
5108:
5078:
4953:
4788:
4674:
4529:
4038:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.5.1 - The TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model, p. 183, states the same.
3461:
Comer 2000, Glossary of Internetworking Terms and Abbreviations, p. 704, term protocol.
1983:
transport protocol to have been designed with deliberate anti-ossification properties.
1832:
1770:
1598:
864:
824:
The TCP/IP model or Internet layering scheme and its relation to some common protocols.
447:
404:
267:
244:
108:
81:
6681:
6502:
5790:
5450:
5223:
5213:
5128:
5018:
5013:
5003:
4988:
4810:
4669:
4052:
3511:
Marsden 1986, Section 6.3 - Advantages of standardization, p. 66-67, states the same.
3448:
2814:
2652:
1929:
1895:
1888:
1808:
1788:
1405:
1310:
1104:
805:
801:
737:
412:
383:
209:
170:
156:
61:
3692:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.11 - Connectionless mode and RM/OSI, p. 195, mentions this.
3498:
2738:
2695:
281:
Research in the early 1970s by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf led to the formulation of the
6598:
6257:
5328:
5168:
5113:
5043:
5008:
4943:
4842:
4832:
4684:
4520:
2447:
2243:
1944:. Secondary causes include inflexibility in endpoint implementations of protocols.
1218:
1096:
428:
236:
165:
in a modern data-commutation context occurs in April 1967 in a memorandum entitled
17:
3542:
2947:
Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, states the same.
1002:
Protocol standards are commonly created by obtaining the approval or support of a
594:
Binary have been used in the normative documents describing modern standards like
3169:
Marsden 1986, Section 3.4 - Loss of information - timeouts and retries, p. 33-34.
6588:
6214:
6126:
5528:
5178:
5088:
5073:
5033:
4993:
4852:
4451:
4432:
4423:
4404:
4395:
4376:
4367:
4348:
4339:
4320:
4311:
4292:
4283:
4264:
4148:
4129:
3037:
3010:
1899:
1853:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1584:
1555:
1014:
The need for protocol standards can be shown by looking at what happened to the
820:
733:
368:
360:
294:
186:
41:
4502:
2377:
UGC -NET/JRF/SET PTP & Guide Teaching and Research Aptitude: UGC -NET By HD
2311:
378:
International work on a reference model for communication standards led to the
290:
6608:
6538:
6131:
5864:
5720:
5533:
5240:
4938:
4847:
4803:
4773:
4751:
4741:
4716:
4179:
4157:
4125:
2722:
2679:
2582:
2052:
is often used to refer to protocols identified through inspection signatures.
1971:
1655:
1550:
1530:
1317:
506:
213:
3767:
3765:
2730:
2687:
2644:
2590:
2522:
2335:
94:
protocols are to communication what programming languages are to computations
6113:
6074:
5518:
4983:
4798:
4468:
3435:
Bochmann, G. (1978). "Finite state description of communication protocols".
2778:
2535:
included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
2483:
Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and Technology
2327:
2235:
1937:
1869:
1690:
1675:
1459:
1139:
1036:
856:
829:
Layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a
567:
467:
432:
400:
379:
297:
and Carl Sunshine in December 1974, still a monolithic design at this time.
217:
99:
4082:
4057:
Interconnections: Bridges, Routers, Switches, and Internetworking Protocols
3603:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.5 - The presentation layer, p. 189, explains this.
1769:
agreement on responsibility for error recovery and procedures for ensuring
887:
752:
where two parties respectively simultaneously transmit or wish to transmit.
715:. Acknowledgments are sent from receivers back to their respective senders.
415:, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared
324:, which was adopted by the CCITT in 1976. Computer manufacturers developed
4560:
3702:
3677:
3658:
3594:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.4 - The application layer, p. 188, explains this.
3489:
3472:
2391:
351:
in 1982 and on the ARPANET in January 1983. The development of a complete
6174:
5513:
5503:
5420:
5245:
5068:
2611:
S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
1948:
1032:
868:
837:
372:
305:
271:
232:
201:
73:
4434:
Considerations on Application - Network Collaboration Using Path Signals
3648:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.10 - The physical layer, p. 195, explains this.
3639:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.9 - The data link layer, p. 194, explains this.
3621:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.7 - The transport layer, p. 191, explains this.
3223:
Hoare 1985, Chapter 4 - Communication, p. 133, deals with communication.
2636:
688:
When systems are not directly connected, intermediary systems along the
343:
TCP software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack, referred to as
5508:
5493:
1732:
1391:
1322:
1243:
533:
455:
193:
4477:
4431:
Arkko, Jari; Hardie, Ted; Pauly, Tommy; KĂĽhlewind, Mirja (July 2023).
3630:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.8 - The network layer, p. 192, explains this.
3612:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.6 - The session layer, p. 190, explains this.
2831:"Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War"
5538:
5498:
4820:
4612:
4565:
4511:
4443:
4415:
4387:
4359:
4331:
4303:
4275:
4140:
2220:"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)"
2116:
1610:
1605:
1433:
1233:
1197:
603:
599:
451:
443:
layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design.
348:
333:
49:
4107:
Internetworking with TCP/IP - Principles, Protocols and Architecture
196:, the starting point for host-to-host communication in 1969 was the
5657:
4561:
Overview of protocols in telecontrol field with OSI Reference Model
4071:. In particular Ch. 18 on "network design folklore", which is also
787:
Communicating systems operate concurrently. An important aspect of
5523:
5460:
4768:
4461:
Implementing Real-Time Transport Services over an Ossified Network
3740:
3738:
3725:
3723:
3576:
Marsden 1986, Section 14.1 - Introduction, p. 181, introduces OSI.
3387:(1 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley Professional.
2428:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11
1625:
1620:
1454:
1439:
1342:
1286:
1281:
1072:
911:
886:
819:
595:
587:
544:
514:
510:
463:
309:
127:
3966:
3954:
3942:
3930:
3830:
3828:
3133:
Comer 2000, Chapter 4 - Classful Internet Addresses, p. 64-67;71.
2069: – Programming tool to build network connectivity components
948:
error recovery on both a per-link basis and an end-to-end basis.
5465:
3370:
A Pattern Language for Application-level Communication Protocols
1980:
1976:
1680:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1464:
1422:
1417:
1386:
1271:
981:
711:
Acknowledgement of correct reception of packets is required for
610:. An interface in UML may also be considered a binary protocol.
583:
556:
526:
459:
317:
119:
5661:
4569:
4459:
McQuistin, Stephen; Perkins, Colin; Fayed, Marwan (July 2016).
1898:, it is subject to modification by intermediate parties (i.e.,
4711:
1685:
1019:
968:
Popular formal methods of describing communication syntax are
522:
1087:(W3C) produces protocols and standards for Web technologies.
662:. Usually, some address values have special meanings. An all-
204:, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP. The
1894:
If some portion of the wire image is not cryptographically
220:, was first implemented in 1970. The NCP interface allowed
142:, the standards are also being driven towards convergence.
36:
is a system of rules that allows two or more entities of a
4531:
History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present
4183:
3343:"Communication-protocol Design Patterns (CommDP) - COMMDP"
3311:
Wakeman, I (January 1992). "Layering considered harmful".
744:. Arrangements have to be made to accommodate the case of
167:
A Protocol for Use in the NPL Data Communications Network.
3918:
3906:
3894:
3882:
3870:
3858:
3846:
2976:"Data Communication - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
4263:
Bryant, Stewart; Morrow, Monique, eds. (November 2009).
27:
System for exchanging messages between computing systems
4131:
Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers
3086:
2754:
The "Hidden" Prehistory of European Research Networking
1970:
Recommended methods of preventing ossification include
3252:
3250:
114:
Internet communication protocols are published by the
4266:
Uncoordinated Protocol Development Considered Harmful
3978:
2036:
strictly refers to the transport layer, and the term
570:
and during early protocol development design phases.
4406:
Long-Term Viability of Protocol Extension Mechanisms
4248:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International.
4207:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International.
4188:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International.
4164:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International.
6526:
6473:
6435:
6382:
6344:
6306:
6248:
6165:
6111:
6073:
6018:
5955:
5888:
5852:
5809:
5773:
5706:
5547:
5484:
5406:
5370:
5327:
5268:
5202:
4911:
4603:
3405:(1 ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional.
3196:
Marsden 1986, Section 3.7 - Flow control, p. 36-38.
3861:, 2.2. Control of the Distribution of Information.
3807:
3795:
3783:
3756:
3744:
3729:
3341:Lascano, Jorge Edison; Clyde, Stephen; Raza, Ali.
2564:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"
239:in the early 1970s was the first to implement the
4319:Trammell, Brian; Kuehlewind, Mirja (April 2019).
4291:Farrell, Stephen; Tschofenig, Hannes (May 2014).
3873:, 2.3. Protecting Information and Authentication.
3834:
3819:
2312:"Principles and lessons in packet communications"
1751:. Corresponding layers at each system are called
1061:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
1051:of relevance for communication protocols are the
833:of cases, keeping each design relatively simple.
658:receiver can be identified using an address pair
3771:
651:(MTU) are divided in pieces of appropriate size.
4403:Thomson, Martin; Pauly, Tommy (December 2021).
3403:Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture
2910:
2908:
509:encoded in a machine-readable encoding such as
427:independent. The best-known frameworks are the
4375:Fairhurst, Gorry; Perkins, Colin (July 2021).
4134:. Internet Engineering Task Force abbr. IETF.
2943:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2048:strictly refers to port numbers, and the term
1053:International Organization for Standardization
517:, or in structured text-based formats such as
124:International Organization for Standardization
5697:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012
5673:
4581:
4463:. 2016 Applied Networking Research Workshop.
1712:
796:(CSP). Concurrency can also be modeled using
450:. Some of the best-known protocol suites are
8:
4026:
4014:
3990:
3520:
256:, an early contribution to what will be the
5596:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
4490:IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials
4084:Design and Validation of Computer Protocols
2836:. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing.
2546:
2163:
2161:
844:. The first two cooperating protocols, the
736:links or from one sender at a time as on a
5680:
5666:
5658:
5632:
4588:
4574:
4566:
2177:
2175:
2173:
1719:
1705:
1135:
836:The communication protocols in use on the
718:Loss of information - timeouts and retries
384:polarized over the issue of which standard
4510:
4476:
4442:
4414:
4386:
4358:
4330:
4302:
4274:
4139:
3488:
3471:Brand, Daniel; Zafiropulo, Pitro (1983).
2259:"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969"
2021:. The layering scheme from ISO is called
1963:(UDP) are the only practical choices for
181:in the United Kingdom, it was written by
3473:"On Communicating Finite-State Machines"
3328:Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach
438:At the time the Internet was developed,
316:, contributed to the development of the
2625:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
2100:
2079:
1138:
332:(SNA), Digital Equipment Corporation's
293:specification was written by Cerf with
96:. An alternate formulation states that
6397:Knowledge representation and reasoning
4002:
3885:, 2.5. Limiting Impact of Information.
3205:Ben-Ari 1982, in his preface, p. xiii.
3097:from the original on 30 September 2019
2147:from the original on 12 September 2012
2007:
1841:
935:called the operating system boundary.
212:and other graduate students including
6422:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
3214:Ben-Ari 1982, in his preface, p. xiv.
2875:from the original on 24 February 2021
2843:from the original on 17 November 2019
2789:from the original on 1 September 2022
1057:International Telecommunication Union
7:
5741:Energy consumption (Green computing)
5642:
4528:Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (1999).
4322:The Wire Image of a Network Protocol
4162:Principles of concurrent programming
3549:from the original on 1 February 2021
2757:. Trafford Publishing. p. 354.
2191:Naughton, John (24 September 2015).
308:standard which was presented to the
208:(NCP) for the ARPANET, developed by
98:protocols are to communication what
6427:Distributed artificial intelligence
5699:ACM Computing Classification System
4205:Principles of programming languages
3979:McQuistin, Perkins & Fayed 2016
3326:Kurose, James; Ross, Keith (2005).
2600:from the original on 6 January 2017
2571:IEEE Transactions on Communications
2421:Bennett, Richard (September 2009).
1107:) may not be respected in another.
302:International Network Working Group
5932:Integrated development environment
4185:Communicating sequential processes
3368:Lascano, J. E.; Clyde, S. (2016).
2808:Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013).
2402:from the original on 7 August 2022
2224:Annals of the History of Computing
1741:Open Systems Interconnection model
794:communicating sequential processes
660:(sender address, receiver address)
423:the protocol software may be made
68:. Protocols may be implemented by
48:. The protocol defines the rules,
25:
6407:Automated planning and scheduling
5937:Software configuration management
4294:Pervasive Monitoring Is an Attack
4226:(2nd ed.). Chartwell Bratt.
3061:"Binary Representation Protocols"
3034:"Binary Representation Protocols"
1947:Ossification is a major issue in
1069:public switched telephone network
1016:Binary Synchronous Communications
713:connection-oriented communication
654:Address formats for data exchange
138:(PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet
136:public switched telephone network
6661:
6651:
6642:
6641:
5641:
5631:
5622:
5621:
5610:
5231:Free-space optical communication
4246:Structured computer organization
4059:(2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
3849:, 2.1. Intentional Distribution.
2986:from the original on 31 May 2022
2486:. Edward Elgar. pp. 51–55.
2040:refers to protocols utilizing a
701:Detection of transmission errors
6652:
6055:Computational complexity theory
4350:Transport Protocol Path Signals
4347:Hardie, Ted, ed. (April 2019).
4224:Communication network protocols
4109:(4th ed.). Prentice Hall.
3909:, 2.6. Minimum Set of Entities.
3239:, NPTEL courses, archived from
3059:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002).
3032:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002).
3005:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002).
2810:"OSI: The Internet That Wasn't"
2456:. MIT Press. pp. 124–127.
2392:"NCP – Network Control Program"
1065:Internet Engineering Task Force
1010:The need for protocol standards
126:(ISO) handles other types. The
116:Internet Engineering Task Force
5839:Network performance evaluation
3808:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019
3796:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019
3784:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019
3757:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019
3745:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019
3730:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019
2218:Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987).
635:Data formats for data exchange
538:improved bandwidth utilization
134:protocols and formats for the
1:
6210:Multimedia information system
6195:Geographic information system
6185:Enterprise information system
5774:Computer systems organization
3835:Farrell & Tschofenig 2014
3820:Farrell & Tschofenig 2014
2286:. Stripe Press. p. 286.
2280:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018).
2194:A Brief History of the Future
1993:connection-oriented protocols
1957:Transmission Control Protocol
846:Transmission Control Protocol
729:Direction of information flow
553:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
258:Transmission Control Protocol
6569:Computational social science
6157:Theoretical computer science
5970:Software development process
5746:Electronic design automation
5731:Very Large Scale Integration
5617:Telecommunication portal
5398:Telecommunications equipment
4556:Javvin's Protocol Dictionary
4029:, 3.5. Restoring Active Use.
3897:, 2.4. Minimize Information.
3772:Fairhurst & Perkins 2021
3449:10.1016/0376-5075(78)90015-6
3236:Digital Circuits and Systems
2711:IEEE Communications Magazine
2668:IEEE Communications Magazine
1928:is the loss of flexibility,
1122:draft international standard
970:Abstract Syntax Notation One
330:Systems Network Architecture
283:Transmission Control Program
179:National Physical Laboratory
76:, or a combination of both.
6392:Natural language processing
6180:Information storage systems
5134:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
2818:. Vol. 50, no. 8.
2562:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974).
1908:Internet Architecture Board
1111:The standardization process
1075:communication systems. For
1018:(BSC) protocol invented by
705:somehow for retransmission.
557:Hypertext Transfer Protocol
555:), early versions of HTTP (
304:agreed on a connectionless
278:(PUP) for internetworking.
185:and Keith Bartlett for the
6714:
6308:Human–computer interaction
6278:Intrusion detection system
6190:Social information systems
6175:Database management system
4838:Telecommunications history
4503:10.1109/COMST.2016.2626780
3087:"Welcome To UML Web Site!"
2779:"TCP/IP Internet Protocol"
2511:"The internet's fifth man"
2062:Lists of network protocols
1918:
1867:
978:augmented Backus–Naur form
877:Asynchronous Transfer Mode
501:represents its content in
161:The first use of the term
154:
6637:
6574:Computational engineering
6549:Computational mathematics
5695:
5605:
5446:Public Switched Telephone
5258:telecommunication circuit
5219:Fiber-optic communication
4964:Francis Blake (telephone)
4759:Optical telecommunication
2723:10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350364
2680:10.1109/MCOM.2010.5621965
2583:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259
2113:Starkey Laboratories Inc.
1936:. This is largely due to
1091:closely with each other.
1085:World Wide Web Consortium
649:maximum transmission unit
582:utilizes all values of a
6688:Communications protocols
6584:Computational healthcare
6579:Differentiable computing
6498:Graphics processing unit
5917:Domain-specific language
5786:Computational complexity
5357:Orbital angular-momentum
4794:Satellite communications
4633:Communications satellite
4222:Brian W Marsden (1986).
4027:Thomson & Pauly 2021
4015:Thomson & Pauly 2021
3991:Thomson & Pauly 2021
3967:Papastergiou et al. 2017
3955:Papastergiou et al. 2017
3943:Papastergiou et al. 2017
3931:Papastergiou et al. 2017
3521:Bryant & Morrow 2009
2480:Kim, Byung-Keun (2005).
2380:. High Definition Books.
2374:BOOKS, HIGH DEFINITION.
1997:connectionless protocols
1083:standards are used. The
1071:(PSTN), as well as many
958:software design patterns
355:by 1989, as outlined in
6559:Computational chemistry
6493:Photograph manipulation
6384:Artificial intelligence
6200:Decision support system
5236:Molecular communication
5059:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
4888:Undersea telegraph line
4623:Cable protection system
4469:10.1145/2959424.2959443
2363:(BBN). Report No. 1822.
2361:Bolt Beranek and Newman
2328:10.1109/PROC.1978.11143
2316:Proceedings of the IEEE
2236:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023
2141:Encyclopædia Britannica
1049:standards organizations
1043:Standards organizations
842:Internet Protocol Suite
831:combinatorial explosion
353:Internet protocol suite
206:Network Control Program
169:Under the direction of
44:via any variation of a
6624:Educational technology
6455:Reinforcement learning
6205:Process control system
6103:Computational geometry
6093:Algorithmic efficiency
6088:Analysis of algorithms
5736:Systems on Chip (SoCs)
5378:Communication protocol
5164:Charles Sumner Tainter
4979:Walter Houser Brattain
4924:Edwin Howard Armstrong
4732:Information revolution
3007:"Text Based Protocols"
2453:Inventing the Internet
2310:Kleinrock, L. (1978).
1961:User Datagram Protocol
1842:TCP/IP layering scheme
1731:A lesson learned from
1126:international standard
1004:standards organization
918:
892:
825:
789:concurrent programming
784:conceptual framework.
627:of the communication.
549:File Transfer Protocol
347:This was installed on
252:service while using a
66:error recovery methods
34:communication protocol
6594:Electronic publishing
6564:Computational biology
6554:Computational physics
6450:Unsupervised learning
6364:Distributed computing
6240:Information retrieval
6147:Mathematical analysis
6137:Mathematical software
6020:Theory of computation
5985:Software construction
5975:Requirements analysis
5853:Software organization
5781:Computer architecture
5751:Hardware acceleration
5716:Printed circuit board
5352:Polarization-division
5084:Narinder Singh Kapany
5049:Erna Schneider Hoover
4969:Jagadish Chandra Bose
4949:Alexander Graham Bell
4680:online video platform
4203:R.D. Tennent (1981).
3490:10.1145/322374.322380
3383:Daigneau, R. (2011).
2980:www.sciencedirect.com
1926:Protocol ossification
1921:protocol ossification
1813:also responsible for
1783:and data encryption).
915:
890:
823:
798:finite state machines
503:human-readable format
338:Xerox Network Systems
326:proprietary protocols
276:PARC Universal Packet
270:outlined the idea of
235:network, designed by
155:Further information:
146:Communicating systems
38:communications system
6354:Concurrent computing
6326:Ubiquitous computing
6298:Application security
6293:Information security
6122:Discrete mathematics
6098:Randomized algorithm
6050:Computability theory
6028:Model of computation
6000:Software maintenance
5995:Software engineering
5957:Software development
5907:Programming language
5902:Programming paradigm
5819:Network architecture
5194:Vladimir K. Zworykin
5154:Almon Brown Strowger
5124:Charles Grafton Page
4779:Prepaid mobile phone
4707:Electrical telegraph
2517:. 30 November 2013.
1942:end-to-end principle
1932:and evolvability of
1749:service access point
1737:structured protocols
1124:, and ultimately an
994:Protocol development
988:Finite-state machine
964:Formal specification
742:media access control
440:abstraction layering
241:end-to-end principle
222:application software
90:programming language
6629:Document management
6619:Operations research
6544:Enterprise software
6460:Multi-task learning
6445:Supervised learning
6167:Information systems
5990:Software deployment
5947:Software repository
5801:Real-time computing
5144:Johann Philipp Reis
4903:Wireless revolution
4865:The Telephone Cases
4722:Hydraulic telegraph
4242:Andrew S. Tanenbaum
3243:on 27 December 2009
2829:Russell, Andrew L.
2637:10.1109/MAHC.2011.9
1965:transport protocols
1840:In contrast to the
1132:OSI standardization
1101:monotone decreasing
929:Program translation
781:Systems engineering
740:. This is known as
499:plain text protocol
495:text-based protocol
475:transport protocols
417:transmission medium
320:standard, based on
254:best-effort service
18:Networking protocol
6412:Search methodology
6359:Parallel computing
6316:Interaction design
6225:Computing platform
6152:Numerical analysis
6142:Information theory
5927:Software framework
5890:Software notations
5829:Network components
5726:Integrated circuit
5342:Frequency-division
5319:Telephone exchange
5189:Charles Wheatstone
5119:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
5094:Innocenzo Manzetti
5029:Reginald Fessenden
4764:Optical telegraphy
4597:Telecommunications
4079:Gerard J. Holzmann
3957:, p. 620-621.
3921:, 3. Further Work.
3477:Journal of the ACM
2001:tunneling protocol
1815:network congestion
1779:presentation layer
1265:Presentation layer
1103:to prevent stable
1077:marine electronics
1028:de facto standards
999:interoperability.
919:
893:
826:
614:Basic requirements
132:telecommunications
102:are to computation
86:technical standard
6698:Network protocols
6693:Data transmission
6675:
6674:
6604:Electronic voting
6534:Quantum Computing
6527:Applied computing
6513:Image compression
6283:Hardware security
6273:Security services
6230:Digital marketing
6010:Open-source model
5922:Modeling language
5834:Network scheduler
5655:
5654:
5393:Store and forward
5388:Data transmission
5302:Network switching
5253:Transmission line
5099:Guglielmo Marconi
5064:Internet pioneers
4929:Mohamed M. Atalla
4898:Whistled language
4541:978-1-57607-118-2
4087:. Prentice Hall.
3919:Arkko et al. 2023
3907:Arkko et al. 2023
3895:Arkko et al. 2023
3883:Arkko et al. 2023
3871:Arkko et al. 2023
3859:Arkko et al. 2023
3847:Arkko et al. 2023
3774:, 7. Conclusions.
3437:Computer Networks
2764:978-1-4669-3935-6
2463:978-0-262-51115-5
2322:(11): 1320–1329.
2293:978-1-953953-36-0
2283:The Dream Machine
2257:Pelkey, James L.
2204:978-1-4746-0277-8
2015:Internet layering
1934:network protocols
1891:of the protocol.
1765:Application layer
1729:
1728:
1157:Application layer
908:Software layering
901:data flow diagram
883:Protocol layering
850:Internet Protocol
669:addressing scheme
226:protocol layering
183:Roger Scantlebury
46:physical quantity
16:(Redirected from
6705:
6665:
6664:
6655:
6654:
6645:
6644:
6465:Cross-validation
6437:Machine learning
6321:Social computing
6288:Network security
6083:Algorithm design
6005:Programming team
5965:Control variable
5942:Software library
5880:Software quality
5875:Operating system
5824:Network protocol
5689:Computer science
5682:
5675:
5668:
5659:
5645:
5644:
5635:
5634:
5625:
5624:
5615:
5614:
5613:
5486:Notable networks
5476:Wireless network
5416:Cellular network
5408:Types of network
5383:Computer network
5270:Network topology
5184:Thomas A. Watson
5039:Oliver Heaviside
5024:Philo Farnsworth
4999:Daniel Davis Jr.
4974:Charles Bourseul
4934:John Logie Baird
4643:Data compression
4638:Computer network
4590:
4583:
4576:
4567:
4545:
4524:
4514:
4482:
4480:
4455:
4446:
4444:10.17487/RFC9419
4427:
4418:
4416:10.17487/RFC9170
4399:
4390:
4388:10.17487/RFC9065
4371:
4362:
4360:10.17487/RFC8558
4343:
4334:
4332:10.17487/RFC8546
4315:
4306:
4304:10.17487/RFC7258
4287:
4278:
4276:10.17487/RFC5704
4259:
4237:
4218:
4199:
4175:
4152:
4143:
4141:10.17487/RFC1122
4120:
4103:Douglas E. Comer
4098:
4073:available online
4070:
4039:
4036:
4030:
4024:
4018:
4017:, 3. Active Use.
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3969:, p. 623-4.
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3928:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3892:
3886:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3769:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3733:
3727:
3718:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3699:
3693:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3655:
3649:
3646:
3640:
3637:
3631:
3628:
3622:
3619:
3613:
3610:
3604:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3586:
3583:
3577:
3574:
3568:
3565:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3539:
3533:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3492:
3468:
3462:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3443:(4–5): 361–372.
3432:
3426:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3349:on 18 March 2017
3345:. Archived from
3338:
3332:
3331:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3308:
3302:
3299:
3293:
3290:
3284:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3266:
3263:
3257:
3254:
3245:
3244:
3230:
3224:
3221:
3215:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3197:
3194:
3188:
3185:
3179:
3176:
3170:
3167:
3161:
3158:
3152:
3149:
3143:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3116:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3063:. Archived from
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3045:
3036:. Archived from
3029:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3009:. Archived from
3002:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2957:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2936:
2933:
2924:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2903:
2900:
2894:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2874:
2867:
2863:"Standards Wars"
2859:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2842:
2835:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2607:
2605:
2599:
2568:
2559:
2553:
2547:Moschovitis 1999
2544:
2538:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2427:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2358:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2230:(3/4): 221–247.
2215:
2209:
2208:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2168:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2105:
2088:
2084:
2067:Protocol Builder
1721:
1714:
1707:
1148:
1136:
1063:(IEEE), and the
755:Sequence control
708:Acknowledgements
519:Intel hex format
425:operating system
322:virtual circuits
175:packet switching
173:, who pioneered
21:
6713:
6712:
6708:
6707:
6706:
6704:
6703:
6702:
6678:
6677:
6676:
6671:
6662:
6633:
6614:Word processing
6522:
6508:Virtual reality
6469:
6431:
6402:Computer vision
6378:
6374:Multiprocessing
6340:
6302:
6268:Security hacker
6244:
6220:Digital library
6161:
6112:Mathematics of
6107:
6069:
6045:Automata theory
6040:Formal language
6014:
5980:Software design
5951:
5884:
5870:Virtual machine
5848:
5844:Network service
5805:
5796:Embedded system
5769:
5702:
5691:
5686:
5656:
5651:
5611:
5609:
5601:
5543:
5480:
5402:
5366:
5323:
5272:
5264:
5205:
5198:
5104:Robert Metcalfe
4959:Tim Berners-Lee
4907:
4727:Information Age
4599:
4594:
4552:
4542:
4527:
4485:
4458:
4430:
4402:
4374:
4346:
4318:
4290:
4262:
4256:
4240:
4234:
4221:
4215:
4202:
4196:
4178:
4172:
4156:
4124:
4117:
4101:
4095:
4077:
4067:
4051:
4048:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4025:
4021:
4013:
4009:
4001:
3997:
3989:
3985:
3977:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3929:
3925:
3917:
3913:
3905:
3901:
3893:
3889:
3881:
3877:
3869:
3865:
3857:
3853:
3845:
3841:
3833:
3826:
3818:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3794:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3770:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3743:
3736:
3728:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3701:
3700:
3696:
3691:
3687:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3657:
3656:
3652:
3647:
3643:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3598:
3593:
3589:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3571:
3566:
3562:
3552:
3550:
3541:
3540:
3536:
3531:
3527:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3470:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3367:
3366:
3362:
3352:
3350:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3325:
3324:
3320:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3255:
3248:
3233:S. Srinivasan,
3232:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3098:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3068:
3067:on 5 March 2006
3058:
3057:
3053:
3043:
3041:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3016:
3014:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2989:
2987:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2878:
2876:
2872:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2792:
2790:
2783:Living Internet
2777:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2566:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2545:
2541:
2527:
2525:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2464:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2396:Living Internet
2390:
2389:
2385:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2294:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2171:
2166:
2159:
2150:
2148:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2091:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2058:
2019:TCP/IP layering
2009:layering scheme
1989:
1923:
1917:
1872:
1866:
1823:data link layer
1799:transport layer
1725:
1696:
1695:
1601:
1590:
1589:
1486:
1484:Data link layer
1475:
1474:
1408:
1397:
1396:
1362:
1360:Transport layer
1351:
1350:
1313:
1302:
1301:
1267:
1256:
1255:
1159:
1143:
1142:
1134:
1113:
1045:
1012:
996:
966:
954:
952:Design patterns
941:
939:Strict layering
910:
885:
879:(ATM) network.
818:
778:
776:Protocol design
695:internetworking
680:address mapping
674:Address mapping
616:
580:binary protocol
576:
561:finger protocol
491:
483:
405:data structures
392:
250:virtual circuit
243:, and make the
159:
153:
148:
58:synchronization
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6711:
6709:
6701:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6680:
6679:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6669:
6659:
6649:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6530:
6528:
6524:
6523:
6521:
6520:
6518:Solid modeling
6515:
6510:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6479:
6477:
6471:
6470:
6468:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6441:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6417:Control method
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6388:
6386:
6380:
6379:
6377:
6376:
6371:
6369:Multithreading
6366:
6361:
6356:
6350:
6348:
6342:
6341:
6339:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6312:
6310:
6304:
6303:
6301:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6263:Formal methods
6260:
6254:
6252:
6246:
6245:
6243:
6242:
6237:
6235:World Wide Web
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6171:
6169:
6163:
6162:
6160:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6118:
6116:
6109:
6108:
6106:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6079:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6068:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6024:
6022:
6016:
6015:
6013:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5961:
5959:
5953:
5952:
5950:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5898:
5896:
5886:
5885:
5883:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5856:
5854:
5850:
5849:
5847:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5815:
5813:
5807:
5806:
5804:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5777:
5775:
5771:
5770:
5768:
5767:
5758:
5753:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5712:
5710:
5704:
5703:
5696:
5693:
5692:
5687:
5685:
5684:
5677:
5670:
5662:
5653:
5652:
5650:
5649:
5639:
5629:
5619:
5606:
5603:
5602:
5600:
5599:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5571:
5570:
5565:
5557:
5551:
5549:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5490:
5488:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5412:
5410:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5374:
5372:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5337:Space-division
5333:
5331:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5321:
5316:
5315:
5314:
5309:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5287:
5282:
5276:
5274:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5250:
5249:
5248:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5227:
5226:
5216:
5210:
5208:
5200:
5199:
5197:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5174:Camille Tissot
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5149:Claude Shannon
5146:
5141:
5139:Tivadar Puskás
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5109:Antonio Meucci
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5079:Charles K. Kao
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5054:Harold Hopkins
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4954:Emile Berliner
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4915:
4913:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4893:Videotelephony
4890:
4885:
4884:
4883:
4878:
4868:
4861:
4856:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4796:
4791:
4789:Radiotelephone
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4755:
4754:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4675:Internet video
4667:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4609:
4607:
4601:
4600:
4595:
4593:
4592:
4585:
4578:
4570:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4551:
4550:External links
4548:
4547:
4546:
4540:
4525:
4483:
4456:
4428:
4400:
4372:
4344:
4316:
4288:
4260:
4254:
4238:
4232:
4219:
4213:
4200:
4194:
4176:
4170:
4154:
4128:, ed. (1989).
4122:
4115:
4099:
4093:
4075:
4065:
4047:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4031:
4019:
4007:
4005:, p. 7-8.
3995:
3983:
3971:
3959:
3947:
3945:, p. 620.
3935:
3933:, p. 619.
3923:
3911:
3899:
3887:
3875:
3863:
3851:
3839:
3824:
3812:
3810:, p. 7-8.
3800:
3788:
3776:
3761:
3749:
3734:
3719:
3710:
3694:
3685:
3669:
3650:
3641:
3632:
3623:
3614:
3605:
3596:
3587:
3578:
3569:
3560:
3534:
3525:
3513:
3504:
3463:
3454:
3427:
3418:
3411:
3390:
3375:
3360:
3333:
3318:
3303:
3294:
3285:
3276:
3267:
3258:
3246:
3225:
3216:
3207:
3198:
3189:
3180:
3171:
3162:
3153:
3144:
3135:
3126:
3117:
3108:
3078:
3051:
3040:on 30 May 2010
3024:
3013:on 30 May 2010
2997:
2967:
2958:
2949:
2937:
2925:
2916:
2904:
2895:
2886:
2854:
2821:
2800:
2770:
2763:
2744:
2701:
2658:
2615:
2577:(5): 637–648.
2554:
2539:
2502:
2492:
2472:
2462:
2439:
2413:
2383:
2366:
2345:
2302:
2292:
2272:
2249:
2210:
2203:
2183:
2169:
2157:
2126:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2064:
2057:
2054:
1988:
1985:
1919:Main article:
1916:
1913:
1868:Main article:
1865:
1862:
1838:
1837:
1833:physical layer
1828:
1818:
1804:
1794:
1784:
1774:
1771:data integrity
1727:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1681:ITU-T G.hn PHY
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1616:ITU-T V-Series
1613:
1608:
1602:
1599:Physical layer
1596:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1568:
1563:
1561:ITU-T G.hn DLL
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1133:
1130:
1118:draft proposal
1112:
1109:
1044:
1041:
1011:
1008:
995:
992:
976:standard) and
965:
962:
953:
950:
940:
937:
909:
906:
884:
881:
865:connectionless
848:(TCP) and the
817:
814:
806:Moore machines
777:
774:
773:
772:
769:
766:
763:
760:
756:
753:
730:
727:
719:
716:
709:
706:
702:
699:
686:
683:
675:
672:
655:
652:
636:
615:
612:
575:
572:
490:
487:
482:
479:
448:protocol suite
391:
388:
328:such as IBM's
266:and others at
152:
149:
147:
144:
109:protocol stack
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6710:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6668:
6660:
6658:
6650:
6648:
6640:
6639:
6636:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6503:Mixed reality
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6480:
6478:
6476:
6472:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6438:
6434:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6389:
6387:
6385:
6381:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6351:
6349:
6347:
6343:
6337:
6336:Accessibility
6334:
6332:
6331:Visualization
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6313:
6311:
6309:
6305:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6247:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6172:
6170:
6168:
6164:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6119:
6117:
6115:
6110:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6072:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6034:
6031:
6030:
6029:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6021:
6017:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5962:
5960:
5958:
5954:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5851:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5816:
5814:
5812:
5808:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5791:Dependability
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5778:
5776:
5772:
5766:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5709:
5705:
5700:
5694:
5690:
5683:
5678:
5676:
5671:
5669:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5648:
5640:
5638:
5630:
5628:
5620:
5618:
5608:
5607:
5604:
5597:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5560:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5546:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5487:
5483:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5411:
5409:
5405:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5369:
5363:
5362:Code-division
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5347:Time-division
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5334:
5332:
5330:
5326:
5320:
5317:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5300:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5277:
5275:
5273:and switching
5271:
5267:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5243:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5225:
5224:optical fiber
5222:
5221:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5214:Coaxial cable
5212:
5211:
5209:
5207:
5201:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5129:Radia Perlman
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5019:Lee de Forest
5017:
5015:
5014:Thomas Edison
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5004:Donald Davies
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4989:Claude Chappe
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4873:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4866:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4833:Smoke signals
4831:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4811:Semiconductor
4809:
4805:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4670:Digital media
4668:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4591:
4586:
4584:
4579:
4577:
4572:
4571:
4568:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4549:
4543:
4537:
4533:
4532:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4491:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4457:
4453:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4436:
4435:
4429:
4425:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4408:
4407:
4401:
4397:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4379:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4323:
4317:
4313:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4296:
4295:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4261:
4257:
4255:0-13-854605-3
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4233:0-86238-106-1
4229:
4225:
4220:
4216:
4214:0-13-709873-1
4210:
4206:
4201:
4197:
4195:0-13-153271-5
4191:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4171:0-13-701078-8
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4133:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4116:0-13-018380-6
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4094:0-13-539925-4
4090:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4074:
4068:
4066:0-201-63448-1
4062:
4058:
4054:
4053:Radia Perlman
4050:
4049:
4045:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4008:
4004:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3960:
3956:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3924:
3920:
3915:
3912:
3908:
3903:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3813:
3809:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3792:
3789:
3785:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3706:
3705:
3698:
3695:
3689:
3686:
3681:
3680:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3663:. p. 5.
3662:
3661:
3654:
3651:
3645:
3642:
3636:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3618:
3615:
3609:
3606:
3600:
3597:
3591:
3588:
3582:
3579:
3573:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3548:
3544:
3538:
3535:
3529:
3526:
3522:
3517:
3514:
3508:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3467:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3414:
3412:0-321-12742-0
3408:
3404:
3400:
3394:
3391:
3386:
3379:
3376:
3371:
3364:
3361:
3348:
3344:
3337:
3334:
3329:
3322:
3319:
3314:
3307:
3304:
3298:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3271:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3202:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3175:
3172:
3166:
3163:
3157:
3154:
3148:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3121:
3118:
3112:
3109:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3052:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3025:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2998:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2962:
2959:
2953:
2950:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2920:
2917:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2890:
2887:
2871:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2839:
2832:
2825:
2822:
2817:
2816:
2815:IEEE Spectrum
2811:
2804:
2801:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2771:
2766:
2760:
2756:
2755:
2748:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2717:(12): 26–31.
2716:
2712:
2705:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2674:(11): 40–46.
2673:
2669:
2662:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2515:The Economist
2512:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2489:
2485:
2484:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2455:
2454:
2449:
2448:Abbate, Janet
2443:
2440:
2424:
2417:
2414:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2387:
2384:
2379:
2378:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2195:
2187:
2184:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2130:
2127:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2094:
2083:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2023:the OSI model
2020:
2016:
2011:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1979:is the first
1978:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1930:extensibility
1927:
1922:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1896:authenticated
1892:
1890:
1889:extensibility
1886:
1882:
1881:side-channels
1877:
1871:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1809:network layer
1805:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1790:
1789:session layer
1785:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1753:peer entities
1750:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1722:
1717:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1406:Network layer
1401:
1400:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1311:Session layer
1306:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1105:routing loops
1102:
1098:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1000:
993:
991:
989:
985:
983:
979:
975:
971:
963:
961:
959:
951:
949:
945:
938:
936:
932:
930:
926:
922:
914:
907:
905:
902:
897:
889:
882:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
861:
858:
853:
851:
847:
843:
839:
834:
832:
822:
815:
813:
809:
807:
803:
799:
795:
790:
785:
782:
775:
770:
767:
764:
761:
757:
754:
751:
747:
743:
739:
738:shared medium
735:
731:
728:
725:
720:
717:
714:
710:
707:
703:
700:
697:
696:
691:
687:
684:
681:
676:
673:
670:
665:
661:
656:
653:
650:
646:
642:
637:
634:
633:
632:
628:
626:
622:
613:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
592:
589:
585:
581:
573:
571:
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
541:
539:
535:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
488:
486:
480:
478:
476:
471:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
444:
441:
436:
434:
430:
426:
420:
418:
414:
413:shared memory
408:
406:
402:
398:
389:
387:
385:
381:
376:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
341:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
298:
296:
292:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
259:
255:
251:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
210:Steve Crocker
207:
203:
200:, written by
199:
198:1822 protocol
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
171:Donald Davies
168:
164:
158:
157:Protocol Wars
150:
145:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
112:
110:
105:
103:
101:
95:
91:
87:
83:
77:
75:
71:
67:
64:and possible
63:
62:communication
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
19:
6599:Cyberwarfare
6258:Cryptography
5377:
5329:Multiplexing
5204:Transmission
5169:Nikola Tesla
5159:Henry Sutton
5114:Samuel Morse
5044:Robert Hooke
5009:Amos Dolbear
4944:John Bardeen
4863:
4843:Telautograph
4747:Mobile phone
4702:Edholm's law
4685:social media
4618:Broadcasting
4534:. ABC-CLIO.
4530:
4494:
4488:
4460:
4433:
4405:
4377:
4349:
4321:
4293:
4265:
4245:
4223:
4204:
4184:
4180:C.A.R. Hoare
4161:
4130:
4106:
4083:
4056:
4046:Bibliography
4034:
4022:
4010:
3998:
3986:
3981:, p. 1.
3974:
3962:
3950:
3938:
3926:
3914:
3902:
3890:
3878:
3866:
3854:
3842:
3837:, p. 3.
3822:, p. 2.
3815:
3803:
3798:, p. 6.
3791:
3786:, p. 5.
3779:
3759:, p. 4.
3752:
3747:, p. 3.
3732:, p. 2.
3713:
3703:
3697:
3688:
3678:
3672:
3664:
3659:
3653:
3644:
3635:
3626:
3617:
3608:
3599:
3590:
3581:
3572:
3563:
3551:. Retrieved
3537:
3528:
3523:, p. 4.
3516:
3507:
3480:
3476:
3466:
3457:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3421:
3402:
3393:
3384:
3378:
3369:
3363:
3351:. Retrieved
3347:the original
3336:
3327:
3321:
3313:IEEE Network
3312:
3306:
3297:
3288:
3279:
3270:
3261:
3241:the original
3235:
3228:
3219:
3210:
3201:
3192:
3183:
3174:
3165:
3156:
3147:
3138:
3129:
3120:
3111:
3099:. Retrieved
3090:
3081:
3069:. Retrieved
3065:the original
3054:
3042:. Retrieved
3038:the original
3027:
3015:. Retrieved
3011:the original
3000:
2988:. Retrieved
2979:
2970:
2961:
2952:
2919:
2898:
2889:
2877:. Retrieved
2857:
2845:. Retrieved
2824:
2813:
2803:
2791:. Retrieved
2782:
2773:
2753:
2747:
2714:
2710:
2704:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2631:(1): 66–71.
2628:
2624:
2618:
2609:
2602:. Retrieved
2574:
2570:
2557:
2542:
2533:
2526:. Retrieved
2514:
2505:
2497:
2482:
2475:
2467:
2452:
2442:
2432:11 September
2430:. Retrieved
2416:
2404:. Retrieved
2395:
2386:
2376:
2369:
2348:
2339:
2319:
2315:
2305:
2297:
2282:
2275:
2266:
2262:
2252:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2193:
2186:
2151:24 September
2149:, retrieved
2135:
2129:
2103:
2082:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2031:
2027:ISO layering
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1990:
1969:
1953:encapsulated
1946:
1924:
1915:Ossification
1904:
1893:
1875:
1873:
1858:
1846:
1839:
1831:
1821:
1807:
1803:connections.
1797:
1787:
1777:
1763:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1736:
1730:
1248:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1097:time-to-live
1093:
1089:
1047:Some of the
1046:
1037:oligopolized
1026:
1024:
1013:
1001:
997:
986:
967:
955:
946:
942:
933:
927:
923:
920:
898:
894:
862:
854:
835:
827:
810:
786:
779:
762:Flow control
693:
689:
679:
668:
663:
659:
644:
640:
629:
624:
620:
617:
593:
579:
577:
565:
542:
531:
498:
494:
492:
484:
472:
445:
437:
429:TCP/IP model
421:
409:
393:
377:
344:
342:
314:Rémi Després
299:
280:
264:Bob Metcalfe
262:
237:Louis Pouzin
230:
225:
191:
166:
162:
160:
118:(IETF). The
113:
106:
97:
93:
78:
40:to transmit
33:
31:
29:
6609:Video games
6589:Digital art
6346:Concurrency
6215:Data mining
6127:Probability
5860:Interpreter
5529:NPL network
5241:Radio waves
5179:Alfred Vail
5089:Hedy Lamarr
5074:Dawon Kahng
5034:Elisha Gray
4994:Yogen Dalal
4919:Nasir Ahmed
4853:Teleprinter
4717:Heliographs
4497:: 619–639.
4003:Hardie 2019
3993:, A.5. TCP.
2879:23 February
2847:23 February
2604:23 February
2050:application
1938:middleboxes
1900:middleboxes
1671:IEEE 802.16
1666:IEEE 802.15
1661:IEEE 802.11
1585:IEEE 802.11
1556:Frame Relay
1099:values are
1059:(ITU), the
1055:(ISO), the
1033:monopolized
984:standard).
917:boundaries.
734:half-duplex
559:), and the
505:, often in
295:Yogen Dalal
285:(TCP). Its
187:NPL network
82:implemented
42:information
6682:Categories
6667:Glossaries
6539:E-commerce
6132:Statistics
6075:Algorithms
6033:Stochastic
5865:Middleware
5721:Peripheral
5575:Antarctica
5534:Toasternet
5456:Television
4939:Paul Baran
4871:Television
4855:(teletype)
4848:Telegraphy
4826:transistor
4804:Phryctoria
4774:Photophone
4752:Smartphone
4742:Mass media
4478:1893/26111
4158:M. Ben-ari
3483:(2): 323.
3399:Fowler, M.
3330:. Pearson.
3101:15 January
3017:21 October
2549:, p.
2493:1845426754
2359:(Report).
2109:US 7529565
2095:References
1987:Taxonomies
1972:encrypting
1959:(TCP) and
1876:wire image
1864:Wire image
1656:IEEE 802.3
1580:Q.922 LAPF
1551:IEEE 802.3
1531:IEEE 802.2
1318:Named pipe
800:, such as
750:contention
507:plain text
489:Text-based
401:algorithms
268:Xerox PARC
214:Jon Postel
100:algorithms
6488:Rendering
6483:Animation
6114:computing
6065:Semantics
5756:Processor
5559:Americas
5548:Locations
5519:Internet2
5280:Bandwidth
4984:Vint Cerf
4881:streaming
4859:Telephone
4799:Semaphore
4690:streaming
4512:2164/8317
4126:R. Braden
2793:8 October
2731:1558-1896
2688:1558-1896
2653:206443072
2645:1934-1547
2591:1558-0857
2523:0013-0613
2406:8 October
2336:0018-9219
2197:. Orion.
2117:Oticon AS
2115: and
1870:Wire data
1691:Bluetooth
1676:IEEE 1394
1636:SONET/SDH
1597:1.
1482:2.
1460:AppleTalk
1404:3.
1358:4.
1309:5.
1263:6.
1155:7.
1140:OSI model
873:tunneling
857:OSI model
812:another.
746:collision
625:semantics
568:debugging
551:), SMTP (
468:AppleTalk
433:OSI model
380:OSI model
228:concept.
218:Vint Cerf
54:semantics
6647:Category
6475:Graphics
6250:Security
5912:Compiler
5811:Networks
5708:Hardware
5627:Category
5514:Internet
5504:CYCLADES
5421:Ethernet
5371:Concepts
5295:terminal
5246:wireless
5069:Bob Kahn
4912:Pioneers
4737:Internet
4628:Cable TV
4244:(1984).
4182:(1985).
4160:(1982).
4105:(2000).
4081:(1991).
4055:(1999).
3553:10 March
3547:Archived
3499:11607967
3401:(2002).
3353:17 March
3315:: 20–24.
3095:Archived
2984:Archived
2870:Archived
2868:. 2006.
2838:Archived
2787:Archived
2739:23243636
2696:23639680
2595:Archived
2528:22 April
2450:(2000).
2400:Archived
2145:archived
2136:Protocol
2056:See also
2042:protocol
2034:protocol
1949:Internet
1887:and the
1817:control.
1250:more....
869:Ethernet
838:Internet
816:Layering
768:Queueing
724:timeouts
643:and the
431:and the
373:Internet
306:datagram
274:and the
272:Ethernet
233:CYCLADES
202:Bob Kahn
163:protocol
140:converge
130:handles
74:software
70:hardware
6657:Outline
5647:Commons
5637:Outline
5590:Oceania
5509:FidoNet
5494:ARPANET
5307:circuit
4876:digital
4605:History
4521:1846371
3091:Uml.org
2244:8172150
2046:service
2038:service
1885:privacy
1733:ARPANET
1323:NetBIOS
1244:NETCONF
685:Routing
645:payload
534:parsing
456:IPX/SPX
390:Concept
345:TCP/IP.
260:(TCP).
194:ARPANET
192:On the
177:at the
151:History
5585:Europe
5555:Africa
5539:Usenet
5499:BITNET
5436:Mobile
5312:packet
4821:MOSFET
4816:device
4613:Beacon
4538:
4519:
4252:
4230:
4211:
4192:
4168:
4113:
4091:
4063:
3497:
3409:
2990:31 May
2761:
2737:
2729:
2694:
2686:
2651:
2643:
2589:
2521:
2490:
2460:
2334:
2290:
2242:
2201:
2122:
1852:
1827:layer.
1611:RS-449
1606:RS-232
1573:
1434:ICMPv6
1234:Telnet
1198:HTTP/3
1189:Gopher
641:header
621:syntax
604:HTTP/3
600:HTTP/2
574:Binary
452:TCP/IP
367:
359:
349:SATNET
334:DECnet
289:
56:, and
50:syntax
6060:Logic
5894:tools
5568:South
5563:North
5524:JANET
5461:Telex
5451:Radio
5290:Nodes
5285:Links
5206:media
4784:Radio
4769:Pager
4697:Drums
4663:video
4658:image
4648:audio
4517:S2CID
3495:S2CID
3071:4 May
3044:4 May
2873:(PDF)
2866:(PDF)
2841:(PDF)
2834:(PDF)
2735:S2CID
2692:S2CID
2649:S2CID
2598:(PDF)
2567:(PDF)
2426:(PDF)
2357:(PDF)
2341:work.
2240:S2CID
2087:lost.
2074:Notes
1626:I.431
1621:I.430
1511:CSLIP
1455:IS-IS
1440:IPsec
1347:X.225
1343:SOCKS
1287:ASCII
1282:ASN.1
1146:layer
1073:radio
802:Mealy
690:route
596:EbXML
588:ASCII
545:ASCII
515:UTF-8
511:ASCII
481:Types
464:AX.25
397:state
310:CCITT
245:hosts
128:ITU-T
5892:and
5765:Form
5761:Size
5580:Asia
5466:UUCP
5426:ISDN
4536:ISBN
4452:9419
4424:9170
4396:9065
4368:8558
4340:8546
4312:7258
4284:5704
4250:ISBN
4228:ISBN
4209:ISBN
4190:ISBN
4166:ISBN
4149:1122
4111:ISBN
4089:ISBN
4061:ISBN
3555:2023
3407:ISBN
3355:2017
3103:2017
3073:2006
3046:2006
3019:2014
2992:2022
2881:2020
2849:2020
2795:2022
2759:ISBN
2727:ISSN
2684:ISSN
2641:ISSN
2606:2020
2587:ISSN
2551:78-9
2530:2020
2519:ISSN
2488:ISBN
2458:ISBN
2434:2017
2408:2022
2332:ISSN
2288:ISBN
2199:ISBN
2153:2012
1995:and
1981:IETF
1977:QUIC
1879:and
1874:The
1854:2026
1830:The
1820:The
1806:The
1796:The
1786:The
1776:The
1762:The
1575:LAPB
1571:X.25
1546:L2TP
1526:PLIP
1516:SLIP
1506:HDLC
1501:SDLC
1465:X.25
1445:IGMP
1430:ICMP
1423:IPv6
1418:IPv4
1387:QUIC
1382:DCCP
1377:SCTP
1333:PPTP
1272:MIME
1239:DHCP
1229:SNMP
1224:SMTP
1214:SMPP
1194:HTTP
1164:NNTP
1081:NMEA
1079:the
1035:(or
982:IETF
980:(an
972:(an
855:The
804:and
608:EDOC
606:and
584:byte
536:and
527:JSON
466:and
460:X.25
403:and
369:1123
363:and
361:1122
336:and
318:X.25
300:The
231:The
216:and
120:IEEE
88:. A
5471:WAN
5441:NGN
5431:LAN
4712:Fax
4653:DCT
4507:hdl
4499:doi
4473:hdl
4465:doi
4449:RFC
4439:doi
4421:RFC
4411:doi
4393:RFC
4383:doi
4365:RFC
4355:doi
4337:RFC
4327:doi
4309:RFC
4299:doi
4281:RFC
4271:doi
4146:RFC
4136:doi
3485:doi
3445:doi
2719:doi
2676:doi
2633:doi
2579:doi
2324:doi
2232:doi
2025:or
2017:or
1850:RFC
1686:USB
1651:DSL
1646:OTN
1641:PON
1631:PDH
1566:PPP
1541:MAC
1536:LLC
1521:GFP
1496:ARP
1491:ATM
1470:PLP
1450:IPX
1392:SPX
1372:UDP
1367:TCP
1338:RTP
1328:SAP
1297:PGP
1292:TLS
1277:XDR
1219:SSH
1209:NTP
1204:NFS
1184:FTP
1179:DNS
1174:SSI
1169:SIP
1144:by
1020:IBM
974:ISO
748:or
540:).
525:or
523:XML
513:or
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365:RFC
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291:675
287:RFC
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