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vulnerability to traumatic loading. This area of research focuses on translating the transformations of information among the neuromuscular and skeletal systems to develop functions and governing rules relating to operation and organization of these systems. Neuromechanics can be simulated by connecting computational models of neural circuits to models of animal bodies situated in virtual physical worlds. Experimental analysis of biomechanics including the kinematics and dynamics of movements, the process and patterns of motor and sensory feedback during movement processes, and the circuit and synaptic organization of the brain responsible for motor control are all currently being researched to understand the complexity of animal movement. Dr. Michelle LaPlaca's lab at
Georgia Institute of Technology is involved in the study of mechanical stretch of cell cultures, shear deformation of planar cell cultures, and shear deformation of 3D cell containing matrices. Understanding of these processes is followed by development of functioning models capable of characterizing these systems under closed loop conditions with specially defined parameters. The study of neuromechanics is aimed at improving treatments for physiological health problems which includes optimization of prostheses design, restoration of movement post injury, and design and control of mobile robots. By studying structures in 3D hydrogels, researchers can identify new models of nerve cell mechanoproperties. For example, LaPlaca et al. developed a new model showing that strain may play a role in cell culture.
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Researchers in this field face the challenge of linking advances in understanding neural signals to advancements in technologies delivering and analyzing these signals with increased sensitivity, biocompatibility, and viability in closed loops schemes in the brain such that new treatments and clinical applications can be created to treat those with neural damage of various kinds. Neuromodulator devices can correct nervous system dysfunction related to
Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, Tourette's, chronic pain, OCD, severe depression, and eventually epilepsy. Neuromodulation is appealing as treatment for varying defects because it focuses in on treating highly specific regions of the brain only, contrasting that of systemic treatments that can have side effects on the body. Neuromodulator stimulators such as microelectrode arrays can stimulate and record brain function and with further improvements are meant to become adjustable and responsive delivery devices for drugs and other stimuli.
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its environment. For instance, making use of a computational model of epilectic spike-wave dynamics, it has been already proven the effectiveness of a method to simulate seizure abatement through a pseudospectral protocol. The computational model emulates the brain connectivity by using a magnetic imaging resonance from a patient with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. The method was able to generate stimuli able to lessen the seizures.
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treatment for CNS is minimally available and focuses mostly on reducing collateral damage caused by bone fragments near the site of injury or inflammation. After swelling surrounding injury lessens, patients undergo rehabilitation so that remaining nerves can be trained to compensate for the lack of nerve function in injured nerves. No treatment currently exists to restore nerve function of CNS nerves that have been damaged.
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be designed to replace missing limbs controlled by neural signals by transplanting nerves from the stump of an amputee to muscles. Sensory prosthetics provide sensory feedback by transforming mechanical stimuli from the periphery into encoded information accessible by the nervous system. Electrodes placed on the skin can interpret signals and then control the prosthetic limb. These prosthetics have been very successful.
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to stimulate specified regions of neural tissue to restore function or sensation of that tissue (Cullen et al. 2011). The materials used for these devices must match the mechanical properties of neural tissue in which they are placed and the damage must be assessed. Neural interfacing involves temporary regeneration of biomaterial scaffolds or chronic electrodes and must manage the body's
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researchers in the modulation of neural system activity. To understand properties of neural system activity, engineers use signal processing techniques and computational modeling. To process these signals, neural engineers must translate the voltages across neural membranes into corresponding code, a process known as neural coding.
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vitro and exploring alternative cell sources, engineering novel biopolymers that could be utilized in a scaffold, and investigating cell or tissue engineered construct transplants in vivo in models of traumatic brain and spinal cord injury, Dr. LaPlaca's lab aims to identify optimal strategies for nerve regeneration post injury.
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660:(CAT) scans. Functional neuroimaging studies are interested in which areas of the brain perform specific tasks. fMRI measures hemodynamic activity that is closely linked to neural activity. It is used to map metabolic responses in specific regions of the brain to a given task or stimulus. PET, CT scanners, and
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signal. Sensory prostheses use artificial sensors to replace neural input that might be missing from biological sources. Engineers researching these devices are charged with providing a chronic, safe, artificial interface with neuronal tissue. Perhaps the most successful of these sensory prostheses is the
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are innovative strategies focusing on larger defects that provide a conduit for sprouting axons directing growth and reducing growth inhibition from scar tissue. Nerve guidance channels must be readily formed into a conduit with the desired dimensions, sterilizable, tear resistant, and easy to handle
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and locomotion, learning and memory selection, and value systems and action selection. By studying neurorobots in real-world environments, they are more easily observed and assessed to describe heuristics of robot function in terms of its embedded neural systems and the reactions of these systems to
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are specific tools used to detect the sharp changes in voltage in the extracellular environments that occur from propagation of an action potential down an axon. Dr. Mark Allen and Dr. LaPlaca have microfabricated 3D electrodes out of cytocompatible materials such as SU-8 and SLA polymers which have
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Advanced therapies combine complex guidance channels and multiple stimuli that focus on internal structures that mimic the nerve architecture containing internal matrices of longitudinally aligned fibers or channels. Fabrication of these structures can use a number of technologies: magnetic polymer
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End to end surgical suture of damaged nerve ends can repair small gaps with autologous nerve grafts. For larger injuries, an autologous nerve graft that has been harvested from another site in the body might be used, though this process is time-consuming, costly and requires two surgeries. Clinical
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for restoring visual capabilities of blind persons is still in more elementary stages of development. Motor prosthetics are devices involved with electrical stimulation of biological neural muscular system that can substitute for control mechanisms of the brain or spinal cord. Smart prostheses can
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Neural microsystems can be developed to interpret and deliver electrical, chemical, magnetic, and optical signals to neural tissue. They can detect variations in membrane potential and measure electrical properties such as spike population, amplitude, or rate by using electrodes, or by assessment of
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are a major element used for studying neural systems and enhancing or replacing neuronal function with engineered devices. Engineers are challenged with developing electrodes that can selectively record from associated electronic circuits to collect information about the nervous system activity and
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is the process by which neurons understand the voltages that have been transmitted to them. Transformations involve the mechanisms that signals of a certain form get interpreted and then translated into another form. Engineers look to mathematically model these transformations. There are a variety
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by applying tissue engineering strategies. Dr. LaPlaca is looking into methods combining neural stem cells with an extracellular matrix protein based scaffold for minimally invasive delivery into the irregular shaped lesions that form after a traumatic insult. By studying the neural stem cells in
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are devices capable of supplementing or replacing missing functions of the nervous system by stimulating the nervous system and recording its activity. Electrodes that measure firing of nerves can integrate with prosthetic devices and signal them to perform the function intended by the transmitted
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using engineering techniques is another possible application of neuroengineering. Deep brain stimulation has already been shown to enhance memory recall as noted by patients currently using this treatment for neurological disorders. Brain stimulation techniques are postulated to be able to sculpt
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are that they come from natural materials which have a high likelihood of biocompatibility while providing structural support to nerves that encourage cell adhesion and migration. Nonautologous tissue, acellular grafts, and extracellular matrix based materials are all options that may also provide
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results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or "electrical signal" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells. Signals can be generated by electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical, and other forms of stimuli that
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are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and low level functions needed for survival and quality of life. Neurons have special electro-chemical properties that allow them to process information
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Delivery devices must be biocompatible and stable in vivo. Some examples include osmotic pumps, silicone reservoirs, polymer matrices, and microspheres. Gene therapy techniques have also been studied to provide long-term production of growth factors and could be delivered with viral or non-viral
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with the hopes of modeling neural systems in as realistic a manner as possible. Neural networks can be used for analyses to help design further neurotechnological devices. Specifically, researchers handle analytical or finite element modeling to determine nervous system control of movements and
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is the coupling of neurobiology, biomechanics, sensation and perception, and robotics. Researchers are using advanced techniques and models to study the mechanical properties of neural tissues and their effects on the tissues' ability to withstand and generate force and movements as well as their
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Engineers employ quantitative tools that can be used for understanding and interacting with complex neural systems. Methods of studying and generating chemical, electrical, magnetic, and optical signals responsible for extracellular field potentials and synaptic transmission in neural tissue aid
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can be built from theoretical and computational models and implemented on computers from theoretically devices equations or experimental results of observed behavior of neuronal systems. Models might represent ion concentration dynamics, channel kinetics, synaptic transmission, single neuron
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looks to restore function to those neurons that have been damaged in small injuries and larger injuries like those caused by traumatic brain injury. Functional restoration of damaged nerves involves re-establishment of a continuous pathway for regenerating axons to the site of innervation.
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aims to treat disease or injury by employing medical device technologies that would enhance or suppress activity of the nervous system with the delivery of pharmaceutical agents, electrical signals, or other forms of energy stimulus to re-establish balance in impaired regions of the brain.
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vectors such as lipoplexes. Cells are also effective delivery vehicles for ECM components, neurotrophic factors and cell adhesion molecules. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and stem cells as well as genetically modified cells have been used as transplants to support nerve regeneration.
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both emerged in 2004. International conferences on neural engineering have been held by the IEEE since 2003, from 29 April until 2 May 2009 in
Antalya, Turkey 4th Conference on Neural Engineering, the 5th International IEEE EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering in April/May 2011 in
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focuses on engineering devices and materials that facilitate the growth of neurons for specific applications such as the regeneration of peripheral nerve injury, the regeneration of the spinal cord tissue for spinal cord injury, and the regeneration of retinal tissue.
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emotions and personalities as well as enhance motivation, reduce inhibitions, etc. as requested by the individual. Ethical issues with this sort of human augmentation are a new set of questions that neural engineers have to grapple with as these studies develop.
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Tate, Matthew C.; Shear, Deborah A.; Hoffman, Stuart W.; Stein, Donald G.; Archer, David R.; Laplaca, Michelle C. (April 2002). "Fibronectin
Promotes Survival and Migration of Primary Neural Stem Cells Transplanted into the Traumatically Injured Mouse Brain".
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studies on how the brain encodes simple commands in the form of central pattern generators (CPGs), movement vectors, the cerebellar internal model, and somatotopic maps to understand movement and sensory phenomena. Decoding of these signals in the realm of
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The fundamentals behind neuroengineering involve the relationship of neurons, neural networks, and nervous system functions to quantifiable models to aid the development of devices that could interpret and control signals and produce purposeful responses.
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Neural engineering and rehabilitation applies neuroscience and engineering to investigating peripheral and central nervous system function and to finding clinical solutions to problems created by brain damage or malfunction. Engineering applied to
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chemical concentrations, fluorescence light intensity, or magnetic field potential. The goal of these systems is to deliver signals that would influence neuronal tissue potential and thus stimulate the brain tissue to evoke a desired response.
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Nishikawa, K.; Biewener, A. A.; Aerts, P.; Ahn, A. N.; Chiel, H. J.; Daley, M. A.; Daniel, T. L.; Full, R. J.; Hale, M. E.; Hedrick, T. L.; Lappin, A. K.; Nichols, T. R.; Quinn, R. D.; Satterlie, R. A.; Szymik, B. (10 May 2007).
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that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs.
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Irons, Hillary R; Cullen, D Kacy; Shapiro, Nicholas P; Lambert, Nevin A; Lee, Robert H; LaPlaca, Michelle C (2008-08-28). "Three-dimensional neural constructs: a novel platform for neurophysiological investigation".
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is a significant advance in this field that is especially effective in treating movement disorders such as
Parkinson's disease with high frequency stimulation of neural tissue to suppress tremors (Lega et al. 2011).
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As neural engineering is a relatively new field, information and research relating to it is comparatively limited, although this is changing rapidly. The first journals specifically devoted to neural engineering,
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Lucas, Timothy H.; Liu, Xilin; Zhang, Milin; Sritharan, Sri; Planell-Mendez, Ivette; Ghenbot, Yohannes; Torres-Maldonado, Solymar; Brandon, Cameron; Van der
Spiegel, Jan; Richardson, Andrew G. (2017-09-01).
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LaPlaca, Michelle C.; Cullen, D.Kacy; McLoughlin, Justin J.; Cargill, Robert S. (May 2005). "High rate shear strain of three-dimensional neural cell cultures: a new in vitro traumatic brain injury model".
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and amniotic tissue grafts.Synthetic materials are attractive options because their physical and chemical properties can typically be controlled. A challenge that remains with synthetic materials is
530:, is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane.
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and then transmit that information to other cells. Neuronal activity is dependent upon neural membrane potential and the changes that occur along and across it. A constant voltage, known as the
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damage has been clinically possible so far, but advances in research of genetic techniques and biomaterials demonstrate the potential for SC nerves to regenerate in permissible environments.
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and suture. Ideally they would degrade over time with nerve regeneration, be pliable, semipermeable, maintain their shape, and have a smooth inner wall that mimics that of a real nerve.
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Cullen, DK; Wolf, JA; Vernekar, VN; Vukasinovic, J; LaPlaca, MC (2011). "Neural tissue engineering and biohybridized microsystems for neurobiological investigation in vitro (Part 1)".
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Babb, Tony G.; Wyrick, Brenda L.; DeLorey, Darren S.; Chase, Paul J.; Feng, Mabel Y. (October 2008). "Fat
Distribution and End-Expiratory Lung Volume in Lean and Obese Men and Women".
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computation, oxygen metabolism, or application of dynamic system theory. Liquid-based template assembly was used to engineer 3D neural networks from neuron-seeded microcarrier beads.
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Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body.
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Engineering in
Medicine and Biology Society; Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering; NER (1 January 2009).
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uses a cell graft technology AVANCE to mimic a human nerve. It has been shown to achieve meaningful recovery in 87 percent of patients with peripheral nerve injuries.
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seek to directly communicate with human nervous system to monitor and stimulate neural circuits as well as diagnose and treat intrinsic neurological dysfunction.
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led to the development of in vitro and in vivo microelectrode systems with the characteristics of high compliance and flexibility to minimize tissue disruption.
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Tate, M (May 2001). "Biocompatibility of methylcellulose-based constructs designed for intracerebral gelation following experimental traumatic brain injury".
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Cullen, DK; Pfister, B (2011). "State of the art and future challenges in neural engineering: neural interfaces: foreword / editors' commentary (volume 1)".
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of methods being used to record these voltage signals. These can be intracellular or extracellular. Extracellular methods involve single-unit recordings,
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techniques are used to investigate the activity of neural networks, as well as the structure and function of the brain. Neuroimaging technologies include
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has also been shown to support nerve regeneration following TBI in rats. Other therapies are looking into regeneration of nerves by upregulating
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Serruya, Mijail D.; Lega, Bradley C.; Zaghloul, Kareem (2011). "Brain-Machine
Interfaces: Electrophysiological Challenges and Limitations".
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is the study of how neural systems can be embodied and movements emulated in mechanical machines. Neurorobots are typically used to study
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Engineering strategies for the repair of spinal cord injury are focused on creating a friendly environment for nerve regeneration. Only
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Researchers like Dr. LaPlaca at
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Scientists can use experimental observations of neuronal systems and theoretical and computational models of these systems to create
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Chen, Pu; Luo, Zhengyuan; GĂĽven, Sinan; Tasoglu, Savas; Ganesan, Adarsh Venkataraman; Weng, Andrew; Demirci, Utkan (2014-06-23).
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LaPlaca, Michelle C.; Prado, Gustavo R. (January 2010). "Neural mechanobiology and neuronal vulnerability to traumatic loading".
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Schmidt, Christine E.; Leach, Jennie Baier (August 2003). "Neural Tissue Engineering: Strategies for Repair and Regeneration".
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4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering, 2009: NER'09 ; Antalya, Turkey, 29 April - 2 May 2009
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can be implanted in the brain to stimulate or silence targeted neurons using light, as well as record photon activity—a
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Research focused on neural engineering utilizes devices to study how the nervous system functions and malfunctions.
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fiber alignment, injection molding, phase separation, solid free-form fabrication, and ink jet polymer printing.
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Durand, DM (2007). "Neural engineering—a new discipline for analyzing and interacting with the nervous system".
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are areas developing scaffolds for spinal cord to regrow across thus helping neurological problems.
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Much current research is focused on understanding the coding and processing of information in the
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Operative Neuromodulation: Volume 1: Functional Neuroprosthetic Surgery. An Introduction (2007)
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Taylor, P. N.; Thomas, J.; Sinha, N.; Dauwels, J.; Kaiser, M.; Thesen, T.; Ruths, J. (2015).
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state, and how it can be manipulated through interactions with artificial devices including
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Other research concentrates more on investigation by experimentation, including the use of
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Neural engineering: computational, representation, and dynamics in neurobiological systems
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generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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can influence development, survival, outgrowth, and branching. Neurotrophins include
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Potter S. 2012. NeuroEngineering: Neuroscience - Applied. In TEDxGeorgiaTech: TEDx
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influence the flow of charges, and thus voltage levels across neural membranes.
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can study living neuronal networks and the communicatory events among neurons.
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Hetling, J R (15 September 2008). "Comment on 'What is Neural Engineering?'".
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apply these techniques to help patients with brain injuries or disorders.
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of human function via direct interactions between the nervous system and
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IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering
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in November 2013. The 7th conference was held in April 2015 in
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Handbook of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery (2003)
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systems, quantifying how this processing is altered in the
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Highly controlled delivery systems are needed to promote
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944:(aFGF, bFGF) that promote a range of neural responses.
1535:"Microscale Assembly Directed by Liquid-Based Template"
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of living neural tissue, and encompasses elements from
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The field of neural engineering draws on the fields of
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Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease (2007)
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Prominent goals in the field include restoration and
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is a division of neural engineering that focuses on
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JNER Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation
771:which has restored hearing abilities to the deaf.
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714:of neural activity— instead of using electrodes.
477:The Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation
2065:Foundations on Cellular Neurophysiology (1995)
1741:"Avance Nerve Graft Clinical Results Published"
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500:. The 8th conference was held in May 2017 in
8:
3581:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
1763:
1761:
574:have been used to record and mimic signals.
2128:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
2055:IEEE Handbook of Neural Engineering (2007)
71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3053:
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1954:Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering
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1005:Augmentation of human neural systems, or
942:acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor
339:Learn how and when to remove this message
321:Learn how and when to remove this message
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
128:Learn how and when to remove this message
1060:Prosthetic neuronal memory silicon chips
871:. while others include small intestinal
822:Current approaches to clinical treatment
91:This article includes a list of general
1500:Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering
1225:
1223:
1086:
2962:Electrical and electronics engineering
1512:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120731
938:glial cell line-derived growth factor
646:functional magnetic resonance imaging
7:
3671:
2995:
1264:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
452:connected with external technology.
168:adding citations to reliable sources
27:Discipline in biomedical engineering
3005:
2001:(in Dutch). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
1351:Integrative and Comparative Biology
867:tissues that must be combined with
1966:10.1615/critrevbiomedeng.v39.i1.20
1846:10.1615/critrevbiomedeng.v39.i3.30
1817:10.1615/critrevbiomedeng.v39.i1.10
976:ABC and blocking NgR, ADP-ribose.
956:. RAGs include GAP-43 and Cap-23,
570:, and amperometry; more recently,
97:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
3561:Development of the nervous system
2138:The Journal of Neural Engineering
922:brain derived neurotrophic factor
831:Engineering strategies for repair
778:Functional electrical stimulation
473:The Journal of Neural Engineering
52:This article has multiple issues.
3670:
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2984:
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716:Two-photon excitation microscopy
282:
246:
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804:Neural tissue regeneration, or
155:needs additional citations for
60:or discuss these issues on the
1406:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.05.032
1323:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.09.011
568:extracellular field potentials
1:
3402:Social cognitive neuroscience
1901:Journal of Neural Engineering
1719:10.1016/s0142-9612(00)00348-3
1656:Krichmar, Jeff (2008-03-31).
1096:Journal of Neural Engineering
950:regeneration associated genes
932:(NT-4/5). Other factors are
696:response to foreign materials
375:, experimental neuroscience,
3377:Molecular cellular cognition
2212:List of engineering branches
1456:Sofatzis, Tia (2016-12-12).
1260:"Neuromechanical simulation"
654:positron emission tomography
488:, and the 6th conference in
462:of the neurological system.
3596:Neurodevelopmental disorder
3571:Neural network (biological)
3566:Neural network (artificial)
1258:Edwards, Donald H. (2010).
934:ciliary neurotrophic factor
542:of the nervous system. An
3715:
3123:Computational neuroscience
2148:Journal of Neurophysiology
1997:DiLorenzo, Daniel (2008).
1075:Wirehead (science fiction)
800:Neural tissue regeneration
679:Artificial neural networks
650:magnetic resonance imaging
607:Neural regrowth and repair
373:computational neuroscience
29:
3654:
3591:Neurodegenerative disease
3435:Evolutionary neuroscience
3214:
3068:
2980:
2852:
2197:
2082:Frontiers in Neuroscience
1921:10.1088/1741-2560/5/3/006
1683:10.4249/scholarpedia.1365
1108:10.1088/1741-2560/5/3/N01
895:Nerve guidance channels,
727:Brain–computer interfaces
722:Brain–computer interfaces
658:computed axial tomography
629:Research and applications
534:of the membrane past its
439:brain–computer interfaces
401:neural tissue engineering
358:) is a discipline within
255:This article needs to be
3556:Brain–computer interface
3505:Neuromorphic engineering
3430:Educational neuroscience
3337:Nutritional neuroscience
3242:Clinical neurophysiology
3138:Integrative neuroscience
2095:10.3389/fnins.2015.00202
1277:10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00040
1020:Brain–computer interface
3367:Behavioral neuroscience
2873:Bachelor of Engineering
2715:Engineering mathematics
1783:10.3727/096020198389933
1458:"About Neuromodulation"
1394:Journal of Biomechanics
1311:Journal of Biomechanics
891:Nerve guidance channels
112:more precise citations.
3362:Affective neuroscience
3143:Molecular neuroscience
3098:Behavioral epigenetics
2972:Structural engineering
2967:Mechanical engineering
2710:Engineering management
1875:10.1055/s-0038-1625395
1559:10.1002/adma.201402079
904:Biomolecular therapies
897:Nerve guidance conduit
855:ideal scaffolding for
811:traumatic brain injury
731:Deep brain stimulation
662:electroencephalography
381:electrical engineering
360:biomedical engineering
3425:Cultural neuroscience
3420:Consumer neuroscience
3262:Neurogastroenterology
3118:Cellular neuroscience
2952:Aerospace engineering
2865:Engineering education
1617:10.1093/neuros/nyx367
1611:(CN_suppl_1): 11–20.
1206:10.1378/chest.07-1728
954:antiapoptosis factors
752:Microelectrode arrays
747:Microelectrode arrays
572:multielectrode arrays
3397:Sensory neuroscience
3237:Behavioral neurology
3208:Systems neuroscience
2893:Graduate certificate
1771:Cell Transplantation
1065:Sensory substitution
914:Neurotrophic factors
837:Peripheral PNS nerve
815:spinal cord injuries
397:computer engineering
179:"Neural engineering"
164:improve this article
30:For other uses, see
3540:Social neuroscience
3440:Global neurosurgery
3317:Neurorehabilitation
3287:Neuro-ophthalmology
3272:Neurointensive care
3103:Behavioral genetics
2878:Bachelor of Science
2720:Engineering physics
2704:Engineering drawing
2226:Interdisciplinarity
1913:2008JNEng...5..333I
1834:Crit Rev Biomed Eng
1805:Crit Rev Biomed Eng
1745:Free Online Library
1674:2008SchpJ...3.1365K
1551:2014AdM....26.5936C
980:Delivery techniques
918:nerve growth factor
910:neural regeneration
619:Genetic engineering
536:threshold potential
3699:Neural engineering
3616:Neuroimmune system
3510:Neurophenomenology
3450:Neural engineering
3173:Neuroendocrinology
3153:Neural engineering
2480:Telecommunications
2385:Naval architecture
2153:2017-11-23 at the
1539:Advanced Materials
1364:10.1093/icb/icm024
1160:Neural engineering
1040:Experience machine
1001:Neural enhancement
989:Advanced therapies
958:adhesion molecules
869:immunosuppressants
859:. Some come from
857:nerve regeneration
700:optical recordings
623:tissue engineering
528:membrane potential
456:Neurohydrodynamics
420:artificial devices
352:Neural engineering
301:You can assist by
3686:
3685:
3535:Paleoneurobiology
3470:Neuroepistemology
3445:Neuroanthropology
3411:Interdisciplinary
3297:Neuropharmacology
3257:Neuroepidemiology
3028:
3027:
2957:Civil engineering
2903:Licensed engineer
2898:Engineer's degree
2850:
2849:
2682:Building services
2665:Health technology
2526:Chemical reaction
2475:Signal processing
2071:978-0-262-10053-3
2061:978-0-470-05669-1
2051:978-0-13-615444-0
2041:978-0-8247-0720-0
2031:978-0-8493-7019-9
2021:978-3-211-33078-4
2008:978-0-8493-8174-4
1713:(10): 1113–1123.
1545:(34): 5936–5941.
1178:978-0-306-48610-4
1070:Simulated reality
1007:human enhancement
806:neuroregeneration
773:Visual prosthesis
759:Neural prostheses
691:Neural interfaces
686:Neural interfaces
614:neuroregeneration
540:neurotransmission
405:materials science
385:signal processing
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16:(Redirected from
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3576:Detection theory
3460:Neurocriminology
3387:Neurolinguistics
3302:Neuroprosthetics
3220:
3183:Neuroinformatics
3133:Imaging genetics
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2445:Electromechanics
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1999:Neuroengineering
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1045:Neuroprosthetics
930:neurotrophin-4/5
877:biocompatibility
769:cochlear implant
764:Neuroprosthetics
544:action potential
443:neuroprosthetics
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32:Neurocybernetics
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3631:Neuroplasticity
3626:Neuromodulation
3621:Neuromanagement
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3515:Neurophilosophy
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3392:Neuropsychology
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3307:Neuropsychiatry
3267:Neuroimmunology
3252:Neurocardiology
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3193:Neuromorphology
3148:Neural decoding
3089:
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2883:Master's degree
2859:
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2760:Instrumentation
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2531:Electrochemical
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1050:Neurosecurity
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1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
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1025:Brain-reading
1023:
1021:
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852:tissue grafts
850:
842:
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838:
830:
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799:
797:
794:
793:motor control
790:
789:Neurorobotics
784:Neurorobotics
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460:hydrodynamics
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291:This article
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191:
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184:
181: –
180:
176:
175:Find sources:
169:
165:
159:
158:
153:This article
151:
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121:
111:
107:
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53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3675:
3663:
3611:Neuroimaging
3606:Neurogenesis
3490:Neurohistory
3455:Neurobiotics
3449:
3354:neuroscience
3322:Neurosurgery
3247:Epileptology
3229:neuroscience
3198:Neurophysics
3188:Neurometrics
3163:Neurobiology
3158:Neuroanatomy
3152:
3128:Connectomics
3062:Neuroscience
2936:Engineering
2782:Mechatronics
2635:Agricultural
2285:Geotechnical
2253:Construction
2085:
2081:
1998:
1957:
1953:
1904:
1900:
1869:(2): 142–6.
1866:
1862:
1837:
1833:
1808:
1804:
1774:
1770:
1749:. Retrieved
1747:. 2015-01-01
1744:
1735:
1710:
1707:Biomaterials
1706:
1700:
1665:
1662:Scholarpedia
1661:
1651:
1608:
1605:Neurosurgery
1604:
1593:
1542:
1538:
1528:
1503:
1499:
1465:. Retrieved
1461:
1451:
1397:
1393:
1357:(1): 16–54.
1354:
1350:
1339:
1317:(1): 71–78.
1314:
1310:
1304:
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1263:
1231:
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846:
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825:
803:
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762:
750:
741:
738:Microsystems
725:
708:Fiber optics
704:optogenetics
689:
671:
642:Neuroimaging
640:
632:
610:
598:
586:
563:neuroscience
554:
520:
517:Neuroscience
511:
508:Fundamentals
476:
472:
469:
454:
447:
435:pathological
424:
416:augmentation
413:
370:
355:
351:
350:
335:
317:
308:
295:copy editing
293:may require
292:
264:
256:
226:
217:
207:
200:
193:
186:
174:
162:Please help
157:verification
154:
124:
115:
96:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
3480:Neuroethics
3327:Neurotology
3010:Wikiproject
2765:and Control
2755:Information
2579:Biomaterial
2509:Bioresource
2500:/Bioprocess
2498:Biochemical
2450:Electronics
2221:Specialties
2191:Engineering
1960:(1): 5–28.
1668:(3): 1365.
1030:Cybernetics
946:Fibronectin
940:(GDNF) and
928:(NT-3) and
551:Engineering
498:Montpellier
393:cybernetics
110:introducing
3641:Neurotoxin
3342:Psychiatry
2929:Glossaries
2750:Industrial
2730:Facilities
2725:Explosives
2650:Biomedical
2645:Automation
2594:Metallurgy
2504:Biological
2455:Microwaves
2415:Electrical
2360:Automotive
2342:Mechanical
2315:Structural
2280:Geological
2268:Ecological
2258:Earthquake
1811:(1): 1–3.
1751:2017-06-09
1467:2017-06-09
1081:References
970:N-cadherin
849:autologous
656:(PET) and
494:California
303:editing it
190:newspapers
93:references
57:improve it
3586:Neurochip
3352:Cognitive
3277:Neurology
2888:Doctorate
2802:Packaging
2772:Logistics
2745:Geomatics
2706:/graphics
2599:Molecular
2589:Corrosion
2571:Materials
2551:Petroleum
2541:Molecular
2423:Broadcast
2405:Tribology
2355:Aerospace
2290:Hydraulic
1974:0278-940X
1929:1741-2560
1692:1941-6016
1625:0148-396X
1567:0935-9648
1139:837182279
1035:Cyberware
962:L1 family
873:submucosa
865:xenogenic
861:allogenic
490:San Diego
377:neurology
118:June 2015
63:talk page
3693:Category
3665:Category
3549:Concepts
3495:Neurolaw
3227:Clinical
2990:Category
2919:Engineer
2827:Software
2822:Security
2797:Ontology
2787:Military
2777:Robotics
2740:Forensic
2660:Clinical
2619:Surfaces
2609:Polymers
2584:Ceramics
2561:Reaction
2490:Chemical
2428:Computer
2350:Acoustic
2305:Offshore
2273:Sanitary
2151:Archived
2114:26089775
1982:21488812
1945:17476077
1937:18756031
1891:19213196
1883:17347744
1854:21967303
1825:21488811
1791:12075994
1727:11352091
1643:28899065
1585:24956442
1520:14527315
1414:15797591
1373:21672819
1331:19811784
1296:20700384
1214:18641101
1133:. IEEE.
1116:18756032
1014:See also
960:such as
936:(CNTF),
924:(BDNF),
648:(fMRI),
502:Shanghai
389:robotics
367:Overview
311:May 2024
267:May 2024
220:May 2024
3677:Commons
3090:science
3078:History
3073:Outline
3000:Commons
2842:Textile
2837:Systems
2807:Privacy
2792:Nuclear
2556:Process
2514:Genetic
2460:Optical
2440:Control
2433:outline
2400:Thermal
2390:Railway
2330:Railway
2325:Traffic
2248:Coastal
2207:Outline
2202:History
2105:4453481
2088:: 202.
1990:5712065
1909:Bibcode
1670:Bibcode
1634:6937092
1576:4159433
1547:Bibcode
1445:YouTube
1287:2914529
920:(NGF),
652:(MRI),
523:Neurons
466:History
427:sensory
257:updated
204:scholar
106:improve
3413:fields
3020:Portal
2817:Survey
2812:Safety
2699:Design
2519:Tissue
2395:Sports
2380:Marine
2370:Energy
2295:Mining
2112:
2102:
2069:
2059:
2049:
2039:
2029:
2019:
2005:
1988:
1980:
1972:
1943:
1935:
1927:
1889:
1881:
1852:
1823:
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1583:
1573:
1565:
1518:
1412:
1371:
1329:
1294:
1284:
1238:
1212:
1175:
1137:
1114:
968:, and
885:AxoGen
843:Grafts
486:Mexico
482:CancĂşn
407:, and
206:
199:
192:
185:
177:
95:, but
3088:Basic
2640:Audio
2628:Other
2546:Paper
2465:Power
2310:River
2235:Civil
1986:S2CID
1941:S2CID
1887:S2CID
1441:Video
1194:Chest
712:proxy
578:Scope
431:motor
211:JSTOR
197:books
2735:Fire
2536:Food
2110:PMID
2067:ISBN
2057:ISBN
2047:ISBN
2037:ISBN
2027:ISBN
2017:ISBN
2003:ISBN
1978:PMID
1970:ISSN
1933:PMID
1925:ISSN
1879:PMID
1850:PMID
1821:PMID
1787:PMID
1723:PMID
1688:ISSN
1639:PMID
1621:ISSN
1581:PMID
1563:ISSN
1516:PMID
1462:Home
1410:PMID
1369:PMID
1327:PMID
1292:PMID
1236:ISBN
1210:PMID
1173:ISBN
1135:OCLC
1112:PMID
966:NCAM
813:and
702:and
621:and
475:and
441:and
429:and
383:and
183:news
2945:M–Z
2940:A–L
2687:MEP
2223:and
2100:PMC
2090:doi
1962:doi
1917:doi
1871:doi
1842:doi
1813:doi
1779:doi
1715:doi
1678:doi
1629:PMC
1613:doi
1571:PMC
1555:doi
1508:doi
1443:on
1402:doi
1359:doi
1319:doi
1282:PMC
1272:doi
1202:doi
1198:134
1165:doi
1104:doi
912:.
863:or
166:by
3695::
2108:.
2098:.
2084:.
2080:.
1984:.
1976:.
1968:.
1958:39
1956:.
1939:.
1931:.
1923:.
1915:.
1903:.
1885:.
1877:.
1867:46
1865:.
1848:.
1838:39
1836:.
1819:.
1809:39
1807:.
1785:.
1775:11
1773:.
1760:^
1743:.
1721:.
1711:22
1709:.
1686:.
1676:.
1664:.
1660:.
1637:.
1627:.
1619:.
1609:64
1607:.
1603:.
1579:.
1569:.
1561:.
1553:.
1543:26
1541:.
1537:.
1514:.
1502:.
1476:^
1460:.
1422:^
1408:.
1398:38
1396:.
1381:^
1367:.
1355:47
1353:.
1349:.
1325:.
1315:43
1313:.
1290:.
1280:.
1270:.
1266:.
1262:.
1250:^
1222:^
1208:.
1196:.
1171:.
1147:^
1110:.
1098:.
964:,
879:.
504:.
492:,
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