136:, between the years 1000 and 1030. The de Hautevilles had enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship with the papacy in the period leading up to their arrival in Southern Italy, with the Church recognizing them as legitimate lords in return for their military allegiance. The Normans would seize upon divisions between the Lombards and Byzantines in the region in order to establish a foothold, and they would establish a capital at Aversa in 1030. A defining victory for the Normans would come in 1053, when they defeated a papal force constituted of Lombards and imperial Byzantine forces at Civitella sul Fortore. The battle would see them also capture Pope Leo IX, who had been backing the force opposing them. Robert Guiscard would mount later campaigns after his conquest of Sicily to further Norman influence in Southern Italy, notably capturing Bari in 1071 and Salerno in 1077.
878:
clear from early on in his life, with his formative years spent in
Messina on Sicily's heavily Greek Eastern coast. He was tutored by Greeks and his use of Fabian warfare tactics and his interest in administration and finance are all interpreted as signs of the Byzantine influence on the ruler. He also described himself as a Basileus rather than the Latin Rex. This is not to dismiss the influence of Arabic culture on Roger II. He often referenced himself both as a "defender of Christianity" and as "powerful through the grace of Allah." He was also known to sit in state underneath a bejeweled parasol gifted to him by the Fatimid Caliph. In fact, Roger's love for Arabic culture was so pronounced that Ibn al-Athir would go so far as to point out a rumor that the king was actually a Muslim when writing about him.
864:
Ptolemy's pivotal work the
Almagest to Sicily from Constantinople after being gifted the text by Emperor Manuel Comnenos. The text would then be translated from Greek to Latin by an unknown figure. This was typical of William's court, which was known as being a center of Greek studies in both philosophy and natural sciences. Al-Idrisi was the most famous Muslim scholar in Norman Sicily, as already mentioned for his geographical work under Roger II. He would continue his work under William I, who sponsored him to create a new edition of his Geography, write a book on medicinal plants, and to craft several works of poetry. Beyond al-Idrisi, the Greek theologian Neilos Doxopatres would enjoy the patronage of Roger at his court.
959:
scale. This relationship was further reinforced by the reliance of North Africa's population upon
Sicilian wheat after being hit by a severe famine in the late 11th-century. Norman inhabitants of Sicily would also play a role in imitating Arabic culture and spreading it beyond Muslim-held lands, an example of which could be seen in the wearing of Muslim garb by Christian women and their use of Arabic, as described by Ibn Jubayr. Roger II would also play a pivotal role in bringing Muslim governing practices to Europe, with his requesting of secretaries from the Fatimid Caliphate to come to Sicily in order to introduce Fatimid administrating and chancery culture to the Norman court.
151:
20:
2526:
346:
968:
384:
1824:" "At the end of the twelfth century ... While in Apulia Greeks were in a majority – and indeed present in any numbers at all – only in the Salento peninsula in the extreme south, at the time of the conquest they had an overwhelming preponderance in Lucania and central and southern Calabria, as well as comprising anything up to a third of the population of Sicily, concentrated especially in the north-east of the island, the Val Demone.
435:. He used Arab and Byzantine Greek troops and siege engines in his campaigns in Southern Italy, and mobilized Arab and Byzantine architects to help his Normans build monuments in the Norman–Arab–Byzantine style. The various agricultural and industrial techniques which had been introduced by the Arabs in Sicily during the preceding two centuries were kept and further developed, allowing for the remarkable prosperity of the island. Numerous
649:
887:
immersion in luxury, the nature of his laws, his displays of finery, his ability to read and write in Arabic, and his keeping of Muslim slave girls and concubines at his royal palace. William's royal seal also bore the written phrase "Praise to Allah." The king's trust of
Muslims was also well known, with Ibn Jubayr observing that William's chief cook was Muslim and that he was guarded by a force of black Muslim slaves.
5790:
773:
271:
358:
727:
863:
The translation of scholarly texts from Greek and Arabic into Latin was common in Sicily, especially in
Palermo. Henricus Aristippus would play a major part in one of the most famous translations to take place in Palermo. Serving as the chief advisor to William I, Aristippus would be the one to bring
804:
Roger II's royal palace is a tremendous example of the multiple cultural influences on architecture. It features
Byzantine Mosaics made in Constantinople and honeycombed ceilings typical of Muslim architecture at the time. Byzantine mosaicists also played an important part in the design of the Cefalu
320:
today. The main primary sources for the kingdom are Arabic (Muslim); the Latin (Christian) sources are scanter. According to Hubert Houben, since "Africa" was never mentioned in the royal title of the kings of Sicily, "one ought not to speak of a 'Norman kingdom of Africa'." Rather, " really amounted
895:
Christodoulos would prove to be one of the most powerful non-Norman figures in the history of Norman Sicily. He was a Greek
Orthodox from Calabria, who began his service to Roger I in the 1090s. However, the peak of his power and influence would come under the regency of Adelaide del Vasto. He would
703:
The Norman kings were well known as supportive patrons of the arts. An example of this could be seen by the construction of a tiraz by certain
Sicilian rulers, which were silk workshops typically seen in Islamic regimes, particularly in Egypt. Roger II was one such prominent patron of the arts, with
958:
The early 1100s proved a pivotal point for the transmission of culture and goods from
Islamic lands to Norman Sicily and other regions. The Fatimid port city of Alexandria had emerged as the most prominent hub of Mediterranean trade, and the commerce between Sicily, Ifriqiya, and Egypt was large in
886:
Roger II was not the only Norman king of Sicily to exhibit the influence that other cultures had on the island. William II was known to demonstrate numerous marks of Arabic culture, as documented by Ibn Jubayr. Among the things that caused
William to II to "resemble Muslim kings" to Jubayr were his
594:
The attitude of the king is really extraordinary. His attitude towards the Muslims is perfect: he gives them employment, he chooses his officers among them, and all, or almost all, keep their faith secret and can remain faithful to the faith of Islam. The king has full confidence in the Muslims and
877:
Roger II was a prominent symbol of the cultural interaction in Norman Sicily. He was known to be knowledgeable in Greek, Arabic, and Latin. This knowledge showed itself in Roger's documents, with an estimated 75-80% of his royal charters being written in Greek. The Byzantine influence on Roger was
942:
The points of contact between Europe and Islamic lands were multiple during the Middle Ages, with Sicily playing a key role in the transmission of knowledge to Europe, although less important than that of Spain. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicily, and in
913:
Emir Eugenius acted as a prominent Greek bureaucrat in Norman Sicily. Much like other prominent non-Norman figures on the island during Norman occupation, Eugenius had the ability to speak Greek, Arabic, and Latin. He served under several Sicilian monarchs, with his promotion to emir coming under
812:
cathedral is generally described as "Norman–Arab–Byzantine". The outsides of the principal doorways and their pointed arches are magnificently enriched with carving and colored inlay, a curious combination of three styles—Norman–French, Byzantine and Arab. The cathedral was decorated by Byzantine
704:
the most well-known image of him in Sicily being found at the Church of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio. The cultural fusion of Roger's kingdom is on display in this image, as seen by his donning of a ceremonial costume typical of Byzantine emperors and the placement of a Byzantine crown on his head.
328:
in 1146–48. Sicilian rule consisted of military garrisons in the major towns, exactions on the local Muslim population, protection of Christians and the minting of coin. The local aristocracy was largely left in place, and Muslim princes controlled the civil government under Sicilian oversight.
896:
be given the title of amiralius in 1109 after having previously acted under the title of amiratus. Under this new title he would command the formidable Norman fleet and act as the de facto ruler of Sicily until Roger II came to power. He also served as a tutor to Roger II in his youth.
780:, at Palermo, the most wonderful of Roger's churches, with Norman doors, Saracenic arches, Byzantine dome, and roof adorned with Arabic scripts, is perhaps the most striking product of the brilliant and mixed civilization over which the grandson of the Norman Trancred ruled." (
439:, long lost to the Latin speaking West, were translated from Byzantine Greek manuscripts found in Sicily directly into Latin. For the following two hundred years, Sicily under Norman rule became a model which was widely admired throughout Europe and Arabia.
904:
Under the rule of Roger II, George of Antioch would emerge as a significant figure. He was educated in Antioch and “elsewhere in the Byzantine East.” He was known to be well-versed in Greek and Arabic language, literature, and financial administration.
468:. Catholic Normans, Langobards and native Sicilians, Muslim Arabs, and Orthodox Byzantine Greeks existed in a relative harmony for this time period, and Roger II was known to have planned for the establishment of an Empire that would have encompassed
749:, was built in Palermo by Roger II around 1143–1148 in such a style. The church is notable for its brilliant red domes, which show clearly the persistence of Arab influences in Sicily at the time of its reconstruction in the 12th century. In her
997:
over the next two decades. In the controlled environment, they could not challenge royal authority and benefited the crown in taxes and military service. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called
454:
Norman Sicily stood forth in Europe—and indeed in the whole bigoted medieval world—as an example of tolerance and enlightenment, a lesson in the respect that every man should feel for those whose blood and beliefs happen to differ from his
796:
and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. For instance, clusters of four eight-pointed stars, typical for Muslim design, are arranged on the ceiling so as to form a Christian
1021:(d. 1266) Islamic influence in Sicily persisted, but it had almost disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. Latin progressively replaced Arabic and Greek, the last Sicilian document in Arabic being dated to 1245.
692:, a state enterprise which would give Sicily the monopoly of silk manufacture for all Western Europe). During a raid on the Byzantine Empire, Roger II's admiral George of Antioch had transported the silk weavers from
589:
in 1184. To his surprise, Ibn Jubair enjoyed a very warm reception by the Norman Christians. He was further surprised to find that even some Christians spoke Arabic and that several government officials were Muslim:
625:
dates. The registers at the Royal court were written in Arabic. At one point, William II of Sicily is recorded to have said: "Every one of you should invoke the one he adores and of whom he follows the faith".
248:
to their Iberian and North African territories. The loss of the cities, each with a splendid harbor, dealt a severe blow to Muslim power on the island. Eventually Normans took all of Sicily. In 1091,
742:
The new Norman rulers started to build various constructions in what is called the Arab-Norman style. They incorporated the best practices of Arab and Byzantine architecture into their own art.
1186:, 1997: "It is legitimate to speak about an Arab-Norman civilization until the 13th century" (Original French: "on est fondé à parler d'une civilisation arabo-normande jusqu'au XIIIeme siècle"
1188:
329:
Economic connections between Sicily and Africa, which were strong before the conquest, were strengthened, while ties between Africa and northern Italy were expanded. Early in the reign of
5632:
979:
Arabic and Greek art and science continued to be influential in Sicily during the two centuries following the Norman conquest. Norman rule formally ended in 1198 with the reign of
4257:
1002:
because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of
805:
Chapel. The Palace also consisted of two towers in its initial design, one of which was referred to as the “Greek Tower” due to its having been designed by Greek architects.
78:
from 1061 to around 1250. The civilization resulted from numerous exchanges in the cultural and scientific fields, based on the tolerance shown by the Normans towards the
680:
Numerous artistic techniques from the Byzantine and Islamic world were also incorporated to form the basis of Arab-Norman art: inlays in mosaics or metals, sculpture of
5828:
2423:
2225:
2728:
933:
2467:
1910:"Le genie architectural des Normands a su s'adapter aux lieux en prenant ce qu'il y a de meilleur dans le savoir-faire des batisseurs arabes et byzantins",
337:(1158–60). Its most enduring legacy was the realignment of Mediterranean powers brought about by its demise and the Siculo-Almohad peace finalised in 1180.
4620:
951:, 1114–1187, following the conquest of the city by the Spanish Christians in 1085). Many exchanges also occurred in the Levant due to the presence of the
5127:
1749:
595:
relies on them to handle many of his affairs, including the most important ones, to the point that the Great Intendant for cooking is a Muslim (...) His
1215:
194:. Although Maniakes' death in a Byzantine civil war in 1043 cut the invasion short, the Normans followed up on the advances made by the Byzantines and
209:
The Normans had been expanding south, as mercenaries and adventurers, driven by the myth of a happy and sunny island in the Southern Seas. The Norman
1192:
817:
5409:
4347:
3944:
3378:
5892:
5887:
3429:
1810:
1685:
1619:
1332:
1134:"In Sicily the feudal government, fastened on a country previously turbulent and backward, enabled an Arab-Norman civilization to flourish."
2989:
1014:. Their abandoned mosques were destroyed or converted, and churches arose upon the ruins, including the cathedral S. Maria della Vittoria.
59:
993:
In 1224, however, Frederick II, responding to religious uprisings in Sicily, expelled all Muslims from the island and transferred many to
840:; it has been described "one of the most sophisticated and coherent works of architecture to emerge from the Norman rule of the island".
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3111:
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2721:
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436:
167:
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3174:
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400:
245:
218:
145:
119:
19:
833:
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3101:
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547:
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927:
150:
87:
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2582:
2551:
1122:
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2525:
345:
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up until his death in 1154. One of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages was written for Roger II by the
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5493:
4865:
4706:
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3339:
3251:
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Taylor, Julie Anne (April 2007). "Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century".
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972:
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195:
67:
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607:, of which there are many, who are the members of his government and on whom he relies for his private affairs.
295:
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3290:
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1253:
1213:
697:
604:
103:
2464:
1363:"Part I: The Normans and the monarchy – Southern Italy and the Normans before the creation of the monarchy"
1238:"Acceptance and Adaptation of Byzantine Architectural Types in the "Byzantine Commonwealth" – Norman Italy"
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5244:
5207:
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851:. This style of construction persisted until the 14th and the 15th century, exemplified by the use of the
713:
511:
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fell to troops under the leadership of Roger Bosso (the brother of Robert Guiscard and the future Count
214:
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Takayama, Hiroshi (2003). "Central Power and Multi-Cultural Elements at the Norman Court of Sicily".
2239:
Takayama, Hiroshi (2003). "Central Power and Multi-Cultural Elements at the Norman Court of Sicily".
2191:
Takayama, Hiroshi (2003). "Central Power and Multi-Cultural Elements at the Norman Court of Sicily".
2091:
Takayama, Hiroshi (2003). "Central Power and Multi-Cultural Elements at the Norman Court in Sicily".
1954:
Takayama, Hiroshi (2003). "Central Power and Multi-Cultural Elements at the Norman Court of Sicily".
1070:
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987:
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717:
600:
574:
688:, sculpture of hard stones, bronze foundries, manufacture of silk (for which Roger II established a
5872:
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2706:
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1671:
1035:
980:
837:
793:
766:
721:
515:
498:
At the end of the 12th century, the population of Sicily is estimated to have been up to one-third
465:
461:
443:
330:
159:
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style with some Arab influences. Another unusual church from this period is the country church of
535:
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3133:
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Davis-Secord, Sarah (2007). "Muslims in Norman Sicily: The Evidence of Imam al-Mazari's Fatwas".
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church, according to its Greek–Arab bilingual foundation charter, and was built in the Byzantine
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An example of Norman–Arab–Byzantine architecture, combining Gothic walls with Byzantine domes:
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1006:. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery, with many finding asylum in
948:
821:
789:
777:
673:
669:
447:
416:
403:, an intense Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture developed in Sicily, exemplified by rulers such as
350:
275:
265:
237:
203:
199:
75:
71:
2439:
Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad
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Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad
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Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad
1727:
1473:
Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad
1458:
Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad
50:, (sometimes referred to as the "Arab-Norman civilization") refers to the interaction of the
5775:
5721:
5679:
5382:
5175:
4720:
4598:
4311:
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3312:
3307:
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2745:
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2382:
1382:
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1261:
1257:
1169:
Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg. "The Arab-Norman civilization during the earlier Middle-Ages".
618:
492:
428:
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55:
244:. Muslim Arabs and Berbers held onto Sicily and other regions of southern Italy until they
5748:
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187:
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696:, where they had formed a part of the, until then, closely guarded monopoly that was the
2324:
The Map of Knowledge: How Classical Ideas Were Lost and Found: A History in Seven Cities
2178:
The Map of Knowledge: How Classical Ideas Were Lost and Found: A History in Seven Cities
2145:
The Map of Knowledge: How Classical Ideas Were Lost and Found: A History in Seven Cities
765:". The bell tower, with four orders of arcaded loggias, is instead a typical example of
460:
During Roger II's reign, the Kingdom of Sicily became increasingly characterized by its
5758:
5726:
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5622:
5605:
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3208:
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693:
538:), all royal edicts were written in the language of the people they were addressed to:
171:
129:
83:
79:
31:
1097:
Gordon S. Brown: "The Norman conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily", McFarland, 2003,
1088:
Michael Huxley: "The Geographical magazine", Vol. 34, Geographical Press, 1961, p. 339
98:
under the Normans became a crossroad for the interaction between the Norman and Latin
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Before it was finally conquered by the Muslims, this province was reorganised as the
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546:. Roger's royal mantel, used for his coronation (and also used for the coronation of
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291:
191:
1989:
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16:
High Mediaeval cultural confluence in north Africa, southern Italy, and Sicily
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1509:
1415:
Andrews, Frances; Drell, Joanna; Jansen, Katherine L. (2010). "Chronology".
1370:
952:
726:
657:
621:
and spoke Arabic. The Norman kings continued to strike coins in Arabic with
368:
738:, a curious combination of three styles—Norman–French, Byzantine, and Arab.
573:
Interactions continued with the succeeding Norman kings, for example under
5743:
5664:
5612:
5543:
5456:
5377:
5329:
5195:
5180:
5037:
4975:
4907:
4801:
4786:
4460:
4374:
4364:
4352:
4096:
3951:
3559:
3256:
3196:
3028:
809:
762:
334:
325:
179:
2394:
1212:
Abdallah Schleifer: "the monuments of a great Arab-Norman civilization"
5082:
4885:
4823:
4640:
4539:
4279:
4006:
4001:
3839:
3727:
3683:
3445:
3140:
2485:
Islamization of Shqeptaret: The clash of Religions in Medieval Albania.
1007:
758:
730:
The outsides of the principal doorways and their pointed arches of the
469:
407:, who had Muslim soldiers, poets, and scientists at his court, and had
313:
309:
241:
233:
225:
125:
107:
51:
23:
2171:
2169:
246:
were eventually defeated and expelled by the Christian Normans in 1072
5706:
5565:
5339:
5057:
4987:
4556:
4468:
4323:
3554:
3096:
2386:
1501:
1245:
994:
984:
852:
781:
622:
596:
562:
561:
They were treated kindly, and they were protected, even against the
480:
95:
91:
5813:
Andrews, Drell, and Jansen, Frances, Joanna, and Katherine (2009).
2701:
2408:
Andrews, Drell, and Jansen, Frances, Joanna, and Katherine (2009).
2210:
Andrews, Drell, and Jansen, Frances, Joanna, and Katherine (2009).
1996:
Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship
1991:
The architecture of the church of SS. Pietro e Paolo d'Agro, Sicily
290:
The Kingdom of Africa was an extension of the frontier zone of the
256:, the last Arab strongholds, fell to the Christian forces as well.
3790:
3045:
2929:
2524:
1342:
1279:
966:
798:
792:, also in Palermo, combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the
771:
735:
725:
681:
586:
557:
Islamic authors marvelled at the forbearance of the Norman kings:
539:
503:
472:
382:
356:
344:
317:
269:
253:
222:
221:
in 1060. The island of Sicily was split politically between three
149:
63:
18:
1500:. Routledge Library Editions: The Medieval World (1st ed.).
975:
built in Palermo by Roger II around 1143–1148 (1840 lithography).
321:
to a constellation of Norman-held towns along coastal Ifrīqiya."
5642:
4444:
2543:
582:
249:
2710:
232:
population rebelled against the ruling Muslims. One year later
2412:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 240.
2214:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 236.
757:
described it as "... totally oriental... it would fit well in
617:
Ibn Jubair mentioned that some Christians in Palermo wore the
914:
Tancred in 1190. He is well known for translating Ptolemy's
2529:
Arabic painting made for the Norman kings (c. 1150) in the
5633:
Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation
2080:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 106–107.
1189:"La Sicile - Dossiers d'Archéologie n° 225 du 01/07/1997"
656:(such as the Classical pillars and friezes) with typical
174:
began a reconquest of Sicily under the Byzantine general
2309:
Byzantium: The Bridge From Antiquity to the Middle Ages
2112:
Byzantium: The Bridge From Antiquity to the Middle Ages
1975:
Byzantium: The Bridge From Antiquity to the Middle Ages
1941:
Byzantium: The Bridge From Antiquity to the Middle Ages
1926:
Byzantium: The Bridge From Antiquity to the Middle Ages
843:
Other examples of Arab-Norman architecture include the
1652:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. p. 58-59
1566:
All the Arabic sources can be found in Michele Amari,
565:. Because of that, they had great love for king Roger.
1885:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 149.
1242:
The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Art and Architecture
2441:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 154.
2362:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 153.
2281:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 150.
2162:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 176.
2129:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 112.
2065:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 100.
2029:
Moller, Violet (2019). London: Picador. p. 203.
1900:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 113.
1475:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 133.
1460:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 132.
1117:: "A History of Sicily", Chatto & Windus, 1986,
734:
are magnificently enriched with carving and colored
652:
Norman–Arab–Byzantine art and architecture combined
5588:
5353:
5163:
4943:
4735:
4719:
4398:
4203:
3982:
3971:
3801:
3738:
3631:
3547:
3438:
3242:
2975:
2775:
2766:
1612:
The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean
1292:Lynn White, Jr.: "The Byzantinization of Sicily",
1137:
5817:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1898:Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler Between East and West
1410:
1408:
1406:
1171:The Government of Sicily Under Philip II of Spain
1498:A History of Early Medieval Europe: From 476–911
1484:
1482:
1317:The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily
581:who landed in the island after returning from a
252:in the southern tip of Sicily and the island of
2465:Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera
2335:
2333:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1140:Christian England: Its Story to the Reformation
30:, with Arabic inscriptions, minted in Palermo (
1231:
1229:
1227:
934:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
2722:
1306:
1304:
1302:
577:, as attested by the Spanish–Arab geographer
391:. It bears an inscription in Arabic with the
178:in 1038. This invasion relied on a number of
8:
5827:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2422:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2311:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 154.
2224:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2114:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 150.
1977:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 159.
1943:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 158.
1928:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 156.
1136:Edwards, David Lawrence (1980). "Religion".
820:built in 1143 by Roger II's "emir of emirs"
324:The Sicilian conquest of Africa began under
1805:. Cambridge University Press. p. 494.
219:conquered several regions of southern Italy
4732:
3979:
2772:
2729:
2715:
2707:
2296:. Leeds: Arc Humanities Press. p. 85.
2138:
2136:
550:), bore an inscription in Arabic with the
427:("emir of emirs"). Roger II himself spoke
379:. Note: North is to the bottom of the map.
1853:Quoted in Lewis, p. 148, also Aube, p.168
1724:"Roger II — Encyclopædia Britannica"
526:. Although the language of the court was
1726:. Concise.britannica.com. Archived from
1592:Dalli, "Bridging Europe and Africa", 79.
647:
5805:
2594:Les Croisades. Origines et conséquences
2500:
2294:Migration in the Medieval Mediterranean
2160:Roger II: A Ruler Between East and West
2127:Roger II: A Ruler Between East and West
2078:Roger II: A Ruler Between East and West
2063:Roger II: A Ruler Between East and West
1081:
190:, as well as on several contingents of
5820:
5410:Contemporary Indigenous Australian art
2644:The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History
2415:
2217:
2043:
2032:
510:dialects brought from mainland Italy (
502:speaking, with the remainder speaking
333:, the "kingdom" of Africa fell to the
186:, including the future King of Norway
3430:Art of the late 16th century in Milan
2474:. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. 2003.
1750:"Tracing The Norman Rulers of Sicily"
1262:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190277352.013.32
7:
5815:Medieval Italy: Texts in Translation
2410:Medieval Italy: Texts in Translation
2212:Medieval Italy: Texts in Translation
1546:"Saracen Door and Battle of Palermo"
1417:Medieval Italy: Texts in Translation
4765:Vienna School of Fantastic Realism
3616:Neoclassical architecture in Milan
2658:Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs
1051:History of Islam in southern Italy
983:, and was replaced by that of the
938:Transmission of the Greek Classics
708:Norman–Arab–Byzantine architecture
375:in 1154, one of the most advanced
168:Islamic invasion of Southern Italy
14:
4839:American Figurative Expressionism
3175:International Gothic art in Italy
1988:Nicklies, Charles Edward (1992).
1677:The Kingdom in the Sun, 1130-1194
1296:, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1936), pp. 1-21
1031:Norman conquest of southern Italy
859:Norman–Arab–Byzantine scholarship
401:Norman conquest of southern Italy
146:Norman conquest of southern Italy
120:Norman conquest of southern Italy
114:Norman conquest of southern Italy
5789:
5788:
4348:Neue Künstlervereinigung München
2538:Buttitta, Antonino, ed. (2006).
1998:(Thesis). University of Illinois
1803:The Latin Church in Norman Italy
1425:University of Pennsylvania Press
1369:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
824:was originally consecrated as a
751:Diary of an Idle Woman in Sicily
240:), and in 1071 the Normans took
90:populations and the former Arab
5270:Tunisian collaborative painting
4743:International Typographic Style
2688:Storia dei Bizantini di Sicilia
2566:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia
2326:. London: Picador. p. 215.
2180:. London: Picador. p. 211.
2147:. London: Picador. p. 210.
1748:Inturrisi, Louis (1987-04-26).
1240:. In Schwartz, Ellen C. (ed.).
943:Islamic Spain, particularly in
928:Renaissance of the 12th century
5023:The Caribbean Artists Movement
1294:The American Historical Review
542:, Byzantine Greek, Arabic, or
166:Seventy-three years after the
1:
3379:Dutch and Flemish Renaissance
2575:Les empires normands d'Orient
2509:Byzantine exarchate of Africa
1883:The Muslims of Medieval Italy
1702:"Normans in Sicilian History"
162:, erected by Roger II in 1131
40:Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture
5893:History of religion in Italy
5888:Norman architecture in Italy
5494:Modern European ink painting
4866:Bay Area Figurative Movement
2292:Davis-Secord, Sarah (2021).
1387:10.1017/CBO9781139167741.004
1367:The Norman Kingdom of Sicily
423:, serve successively as his
230:Byzantine Orthodox Christian
5155:Artificial intelligence art
1648:Lindberg, David C. (ed.).
834:Santi Pietro e Paolo d'Agrò
818:Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio
349:Arabic–style fresco in the
5909:
5068:Post-painterly abstraction
4891:Situationist International
4265:Pennsylvania Impressionism
2648:Cambridge University Press
2634:. Bari: Dedalo Litostampa.
2632:L'emirato di Bari, 847-871
2613:Les Arabes dans l'histoire
2483:Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski.
1650:Science in the Middle Ages
1421:Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
1419:. The Middle Ages Series.
1379:Cambridge University Press
1311:Brown, Gordon S. (2015) .
931:
925:
711:
633:
263:
154:Byzantine–style mosaic of
143:
117:
5863:Cultural history of Italy
5784:
4651:California Scene Painting
4530:California Scene Painting
4486:Figurative Constructivism
3537:Poussinists and Rubenists
2753:
2702:The Norman Sicily Project
2686:Santagati, Luigi (2012).
2671:10.1080/13602000701308889
2596:. Editions Ouest-France.
1722:Encyclopædia Britannica.
1361:Matthew, Donald (2012) .
1321:Jefferson, North Carolina
1236:Johnson, Mark J. (2021).
973:Saint-John of the Hermits
747:Saint-John of the Hermits
630:Norman–Arab–Byzantine art
554:date of 528 (1133–1134).
260:Norman conquest of Africa
140:Norman conquest of Sicily
5749:Prehistoric European art
5398:Contemporary African art
4881:Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai
4809:Generación de la Ruptura
4436:Universal Constructivism
4228:California Impressionism
4183:American Barbizon school
2592:Lebédel, Claude (2006).
2307:Angold, Michael (2001).
2110:Angold, Michael (2001).
1973:Angold, Michael (2001).
1939:Angold, Michael (2001).
1924:Angold, Michael (2001).
1614:. (London: Allen Lane).
1548:. Bestofsicily.com. 2004
1494:"The Later Merovingians"
462:multi-ethnic composition
395:date of 528 (1133–1134).
296:Roman province of Africa
5853:Ethnic groups in Sicily
5576:Walking Artists Network
4913:Letterist International
4753:Washington Color School
3667:Arts in the Philippines
2611:Lewis, Bernard (1993).
2322:Moller, Violet (2019).
2176:Moller, Violet (2019).
2158:Houben, Hubert (2002).
2143:Moller, Violet (2019).
2125:Houben, Hubert (2002).
2076:Houben, Hubert (2002).
2061:Houben, Hubert (2002).
1896:Houben, Hubert (2002).
1881:Metcalfe, Alex (2009).
1610:Abulafia, David (2011)
1570:(Rome and Turin: 1880).
1568:Biblioteca arabo-sicula
1254:Oxford University Press
698:Byzantine silk industry
495:("The Book of Roger").
94:settlers. As a result,
66:cultures following the
44:Norman–Sicilian culture
5687:Illuminated manuscript
5335:The Designers Republic
5285:Neue Slowenische Kunst
5208:Pattern and Decoration
5108:Institutional critique
4748:Abstract expressionism
3728:Latin American Baroque
3684:Colonial Asian Baroque
2630:Musca, Giosuè (1964).
2546:: Musée de Normandie.
2540:Les Normands en Sicile
2533:
2452:Les Normands en Sicile
2437:Catlos, Brian (2014).
2358:Catlos, Brian (2014).
2277:Catlos, Brian (2014).
2017:Les Normands en Sicile
1912:Les Normands en Sicile
1773:Les Normands en Sicile
1533:Les Normands en Sicile
1471:Catlos, Brian (2014).
1456:Catlos, Brian (2014).
1184:Dossiers d'Archéologie
976:
922:Transmission to Europe
918:from Arabic to Latin.
785:
739:
714:Byzantine architecture
677:
615:
571:
512:Gallo-Italic languages
458:
442:The English historian
396:
380:
354:
287:
196:completed the conquest
163:
46:or, less inclusively,
35:
5325:Artist-run initiative
5300:Young British Artists
5265:New European Painting
5201:Moscow Conceptualists
5123:Feminist art movement
4901:Ukrainian underground
4876:Gutai Art Association
4275:Ten American Painters
3779:Western influence in
2756:List of art movements
2573:Aubé, Pierre (2006).
2528:
2375:Mediterranean Studies
2260:Mediterranean Studies
2241:Mediterranean Studies
2193:Mediterranean Studies
2093:Mediterranean Studies
1956:Mediterranean Studies
1844:Quoted in Aubé, p.168
1680:. Faber & Faber.
970:
932:Further information:
775:
729:
712:Further information:
651:
634:Further information:
592:
559:
452:
437:Classical Greek works
425:ammiratus ammiratorum
387:Coronation mantle of
386:
360:
348:
341:Cultural interactions
273:
192:Italo-Norman warriors
153:
22:
5135:Saqqakhaneh movement
5028:Chicano art movement
4896:Soviet Nonconformist
4702:Boston Expressionism
4685:Abstraction-Création
4503:Arbeitsrat für Kunst
4496:Cologne Progressives
4216:Art Nouveau in Milan
4019:Anglo-Japanese style
3995:National romanticism
3425:Fontainebleau School
3335:Northern Renaissance
3170:International Gothic
2640:Previte-Orton, C. W.
2531:Palazzo dei Normanni
1801:Loud, G. A. (2007).
1672:Norwich, John Julius
1512:. pp. 244–245.
1427:. pp. 539–542.
1327:. pp. 103–113.
1256:. pp. 383–386.
1071:Charlemagne chessmen
1004:Charles II of Naples
988:Hohenstaufen Dynasty
845:Palazzo dei Normanni
718:Islamic architecture
575:William II of Sicily
308:), corresponding to
294:state in the former
5883:Arabic architecture
5670:Hierarchy of genres
5235:Saint Soleil School
5171:Post-conceptual art
5140:The Stars Art Group
5018:Black Arts Movement
4981:Neo-Dada Organizers
4782:Lyrical abstraction
4515:Australian tonalism
4188:California Tonalism
3860:Hudson River School
3663:Colonial Asian art
3403:English Renaissance
3352:Ghent–Bruges school
3340:Early Netherlandish
3252:Italian Renaissance
3165:Gothic art in Milan
2577:. Editions Perrin.
1036:Norman architecture
1000:Lucaera Saracenorum
981:Constance of Sicily
838:Casalvecchio Siculo
794:Norman architecture
767:Gothic architecture
722:Norman architecture
654:Occidental features
516:Neapolitan language
466:religious tolerance
444:John Julius Norwich
286:) pinpointed in red
48:Norman–Arab culture
5712:Landscape painting
5320:New Leipzig School
5260:Neo-conceptual art
5008:Art & Language
5003:Capitalist realism
4925:Florida Highwaymen
4861:Hard-edge painting
4675:Streamline Moderne
4636:Harlem Renaissance
4479:Novecento Italiano
4307:Deutscher Werkbund
4134:Post-Impressionism
3696:Latin American art
3500:Guild of Romanists
3362:German Renaissance
3357:Northern Mannerism
2534:
2490:2009-11-25 at the
2348:Lebedel, p.110-111
1704:. Bestofsicily.com
1490:Deanesly, Margaret
1218:2008-05-13 at the
977:
786:
740:
732:Monreale Cathedral
690:regium ergasterium
678:
658:Arabic decorations
489:Muhammad al-Idrisi
405:Roger II of Sicily
397:
389:Roger II of Sicily
381:
377:ancient world maps
373:Roger II of Sicily
355:
288:
228:, and the sizable
164:
156:Christ Pantokrator
36:
28:Roger II of Sicily
5802:
5801:
5584:
5583:
5440:Corporate Memphis
5393:Classical Realism
5363:Amazonian pop art
5255:Appropriation art
5223:Neo-expressionism
5093:Environmental art
4998:Nouvelle tendance
4715:
4714:
4663:Socialist realism
4520:Dresden Secession
4139:Neo-Impressionism
4102:Decadent movement
4073:Heidelberg School
3967:
3966:
3865:American luminism
3850:Düsseldorf School
3845:Shoreham Ancients
3835:Nazarene movement
3825:Danish Golden Age
3706:Indochristian art
3384:Antwerp Mannerism
3273:Pittura infamante
3267:Florentine School
3262:Proto-Renaissance
2042:Missing or empty
1871:Aubé, pp. 164-165
1812:978-0-521-25551-6
1687:978-0-571-34609-7
1674:(15 March 2018).
1620:978-0-7139-9934-1
1381:. pp. 9–19.
1334:978-0-7864-5127-2
1061:Emirate of Sicily
1056:Byzantine mosaics
949:Gerard of Cremone
900:George of Antioch
822:George of Antioch
790:Cappella Palatina
778:Cappella Palatina
670:Emirate of Sicily
448:Kingdom of Sicily
417:George of Antioch
351:Cappella Palatina
276:Kingdom of Africa
266:Kingdom of Africa
238:Roger I of Sicily
200:Emirate of Sicily
182:mercenaries, the
72:Emirate of Sicily
5900:
5833:
5832:
5826:
5818:
5810:
5792:
5791:
5776:Western painting
5722:Modern sculpture
5680:History painting
5383:Art intervention
5176:Installation art
4993:Nouveau réalisme
4733:
4707:Leningrad School
4599:Mexican muralism
4572:Grosvenor School
4312:American Realism
4295:Der Blaue Reiter
4253:Berlin Secession
4248:Vienna Secession
4243:Munich Secession
4161:Pont-Aven School
3980:
3830:Troubadour style
3808:(c. 1770 – 1862)
3775:Qing handicrafts
3741:Western elements
3672:Letras y figuras
3645:African-American
3640:African diaspora
3611:Directoire style
3522:Heptanese school
3505:Dutch Golden Age
3490:Stroganov School
3483:Lutheran Baroque
3478:Louis XIII style
3451:Baroque in Milan
3313:Bolognese School
3308:High Renaissance
3291:Forlivese School
3286:Ferrarese School
3009:Migration Period
2773:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2708:
2691:
2682:
2651:
2635:
2626:
2607:
2588:
2569:
2557:
2512:
2505:
2494:
2481:
2475:
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2428:
2427:
2421:
2413:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2387:10.2307/41167004
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2255:
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2201:
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2188:
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2014:
2008:
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1985:
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1204:
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1191:. Archived from
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1126:
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1106:
1095:
1089:
1086:
664:, following the
446:remarked of the
431:and was fond of
421:Philip of Mahdia
409:Byzantine Greeks
364:Tabula Rogeriana
172:Byzantine forces
160:Cefalù Cathedral
134:High Middle Ages
5908:
5907:
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5858:Medieval Sicily
5838:
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5812:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5798:
5780:
5697:Interactive art
5580:
5554:SoFlo Superflat
5479:Kitsch movement
5403:Africanfuturism
5355:
5349:
5228:Transavantgarde
5159:
5113:Light and Space
5098:Performance art
5078:Psychedelic art
4961:Nueva Presencia
4951:Otra Figuración
4939:
4871:Les Plasticiens
4856:New York School
4834:Action painting
4819:Metcalf Chateau
4728:
4723:
4711:
4631:Cercle et Carré
4567:New Objectivity
4474:Return to order
4416:School of Paris
4394:
4238:School of Paris
4199:
4085:Arts and Crafts
3990:Neo-romanticism
3975:
3963:
3959:Etching revival
3911:Barbizon school
3855:Pre-Raphaelites
3807:
3804:
3797:
3740:
3734:
3627:
3601:Louis XVI style
3543:
3532:Louis XIV style
3495:Animal painting
3456:Flemish Baroque
3434:
3345:World landscape
3296:Venetian School
3238:
3225:Majorcan school
3192:Novgorod School
3182:Lucchese School
3154:Opus Anglicanum
3146:Norman-Sicilian
3090:Italo-Byzantine
2990:Early Christian
2971:
2955:Pompeian Styles
2768:
2762:
2749:
2735:
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2690:. Lussografica.
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666:Norman conquest
646:
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524:Sicilian Arabic
500:Byzantine Greek
491:, and entitled
477:Crusader states
456:
343:
306:Tunisian Arabic
268:
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211:Robert Guiscard
188:Harald Hardrada
176:George Maniakes
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68:Norman conquest
56:Byzantine Greek
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5878:Islam in Italy
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5848:Arabs in Italy
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5773:
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5727:Late modernism
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5675:Genre painting
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5623:Ballets Russes
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5606:Asemic writing
5598:
5596:History of art
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5589:Related topics
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5447:Hypermodernism
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4930:Cybernetic art
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4918:Ultra-Lettrist
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4792:Arte Informale
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4779:
4774:
4769:
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4757:
4756:
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4729:(1945–present)
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4709:
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4592:Latin American
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4569:
4564:
4562:Group of Seven
4559:
4554:
4549:
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4525:Social realism
4522:
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4508:November Group
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4431:Latin American
4426:Constructivism
4423:
4421:Crystal Cubism
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4158:
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4146:
4131:
4126:
4124:Volcano School
4121:
4120:
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4114:
4104:
4099:
4094:
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4092:
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4077:
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3930:
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3903:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3886:
3881:
3879:Norwich School
3876:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3820:Fairy painting
3811:
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3732:
3731:
3730:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3711:Chilote School
3703:
3701:Casta painting
3693:
3692:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3677:Tipos del País
3674:
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3660:
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3565:Louis XV style
3562:
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3367:Cologne School
3359:
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3220:Italian school
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3202:Sienese School
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3112:Pre-Romanesque
3109:
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3041:Donor portrait
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2950:Julio-Claudian
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2899:Greco-Buddhist
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2696:External links
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2615:. Flammarion.
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2470:2010-08-19 at
2463:Julie Taylor.
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1754:New York Times
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926:Main article:
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826:Greek Orthodox
755:Frances Elliot
745:The Church of
709:
706:
694:Thebes, Greece
668:of the former
631:
628:
493:Kitab Rudjdjar
419:, and finally
399:Following the
342:
339:
284:Regno d'Africa
264:Main article:
261:
258:
198:of the former
144:Main article:
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130:Southern Italy
118:Main article:
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70:of the former
32:British Museum
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5868:Byzantine art
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5660:Fantastic art
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5628:Christian art
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5529:Skeuomorphism
5527:
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5507:
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5489:Massurrealism
5487:
5485:
5484:Lightpainting
5482:
5480:
5477:
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5472:
5468:
5467:Post-Internet
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5340:Grunge design
5338:
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5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5295:Retrofuturism
5293:
5291:
5290:Scratch video
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5275:Memphis Group
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5250:Telematic art
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5240:Guerrilla art
5238:
5236:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5202:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5191:Endurance art
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5162:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4942:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4906:
4902:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4851:New media art
4849:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4829:Nanyang Style
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4760:Visionary art
4758:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4740:
4738:
4734:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4718:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4686:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4656:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4626:Scuola Romana
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4616:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4552:Anthropophagy
4550:
4548:
4545:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4535:Functionalism
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4501:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4488:
4487:
4484:
4480:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4462:
4458:
4457:
4456:
4455:Neoplasticism
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4359:
4358:Cubo-Futurism
4356:
4355:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4325:
4322:
4318:
4317:Ashcan School
4315:
4314:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4285:Expressionism
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4270:Mir iskusstva
4268:
4266:
4263:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4209:
4208:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4184:
4181:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4057:
4056:Boston School
4054:
4052:
4051:Hoosier Group
4049:
4048:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4042:
4041:Impressionism
4039:
4037:
4036:Peredvizhniki
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4026:Beuron School
4024:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3981:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3950:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3940:Munich School
3938:
3937:
3936:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3800:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3739:Art borrowing
3737:
3729:
3726:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3694:
3690:
3689:Company style
3687:
3685:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3642:
3641:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3589:Neoclassicism
3587:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3415:Cretan School
3413:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3401:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3372:Danube school
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3279:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3233:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3139:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
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3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
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3095:
3091:
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3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3068:
3066:
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3059:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3052:
3049:
3047:
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3042:
3039:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3007:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2988:
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2978:
2974:
2966:
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2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2849:Orientalizing
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2834:Sub-Mycenaean
2832:
2831:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2804:
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2800:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2748:art movements
2747:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2646:. Cambridge:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2568:. Le Monnier.
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2520:
2518:
2510:
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2154:
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2139:
2137:
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2084:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2057:
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2036:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2010:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1969:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1935:
1932:
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1856:
1850:
1847:
1841:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1823:
1822:0-521-25551-1
1819:
1814:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1730:on 2007-05-23
1729:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1673:
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1607:
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1573:
1569:
1563:
1560:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1519:9780367184582
1515:
1511:
1507:
1506:New York City
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1467:
1464:
1459:
1452:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1434:9780812206067
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1396:9781139167741
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1375:New York City
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1271:9780190277376
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1195:on 2008-04-08
1194:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1177:
1173:. p. 75.
1172:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1155:9780195202298
1151:
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1131:
1128:
1124:
1120:
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1111:
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1100:
1094:
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1029:
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1024:
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1005:
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986:
982:
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954:
950:
946:
939:
935:
929:
921:
919:
917:
908:
906:
899:
897:
891:Christodoulos
890:
888:
881:
879:
872:
867:
865:
858:
856:
854:
850:
846:
841:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
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811:
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795:
791:
783:
779:
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764:
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728:
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719:
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699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
650:
645:
641:
637:
636:Byzantine art
629:
627:
624:
620:
614:
612:
606:
602:
598:
591:
588:
584:
580:
576:
570:
569:
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558:
555:
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549:
545:
541:
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533:
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525:
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478:
474:
471:
467:
463:
457:
451:
449:
445:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
415:, the famous
414:
413:Christodoulos
410:
406:
402:
394:
390:
385:
378:
374:
370:
366:
365:
359:
352:
347:
340:
338:
336:
332:
327:
322:
319:
315:
312:and parts of
311:
307:
303:
302:
297:
293:
292:Siculo-Norman
285:
281:
277:
272:
267:
259:
257:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
224:
220:
216:
212:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
161:
157:
152:
147:
139:
137:
135:
131:
127:
121:
113:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
33:
29:
26:gold coin of
25:
21:
5814:
5808:
5770:Trompe-l'œil
5768:
5739:Outsider art
5692:Illustration
5648:Lutheran art
5638:Catholic art
5601:Abstract art
5571:Unilalianism
5534:Software art
5509:Neosymbolism
5499:Neo-futurism
5462:Internet art
5452:Hyperrealism
5305:Superfiction
5088:Photorealism
4956:Afrofuturism
4721:Contemporary
4697:Dimensionism
4680:Concrete art
4613:
4609:Precisionism
4459:
4406:Sosaku-hanga
4380:Productivism
4370:Metaphysical
4340:
4329:Proto-Cubism
4233:Secessionism
4195:Costumbrismo
4080:Aestheticism
4031:Hague School
4011:
3935:Academic art
3916:Costumbrismo
3884:Empire style
3721:Quito School
3716:Cusco School
3632:Colonial art
3593:
3581:Fête galante
3579:
3548:18th century
3510:Delft School
3461:Caravaggisti
3439:17th century
3324:
3281:Quattrocento
3271:
3229:
3152:
3145:
3055:
2985:Late antique
2869:Severe style
2859:Black-figure
2746:Contemporary
2687:
2665:(1): 71–77.
2662:
2656:
2643:
2631:
2612:
2593:
2574:
2565:
2539:
2517:
2503:
2479:
2459:
2451:
2447:
2438:
2432:
2409:
2403:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2359:
2353:
2344:
2339:Lewis, p.149
2323:
2317:
2308:
2302:
2293:
2287:
2278:
2272:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2211:
2205:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2177:
2159:
2153:
2144:
2126:
2120:
2111:
2105:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2077:
2071:
2062:
2056:
2044:|title=
2024:
2016:
2012:
2000:. Retrieved
1995:
1990:
1983:
1974:
1968:
1959:
1955:
1949:
1940:
1934:
1925:
1919:
1911:
1906:
1897:
1891:
1882:
1876:
1867:
1858:
1849:
1840:
1831:
1816:
1802:
1796:
1791:Lewis, p.148
1772:
1768:
1757:. Retrieved
1753:
1743:
1732:. Retrieved
1728:the original
1717:
1706:. Retrieved
1696:
1676:
1666:
1657:
1649:
1644:
1635:
1626:
1611:
1606:
1601:Lewis, p.147
1597:
1588:
1580:
1575:
1567:
1562:
1550:. Retrieved
1540:
1532:
1528:
1497:
1472:
1466:
1457:
1451:
1416:
1366:
1316:
1293:
1288:
1241:
1208:
1197:. Retrieved
1193:the original
1183:
1179:
1170:
1164:
1139:
1130:
1125:, pp. 54, 61
1110:
1093:
1084:
1066:Hedwig glass
1046:Italo-Norman
1016:
1012:Adriatic Sea
999:
992:
978:
957:
941:
915:
912:
903:
894:
885:
876:
862:
842:
815:
807:
803:
787:
750:
744:
741:
702:
689:
679:
674:North Africa
640:Germanic art
619:Muslim dress
616:
610:
609:Ibn Jubair,
601:chamberlains
593:
572:
568:Ibn al-Athir
560:
556:
548:Frederick II
536:Langue d'oïl
508:Vulgar Latin
497:
464:and unusual
459:
453:
441:
433:Arab culture
424:
398:
362:
323:
299:
289:
283:
208:
204:North Africa
165:
123:
102:, Byzantine–
76:North Africa
47:
43:
39:
37:
5655:Digital art
5618:Avant-garde
5559:Superstroke
5435:Flat design
5430:Fictive art
5425:Excessivism
5373:Art for art
5368:Altermodern
5310:Taring Padi
5245:Lowbrow art
5213:Pliontanism
5150:Yoru no Kai
5103:Process art
5043:Systems art
5013:Arte Povera
4935:Antipodeans
4844:in New York
4814:Jikken Kōbō
4777:Color field
4646:Regionalism
4615:Aeropittura
4604:Neo-Fauvism
4577:Neues Sehen
4547:Kinetic art
4411:Suprematism
4385:Synchromism
4302:Noucentisme
4223:Primitivism
4211:Art Nouveau
4166:Cloisonnism
4156:Pointillism
4151:Divisionism
4129:Incoherents
4090:Art pottery
3976:(1863–1944)
3926:Macchiaioli
3901:Biedermeier
3889:Historicism
3874:Orientalism
3815:Romanticism
3786:Akita ranga
3638:Art of the
3623:Picturesque
3575:Chinoiserie
3570:Frederician
3408:Tudor court
3303:Cinquecento
3244:Renaissance
3231:Mappa mundi
3215:cartography
3107:Carolingian
3102:Merovingian
3085:Palaeologan
3057:Repoblación
3014:Anglo-Saxon
2945:Gallo-Roman
2884:Hellenistic
2879:Kerch style
2817:Minyan ware
2019:, pp. 53–57
1862:Aubé, p.170
1835:Aube, p.162
1661:Aubé, p.171
1639:Aubé, p.164
1630:Aubé, p.177
1552:28 November
1017:Even under
1010:across the
868:Key figures
849:Castelbuono
830:Greek cross
662:calligraphy
644:Islamic art
367:, drawn by
132:during the
128:arrived in
106:, and Arab–
5873:Arabic art
5842:Categories
5702:Jewish art
5514:Passionism
5474:iPhone art
5420:Cyborg art
5415:Crypto art
5388:Brandalism
5280:Cyberdelic
5145:Tropicália
5118:Street art
5073:Intermedia
5053:Minimalism
4772:Spatialism
4726:Postmodern
4582:Surrealism
4450:Shin-hanga
4290:Die Brücke
4258:Sonderbund
4171:Synthetism
3894:Revivalism
3803:Transition
3760:Manichaean
3606:Adam style
3527:Classicism
3466:in Utrecht
3394:Still life
3124:Romanesque
3080:Macedonian
3075:Iconoclast
3034:Visigothic
2940:Republican
2894:Indo-Greek
2864:Red-figure
2622:2080813625
2603:2737341361
2584:2262022976
2553:8874393288
2521:References
2472:Archive-It
2002:7 February
1759:2010-01-21
1734:2010-01-21
1708:2010-01-21
1343:2002153822
1280:2020057004
1199:2008-03-10
1144:. p.
1123:0701131551
1103:0786414723
882:William II
583:pilgrimage
579:Ibn Jubair
532:Old French
528:Old Norman
485:Andalusian
353:, Palermo.
184:Varangians
124:The first
110:cultures.
86:-speaking
5823:cite book
5764:Shock art
5754:Queer art
5734:Naïve art
5717:Modernism
5549:Superflat
5539:Sound art
5519:Post-YBAs
5504:Neomodern
5345:Verdadism
5315:Superflat
5164:1970–1999
5128:in the US
5048:Video art
4971:Happening
4944:1960–1969
4736:1945–1959
4399:1915–1944
4390:Vorticism
4342:A Nyolcak
4204:1900–1914
4176:Les Nabis
4107:Symbolism
4063:Amsterdam
4013:Japonisme
3983:1863–1899
3945:in Greece
3805:to modern
3650:Caribbean
3595:Goût grec
3517:Capriccio
3471:Tenebrism
3420:Turquerie
3318:Mannerism
3213:Medieval
3070:Byzantine
3051:Mozarabic
3002:Ethiopian
2906:Neo-Attic
2889:"Baroque"
2874:Classical
2844:Geometric
2822:Mycenaean
2769:(Western)
2767:Premodern
2738:Premodern
2679:216117913
2562:Amari, M.
2418:cite book
2220:cite book
2035:cite book
1535:, p. 123.
1510:Routledge
1371:Cambridge
1325:McFarland
963:Aftermath
953:Crusaders
813:masters.
369:al-Idrisi
331:William I
213:, son of
88:Christian
38:The term
5794:Category
5744:Portrait
5665:Folk art
5613:Anti-art
5544:Stuckism
5457:Idea art
5378:Art game
5330:Artivism
5218:Punk art
5196:Sots Art
5181:Artscene
5038:Land art
4976:Neo-Dada
4908:Lettrism
4802:Nuagisme
4787:Tachisme
4668:Nazi art
4461:De Stijl
4375:Rayonism
4365:Art Deco
4353:Futurism
4144:Luminism
4112:Romanian
4097:Tonalism
4068:Canadian
4046:American
3952:Neo-Grec
3560:Rocaille
3389:Romanism
3323:Counter-
3257:Trecento
3197:Duecento
3187:Crusades
3119:Ottonian
3097:Frankish
2977:Medieval
2960:Trajanic
2920:Scythian
2915:Etruscan
2807:Cycladic
2785:Thracian
2642:(1971).
2564:(2002).
2488:Archived
2468:Archived
2454:, p. 54.
2395:41167004
1775:, p. 17.
1581:Roger II
1579:Houben,
1492:(2019).
1313:"Sicily"
1250:New York
1216:Archived
1105:, p. 199
1025:See also
909:Eugenius
873:Roger II
810:Monreale
763:Damascus
686:porphyry
487:scholar
475:and the
335:Almohads
326:Roger II
301:Ifrīqiya
104:Orthodox
100:Catholic
5759:Realism
5356:present
5083:Nut Art
4886:Pop art
4824:Mono-ha
4692:The Ten
4641:Kapists
4587:Iranian
4540:Bauhaus
4334:Orphism
4280:Fauvism
4117:Russian
4007:Nihonga
3921:Verismo
3906:Realism
3840:Purismo
3753:Moorish
3748:Islamic
3655:Haitian
3446:Baroque
3325:Maniera
3209:Mudéjar
3134:Spanish
3046:Pictish
3029:Lombard
3024:Insular
2965:Severan
2930:Gaulish
2925:Iberian
2854:Archaic
2797:Nuragic
2777:Ancient
2760:periods
1019:Manfred
1008:Albania
985:Swabian
955:there.
759:Baghdad
605:eunuchs
597:viziers
479:in the
470:Fatimid
314:Algeria
310:Tunisia
280:Italian
242:Palermo
234:Messina
215:Tancred
158:in the
126:Normans
108:Islamic
5707:Kitsch
5566:Toyism
5058:Fluxus
4988:Op art
4557:Mingei
4491:Stupid
4469:Purism
4324:Cubism
3973:Modern
3765:Mughal
3555:Rococo
3160:Gothic
3141:Norman
3065:Viking
3019:Hunnic
2997:Coptic
2812:Minoan
2802:Aegean
2790:Dacian
2742:Modern
2677:
2619:
2600:
2581:
2550:
2393:
2381:: 61.
1914:, p.14
1820:
1809:
1684:
1618:
1516:
1502:London
1441:
1431:
1393:
1341:
1331:
1278:
1268:
1246:Oxford
1152:
1121:
1101:
995:Lucera
947:(with
945:Toledo
916:Optica
853:cupola
782:EB1911
720:, and
642:, and
623:Hijrah
563:Franks
544:Hebrew
520:Norman
481:Levant
429:Arabic
170:, the
96:Sicily
92:Muslim
82:- and
62:, and
52:Norman
5354:2000–
4797:COBRA
3791:Uki-e
3781:Japan
3770:Qajar
3129:Mosan
2935:Roman
2829:Greek
2675:S2CID
2391:JSTOR
1583:, 83.
1439:JSTOR
1077:Notes
847:, or
799:cross
776:"The
736:inlay
682:ivory
611:Rihla
587:Mecca
552:Hijri
540:Latin
504:Latin
473:Egypt
393:Hijri
318:Libya
254:Malta
226:emirs
180:Norse
84:Greek
80:Latin
60:Latin
5829:link
5643:Icon
4966:ZERO
4724:and
4621:Asso
4445:Dada
4002:Yōga
2744:and
2617:ISBN
2598:ISBN
2579:ISBN
2548:ISBN
2544:Caen
2424:link
2266:: 8.
2247:: 5.
2226:link
2199:: 4.
2099:: 6.
2048:help
2004:2017
1962:: 7.
1818:ISBN
1807:ISBN
1682:ISBN
1616:ISBN
1554:2016
1514:ISBN
1504:and
1429:ISBN
1391:ISBN
1373:and
1339:LCCN
1329:ISBN
1276:LCCN
1266:ISBN
1248:and
1150:ISBN
1119:ISBN
1099:ISBN
936:and
816:The
808:The
788:The
672:and
660:and
603:are
599:and
522:and
514:and
455:own.
371:for
361:The
316:and
278:(in
274:The
250:Noto
223:Arab
202:and
74:and
64:Arab
24:Tarì
2667:doi
2383:doi
1383:doi
1258:doi
1146:148
836:in
761:or
684:or
585:to
530:or
518:),
506:or
304:in
5844::
5825:}}
5821:{{
2740:,
2673:.
2663:27
2661:.
2542:.
2420:}}
2416:{{
2389:.
2379:16
2377:.
2332:^
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2245:12
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2195:.
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2097:12
2095:.
2039::
2037:}}
2033:{{
1994:.
1960:12
1958:.
1815:.
1780:^
1752:.
1508::
1496:.
1481:^
1437:.
1423::
1405:^
1389:.
1377::
1365:.
1351:^
1337:.
1323::
1319:.
1315:.
1301:^
1274:.
1264:.
1252::
1244:.
1226:^
1148:.
990:.
855:.
801:.
769:.
753:,
716:,
700:.
638:,
450::
411:,
282::
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2669::
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2625:.
2606:.
2587:.
2556:.
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2385::
2228:)
2050:)
2046:(
2006:.
1762:.
1737:.
1711:.
1690:.
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1522:.
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1385::
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1282:.
1260::
1202:.
1158:.
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676:.
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298:(
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