Water wheel - Knowledge (XXG)

2004: 1800: 747:) is a variety of overshot wheel where the water is introduced just before the summit of the wheel. In many situations, it has the advantage that the bottom of the wheel is moving in the same direction as the water in the tailrace which makes it more efficient. It also performs better than an overshot wheel in flood conditions when the water level may submerge the bottom of the wheel. It will continue to rotate until the water in the wheel pit rises quite high on the wheel. This makes the technique particularly suitable for streams that experience significant variations in flow and reduces the size, complexity, and hence cost of the tailrace. 764: 253: 1340: 434: 497: 465: 403: 1288: 336: 1532:. The decision was influenced by the fact that the buckets could catch and use even a small volume of water. For large volumes of water with small waterfalls the undershot wheel would have been used, since it was more adapted to such conditions and cheaper to construct. So long as these water supplies were abundant the question of efficiency remained irrelevant. By the 18th century, with increased demand for power coupled with limited water locales, an emphasis was made on efficiency scheme. 372: 1746: 622: 588: 533:, the horizontal wheel is a primitive and inefficient form of the modern turbine. However, if it delivers the required power then the efficiency is of secondary importance. It is usually mounted inside a mill building below the working floor. A jet of water is directed on to the paddles of the water wheel, causing them to turn. This is a simple system usually without gearing so that the vertical axle of the water wheel becomes the drive spindle of the mill. 736: 683: 511: 542: 6012: 1485:. It has been used for centuries before the technology was brought into Spain by Arabs who had adopted it from the Romans. Thus the distribution of the Noria in the Iberian peninsula "conforms to the area of stabilized Islamic settlement". This technology has a profound effect on the life of peasants. The Noria is relatively cheap to build. Thus it allowed peasants to cultivate land more efficiently in Europe. Together with the 1567: 1772:

or shroud of the wheel. A stub gear engaged the rim-gear and took the power into the mill using an independent line shaft. This removed the rotative stress from the axle which could thus be lighter, and also allowed more flexibility in the location of the power train. The shaft rotation was geared up from that of the wheel which led to less power loss. An example of this design pioneered by Thomas Hewes and refined by

1477:. At around the 8th to 10th century, a number of irrigation technologies were brought into Spain and thus introduced to Europe. One of those technologies is the Noria, which is basically a wheel fitted with buckets on the peripherals for lifting water. It is similar to the undershot water wheel mentioned later in this article. It allowed peasants to power watermills more efficiently. According to Thomas Glick's book, 828:

or a horizontal axle. The latter type can be subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into overshot, breastshot and undershot wheels. The two main functions of waterwheels were historically water-lifting for irrigation purposes and milling, particularly of grain. In case of horizontal-axle mills, a system of gears is required for power transmission, which vertical-axle mills do not need.

1437: 837: 1635: 2698: 1235: 1937: 1065: 784: 4759: 1139: 73: 1894:. Terry S. Reynolds, however, argues that the "term used in Indian texts is ambiguous and does not clearly indicate a water-powered device." Thorkild Schiøler argued that it is "more likely that these passages refer to some type of tread- or hand-operated water-lifting device, instead of a water-powered water-lifting wheel." 1327:, several installations from around 300 AD were found where vertical-axle waterwheels fitted with angled blades were installed at the bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the mill-race which entered tangentially the pit created a swirling water column that made the fully submerged wheel act like true 100: 1284:

the separate Greek inventions of the toothed gear and the waterwheel into one effective mechanical system for harnessing water power. Vitruvius' waterwheel is described as being immersed with its lower end in the watercourse so that its paddles could be driven by the velocity of the running water (X, 5.2).

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also discussed water power, noting "the blow is not weight, but excites a power of weight, almost equal to its own power". However, even realisation of the two forces, weight and impulse, confusion remained over the advantages and disadvantages of the two, and there was no clear understanding of the

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Harnessing water-power enabled gains in agricultural productivity, food surpluses and the large scale urbanization starting in the 11th century. The usefulness of water power motivated European experiments with other power sources, such as wind and tidal mills. Waterwheels influenced the construction

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to about 90 AD, and since the wood from which it was made is much older than the deep mine, it is likely that the deep workings were in operation perhaps 30–50 years after. It is clear from these examples of drainage wheels found in sealed underground galleries in widely separated locations that

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Nearly all of the energy is gained from the weight of water lowered to the tailrace although a small contribution may be made by the kinetic energy of the water entering the wheel. They are suited to larger heads than the other type of wheel so they are ideally suited to hilly countries. However even

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The kinetic energy can be accounted for by converting it into an equivalent head, the velocity head, and adding it to the actual head. For still water the velocity head is zero, and to a good approximation it is negligible for slowly moving water, and can be ignored. The velocity in the tail race is

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A recent development of the breastshot wheel is a hydraulic wheel which effectively incorporates automatic regulation systems. The Aqualienne is one example. It generates between 37 kW and 200 kW of electricity from a 20 m (710 cu ft) waterflow with a head of 1 to 3.5 m

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According to Greek historical tradition, India received water-mills from the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD when a certain Metrodoros introduced "water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then". Irrigation water for crops was provided by using water raising wheels, some driven by the

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and rim gearing. Suspension wheels are constructed in the same manner as a bicycle wheel, the rim being supported under tension from the hub- this led to larger lighter wheels than the former design where the heavy spokes were under compression. Rim-gearing entailed adding a notched wheel to the rim

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As a result of his investigations, Laessoe writes as follows on the question of the saqiya: "I consider it unlikely that any reference to the saqiya will appear in ancient Mesopotamian sources." In his opinion, we should turn our attention to Alexandria, "where it seems plausible to assume that the

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By the 11th century there were parts of Europe where the exploitation of water was commonplace. The water wheel is understood to have actively shaped and forever changed the outlook of Westerners. Europe began to transit from human and animal muscle labor towards mechanical labor with the advent of

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can be deduced from its pronounced absence from the otherwise rich oriental iconography on irrigation practices. Unlike other water-lifting devices and pumps of the period though, the invention of the compartmented wheel cannot be traced to any particular Hellenistic engineer and may have been made

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gear. While the tympanum had a large discharge capacity, it could lift the water only to less than the height of its own radius and required a large torque for rotating. These constructional deficiencies were overcome by the wheel with a compartmented rim which was a less heavy design with a higher

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In the seventh year of the Chien-Wu reign period (31 AD) Tu Shih was posted to be Prefect of Nanyang. He was a generous man and his policies were peaceful; he destroyed evil-doers and established the dignity (of his office). Good at planning, he loved the common people and wished to save their

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As in all machinery, rotary motion is more efficient in water-raising devices than oscillating motion. In terms of power source, waterwheels can be turned by either human respectively animal force or by the water current itself. Waterwheels come in two basic designs, either equipped with a vertical

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Stream wheels are cheaper and simpler to build and have less of an environmental impact than other types of wheels. They do not constitute a major change of the river. Their disadvantages are their low efficiency, which means that they generate less power and can only be used where the flow rate is

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The first clear description of a geared watermill offers the late 1st century BC Roman architect Vitruvius who tells of the sakia gearing system as being applied to a watermill. Vitruvius's account is particularly valuable in that it shows how the watermill came about, namely by the combination of

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industry in order to power various means of ore conveyance. By changing the direction of the wheel, barrels or baskets of ore could be lifted up or lowered down a shaft or inclined plane. There was usually a cable drum or a chain basket on the axle of the wheel. It is essential that the wheel have

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is used in a variety of ways. Some authors restrict the term to wheels where the water enters at about the 10 o’clock position, others 9 o’clock, and others for a range of heights. In this article it is used for wheels where the water entry is significantly above the bottom and significantly below

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A typical overshot wheel has the water channeled to the wheel at the top and slightly beyond the axle. The water collects in the buckets on that side of the wheel, making it heavier than the other "empty" side. The weight turns the wheel, and the water flows out into the tail-water when the wheel

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An undershot wheel is a vertically mounted water wheel with a horizontal axle that is rotated by the water from a low weir striking the wheel in the bottom quarter. Most of the energy gain is from the movement of the water and comparatively little from the head. They are similar in operation and

101: 1600:, beating material to a pulp. In the 13th century water mills used for hammering throughout Europe improved the productivity of early steel manufacturing. Along with the mastery of gunpowder, waterpower provided European countries worldwide military leadership from the 15th century. 296:

Overshot and pitchback water wheels are suitable where there is a small stream with a height difference of more than 2 metres (6.5 ft), often in association with a small reservoir. Breastshot and undershot wheels can be used on rivers or high volume flows with large reservoirs.

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These type of water wheels have high efficiency at part loads / variable flows and can operate at very low heads, < 1 m (3 ft 3 in). Combined with direct drive Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Alternators and power electronics they offer a viable alternative for

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The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use by the 9th century. A variety of industrial watermills were used in the Islamic world, including

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School of Civil Engineering and the Environment in the UK has investigated both types of Hydraulic wheel machines and has estimated their hydraulic efficiency and suggested improvements, i.e. The Rotary Hydraulic Pressure Machine. (Estimated maximum efficiency 85%).

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superior efficiency of weight. Prior to 1750 it was unsure as to which force was dominant and was widely understood that both forces were operating with equal inspiration amongst one another. The waterwheel sparked questions of the laws of nature, specifically the

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A special type of overshot/backshot wheel is the reversible water wheel. This has two sets of blades or buckets running in opposite directions so that it can turn in either direction depending on which side the water is directed. Reversible wheels were used in the

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Millwrights distinguished between the two forces, impulse and weight, at work in water wheels long before 18th-century Europe. Fitzherbert, a 16th-century agricultural writer, wrote "druieth the wheel as well as with the weight of the water as with strengthe ".

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A parallel development is the hydraulic wheel/part reaction turbine that also incorporates a weir into the centre of the wheel but uses blades angled to the water flow. The WICON-Stem Pressure Machine (SPM) exploits this flow. Estimated efficiency 67%.

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as a source of water, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Fulling mills and steel mills may have spread from Islamic Spain to Christian Spain in the 12th century. Industrial water mills were also employed in large

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A stream wheel is a vertically mounted water wheel that is rotated by the water in a water course striking paddles or blades at the bottom of the wheel. This type of water wheel is the oldest type of horizontal axis wheel. They are also known as

1311:(ca. 99–55 BC) who likens the rotation of the waterwheel to the motion of the stars on the firmament (V 516). The third horizontal-axled type, the breastshot waterwheel, comes into archaeological evidence by the late 2nd century AD context in 2779:

can be measured by the pooh sticks method, timing a floating object over a measured distance. The water at the surface moves faster than water nearer to the bottom and sides so a correction factor should be applied as in the formula below.

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A vertically mounted water wheel that is rotated by water entering buckets just past the top of the wheel is said to be overshot. The term is sometimes, erroneously, applied to backshot wheels, where the water goes down behind the wheel.

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not taken into account because for a perfect wheel the water would leave with zero energy which requires zero velocity. That is impossible, the water has to move away from the wheel, and represents an unavoidable cause of inefficiency.

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focused path, for instance water supply and irrigation technology was combined to modify supply power of the wheel. Illustrating the extent to which there was a great degree of technological innovation that met the growing needs of the

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The sudden appearance of literary and archaological evidence for the compartmented wheel in the third century B.C. stand in marked contrast to the complete absence of earlier testimony, suggesting that the device was invented not long

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After the spread of Islam engineers of the Islamic world continued the water technologies of the ancient Near East; as evident in the excavation of a canal in the Basra region with remains of a water wheel dating from the 7th century.

940:), thus increasing the efficiency ten times. Afterwards the power of animals—donkeys, mules, oxen, and horses—was applied by means of machinery, and water-power too used for pounding, so that the benefit was increased a hundredfold. 1520:" or Doomsday survey, took an inventory of all potentially taxable property in England, which included over six thousand mills spread across three thousand different locations, up from less than a hundred in the previous century. 2265:, the horizontal waterwheel creating slightly more than one-half of a horsepower, the undershot vertical waterwheel produced about three horsepower, and the medieval overshot waterwheel produced up to forty to sixty horsepower. 1541:

the water wheel. Medievalist Lynn White Jr. contended that the spread of inanimate power sources was eloquent testimony to the emergence of the West of a new attitude toward, power, work, nature, and above all else technology.

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gear, which is here for the first time attested, too. The Greek sakia gear system is already shown fully developed to the point that "modern Egyptian devices are virtually identical". It is assumed that the scientists of the

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works. During medieval times, the diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an advanced irrigation system which bought about economic growth and also helped in the growth of material culture.

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is much greater than the diameter of the turbine, whereas a water wheel cannot effectively harness head greater than its diameter. The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years.

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a series of sixteen overshot wheels was fed by an artificial aqueduct, a proto-industrial grain factory which has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".

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Breastshot wheels are less efficient than overshot and backshot wheels but they can handle high flow rates and consequently high power. They are preferred for steady, high-volume flows such as are found on the

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Australia has a relatively dry climate, nonetheless, where suitable water resources were available, water wheels were constructed in 19th-century Australia. These were used to power sawmills, flour mills, and

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Overshot wheels require a large head compared to other types of wheel which usually means significant investment in constructing the headrace. Sometimes the final approach of the water to the wheel is along a

2874: 4636: 1968:, although they are no longer in use. One of the largest had a diameter of about 20 metres (66 ft) and its rim was divided into 120 compartments. Another wheel that is still in operation is found at 1469:. Grist mills (for grain) were undoubtedly the most common, but there were also sawmills, fulling mills and mills to fulfil many other labour-intensive tasks. The water wheel remained competitive with the 987:) for the casting of (iron) agricultural implements. Those who smelted and cast already had the push-bellows to blow up their charcoal fires, and now they were instructed to use the rushing of the water ( 2791:

From the cross sectional area and the velocity. They must be measured at the same place but that can be anywhere in the head or tail races. It must have the same amount of water going through it as the

1902:, predating, according to Pacey, its use in the later Roman Empire or China, even though the first literary, archaeological and pictorial evidence of the water wheel appeared in the Hellenistic world. 1221:

in the 1930s when the mine was briefly re-opened. It was found about 160 feet below the surface, so must have been part of a similar sequence as that discovered at Rio Tinto. It has recently been

1315:. Most excavated Roman watermills were equipped with one of these wheels which, although more complex to construct, were much more efficient than the vertical-axle waterwheel. In the 2nd century AD 137:

arranged on the outside rim forming the driving car. Water wheels were still in commercial use well into the 20th century, but they are no longer in common use today. Uses included milling flour in

55: 1110:(91.43−44), Philo advises the use of such wheels for submerging siege mines as a defensive measure against enemy sapping. Compartmented wheels appear to have been the means of choice for draining 59: 58: 54: 53: 60: 1996:

in Iraq that could lift as much as 153,000 litres per hour (34,000 imp gal/h), or 2,550 litres per minute (560 imp gal/min). This is comparable to the output of modern norias in

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Fu Hsi invented the pestle and mortar, which is so useful, and later on it was cleverly improved in such a way that the whole weight of the body could be used for treading on the tilt-hammer (

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concludes that the Akkadian passages "are counched in terms too general too allow any conclusion as to the excat structure" of the irrigation apparatus, and states that "the latest official

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Overshot and backshot water wheels are typically used where the available height difference is more than a couple of meters. Breastshot wheels are more suited to large flows with a moderate

1249:, the British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis dates the appearance of the vertical-axle watermill to the early 3rd century BC, and the horizontal-axle watermill to around 240 BC, with 3154: 1645:

The water wheel was a driving force behind the earliest stages of industrialization in Britain. Water-powered reciprocating devices were used in trip hammers and blast furnace bellows.

1457:, in particular, made extensive use of water wheels to power watermills of many kinds. An early example of a very large water wheel is the still extant wheel at the early 13th century 102: 4486: 2179:

in the 16th century described many inventive water-raising machines in their technological treatises. They also employed water wheels to power a variety of devices, including various

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The type of water wheel selected was dependent upon the location. Generally if only small volumes of water and high waterfalls were available a millwright would choose to use an

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It is no surprise that all the water-lifting devices that depend on subdivided wheels or cylinders originate in the sophisticated, scientifically advanced Hellenistic period, ...

3034: 1079:) and the wheel with compartmented rim or a rim with separate, attached containers. The wheels could be either turned by men treading on its outside or by animals by means of a 57: 1656:

water wheel near Manchester. A high breastshot design, it was retired in 1904 and replaced with several turbines. It has now been restored and is a museum open to the public.

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The water mill was used for grinding grain, producing flour for bread, malt for beer, or coarse meal for porridge. Hammermills used the wheel to operate hammers. One type was

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The biggest working water wheel in mainland Britain has a diameter of 15.4 m (51 ft) and was built by the De Winton company of Caernarfon. It is located within the

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in Devon, UK. The head race is the overhead timber structure and a branch to the left supplies water to the wheel. The water exits from under the wheel back into the stream.

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wheels with their improved efficiency (>67%) opened up an alternative path for the installation of water wheels in existing mills, or redevelopment of abandoned mills.

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Dotted notation. A dot above the quantity indicates that it is a rate. In other how much each second or how much per second. In this article q is a volume of water and

924:). Although the author speaks of the mythological Fu Xi, a passage of his writing gives hint that the water wheel was in widespread use by the 1st century AD in 2563: 2528: 2321: 2294: 674:

of the North American East Coast. Breastshot wheels are the most common type in the United States of America and are said to have powered the industrial revolution.

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The direction of rotation of a backshot wheel is the same as that of a breastshot wheel but in other respects, it is very similar to the overshot wheel. See below.

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Smeaton, "An Experimental Inquiry Concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills, and Other Machines, depending on Circular Motion," Royal Society,

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sufficient. A typical flat board undershot wheel uses about 20 percent of the energy in the flow of water striking the wheel as measured by English civil engineer

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The latter can be subdivided according to where the water hits the wheel into backshot (pitch-back), overshot, breastshot, undershot, and stream-wheels. The term

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Some wheels are overshot at the top and backshot at the bottom thereby potentially combining the best features of both types. The photograph shows an example at

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Water wheels were used extensively in New Zealand. The well-preserved remains of the Young Australian mine's overshot water wheel exist near the ghost town of

5918: 1209:, one system involving 16 such wheels stacked above one another so as to lift water about 80 feet from the mine sump. Part of such a wheel was found at 1458: 1414:(c. 630). As for the use in a common Norse or Greek mill, the oldest known horizontal-wheels were excavated in the Irish Ballykilleen, dating to c. 636. 5879: 1756:

Water wheels were used to power sawmills, grist mills and for other purposes during development of the United States. The 40 feet (12 m) diameter

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Lucas, A.R. (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".

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was finally introduced when the wooden compartments were replaced with inexpensive ceramic pots that were tied to the outside of an open-framed wheel.

991:) to operate it ... Thus the people got great benefit for little labor. They found the 'water(-powered) bellows' convenient and adopted it widely. 4587:, ed Charles Ravaisson-Moilien (Paris, 1889), vol.4; cf, Codex Madrid, vol. 1, 69r , trans. And transcribed by Ladislao Reti (New York, 1974), vol. 4. 107: 5659:

Quaranta Emanuele, Revelli Roberto (2015), "Performance characteristics, power losses and mechanical power estimation for a breastshot water wheel",

4971:(Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. A.D. 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then". 2096:

The engineers of the Islamic world developed several solutions to achieve the maximum output from a water wheel. One solution was to mount them to

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in 48 BC tells of how Caesar's enemies employed geared waterwheels to pour sea water from elevated places on the position of the trapped Romans.

56: 5308: 3896: 1622:'s work on water wheels used an analysis of Galileo's work on falling bodies, that the velocity of a water sprouting from an orifice under its 5800: 5728: 5692: 5650: 5556: 5084: 5060: 4668: 3981: 3504: 5168: 2759:

is calculated from the velocity of the water in the head race at the same place as the pressure head is measured from. The velocity (speed)

5945: 5564:, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority, archived from 4637:"Hydro Power from the Early Modern to the Industrial Age: Ca. 1500–1850 - Electricity & Alternative Energy - Alberta's Energy Heritage" 708: 2257:

is how fast that energy is delivered which is determined by the flow rate. It has been estimated that the ancient donkey or slave-powered

1360:, the earliest of its kind. The first mention of paddle wheels as a means of propulsion comes from the 4th–5th century military treatise 5738: 5132: 1984:

is otherwise virtually unchanged. Some medieval Islamic compartmented water wheels could lift water as high as 30 metres (100 ft).

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of cities, more specifically canals. The techniques that developed during this early period such as stream jamming and the building of

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braking equipment to be able to stop the wheel (known as a braking wheel). The oldest known drawing of a reversible water wheel was by

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Ancient water-wheel technology continued unabated in the early medieval period where the appearance of new documentary genres such as

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of the 3rd to 2nd century BC mention the use of these wheels, but do not give further details. The non-existence of the device in the

3543: 666:('screen' in British English) to prevent debris from jamming between the wheel and the apron and potentially causing serious damage. 6001: 5713: 5632: 5618: 5604: 5590: 5549: 5535: 5465: 5413: 3863: 3712: 3629: 3470: 2155:

mechanism, which is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine, was invented by Ibn Bassal (

1375: 371: 3558: 2000:, which can lift up to 288,000 litres per hour (63,000 imp gal/h), or 4,800 litres per minute (1,100 imp gal/min). 695:

rotates enough to invert the buckets. The overshot design is very efficient, it can achieve 90%, and does not require rapid flow.

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building water wheels was well within their capabilities, and such verticals water wheels commonly used for industrial purposes.

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observed water-raising wheels and imagined such a wheel lifting enough water to replenish the stream driving it, effectively, a

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for the same amount of water so the reservoirs for overshot and backshot wheels tend to be smaller than for breast shot wheels.

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a masonry "apron" closely conforming to the wheel face, which helps contain the water in the buckets as they progress downwards

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can refer to any wheel where the water passes under the wheel but it usually implies that the water entry is low on the wheel.

215:'s scientific investigation of the water wheel led to significant increases in efficiency, supplying much-needed power for the 5206: 1931: 5425:

Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology",

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and for working iron into useful shapes, an activity that was otherwise labour-intensive. The water wheel was also used in

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The main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water, which limits where they can be located. Modern

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Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered",

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force of the current in the river from which the water was being raised. This kind of water raising device was used in

920:

was the one responsible for the pestle and mortar, which evolved into the tilt-hammer and then trip hammer device (see

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is undershot, backshot, and overshot using two sources of water. This allows the direction of the wheel to be reversed.

763: 252: 6100: 6090: 4168: 2048:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial watermills in operation, from 1824: 1131: 671: 31: 5911:

Guide to the Water Wheel Construction: A Thesis Presented to N.C. College of Agri. and Mech. Arts by L. T. Yarbrough

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that could work on very low heads, which was commercialized and became popular by late 1830s. Other designs, as the

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can be viewed as the descendants of the water wheel, as they too take advantage of the movement of water downhill.

1690:. It is 72 feet 6 inches (22.10 m) in diameter and 6 feet (1.83 m) wide and is maintained by 1159:, at the time the most active Greek research center, may have been involved in its invention. An episode from the 4102:

is interpreted as an metaphor referring to the digging of irrigation channels rather than treading a waterwheel (

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used to crush gold-bearing ore. Notable examples of water wheels used in gold recovery operations were the large

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became common in estuaries with a good tidal range in both Europe and America generally using undershot wheels.

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is a volume of water per second. q, as in quantity of water, is used to avoid confusion with v for velocity.

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Science and Civilization in China – Vol. 4: Physics and physical technology – Part 2: Mechanical engineering

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led to decreased popularity of water wheels. The main advantage of turbines is that its ability to harness

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The water hits near the top of the wheel and in front of the axle so that it turns away from the head race

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The earliest literary reference to a water-driven, compartmented wheel appears in the technical treatise

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The water hits the wheel roughly central, typically between one quarter and three quarters of the height.

6085: 4660: 4126:, found in handbooks and popular accounts, are for the most part based on the false assumption that the 1859: 1836: 1698: 1664: 1626:

was exactly equivalent to the velocity a drop of water acquired in falling freely from the same height.

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The water hits near the top of the wheel and before the axle so that it turns back towards the head race

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Siddiqui, Iqtidar Husain (1986). "Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times".

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Apart from its use in milling and water-raising, ancient engineers applied the paddled waterwheel for

1287: 1006:(78–139) was the first in history to apply motive power in rotating the astronomical instrument of an 3813: 3326: 2655: 2355: 2112: 1816: 1803: 1722: 1702: 1312: 792: 290: 224: 5279: 3885: 6110: 5931: 4967:

This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to

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Structures of Change in the Mechanical Age: Technological Invention in the United States 1790–1865

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is the difference in height between the head race and tail race water surfaces. The velocity head

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machine. The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in

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The small clearance between the wheel and the masonry requires that a breastshot wheel has a good

568:

Stream wheels mounted on floating platforms are often referred to as hip wheels and the mill as a

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Excavations of a Mill at Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project

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It is sometimes practicable to measure the volume flow rate by the bucket and stop watch method.

579:

Historically they were very inefficient but major advances were made in the eighteenth century.

129:. A water wheel consists of a wheel (usually constructed from wood or metal), with a number of 4855: 3757: 3678: 3652: 3593: 3582: 3496: 3490: 1839:, constructed in 1847, was the first machine used to extract energy—for flour milling—from the 621: 5796: 5779: 5742: 5724: 5709: 5688: 5680: 5646: 5638: 5628: 5614: 5600: 5586: 5545: 5531: 5461: 5409: 5202: 5129: 5080: 5056: 4664: 4157: 4127: 3977: 3859: 3795: 3625: 3500: 3466: 1820: 1646: 1610: 1366:(chapter XVII), where the anonymous Roman author describes an ox-driven paddle-wheel warship. 1362: 1356:

and in navigation. Vitruvius (X 9.5–7) describes multi-geared paddle wheels working as a ship

1345: 1273: 1202: 1194: 1127: 970: 806: 587: 156:

Some water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a flowing stream is

91: 3462: 1760:, built in 1922, is a surviving one out of many which lifted water for irrigation out of the 1056:

praised the water wheel for freeing women from the exhausting labor of milling and grinding.

707:, only utilises a head of around 30 m (100 ft). The world's largest head turbines, 289:, a reservoir for storing water and hence energy until it is needed. Larger heads store more 6020: 5962: 5828: 5760: 5668: 5507: 5476: 5430: 5052: 4762:

Text is licensed by State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) under

4495: 3787: 3338: 2784: 2538: 2503: 2467: 2303: 2276: 2242: 2213:

wheel can be more efficient (about 60%) than all but the most advanced and well-constructed

2201:(3 to 11 ft). It is designed to produce electricity at the sites of former watermills. 1918: 1910: 1899: 1875: 1733: 1653: 1623: 1426: 1007: 949: 836: 735: 682: 656: 510: 324: 279: 241: 229: 196: 192: 5861: 2735: 2708: 1701:, in the first half of the 19th century engineers started to design better wheels. In 1823 1072:

The compartmented water wheel comes in two basic forms, the wheel with compartmented body (

6029: 6011: 5905: 5892: 5883: 5136: 2683: 2411: 2254: 1847: 1660: 1576: 1324: 1307:, which praises it as a labour-saving device (IX, 418.4–6). The motif is also taken up by 1160: 1147: 541: 86: 5812:(1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", 5231: 1150:

which dates to the 2nd century BC. It shows a pair of yoked oxen driving the wheel via a

5109:

Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering

3698:

The History of Science and Technology by Bryan Bunch with Alexander Hellmans p. 114

2663: 2598: 2573: 2475: 2447: 2419: 2391: 2363: 2335: 1823:—one of at least seven water wheels in the surrounding area—and the two water wheels at 27:

Machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power

6034: 5148: 3618: 3562: 2762: 2495: 2245:– depends on the change in height of the water between entry to and exit from the wheel 2236: 2041: 1961: 1941: 1887: 1761: 1710: 1706: 1571: 1566: 1529: 1502: 1021:

once used a water wheel to power and operate a large mechanical puppet theater for the

850: 652: 219:. Water wheels began being displaced by the smaller, less expensive and more efficient 2104:

to take advantage of the increased flow. Another solution was the shipmill, a type of

1185:

designed for dewatering deep underground mines. Several such devices are described by

1135:

in the late 4th century BC in a rural context away from the metropolis of Alexandria.

565:

Stream wheels gain little or no advantage from the head, a difference in water level.

421:

Driving surfaces – buckets – carefully shaped to ensure that the water enters smoothly

6079: 6054: 6039: 5848: 5519: 5450: 3455: 3348: 2565: 2530: 2221: 2214: 2069: 1965: 1945: 1878:

is obscure. Ancient Indian texts dating back to the 4th century BC refer to the term

1729: 1714: 1615: 1550: 1498: 1328: 1257:

as the assigned places of invention. A watermill is reported by the Greek geographer

961: 862: 858: 772: 2209:

Overshot (and particularly backshot) wheels are the most efficient type; a backshot

644:

buckets ventilated with holes in the side to allow air to escape as the water enters

6049: 3343: 2061: 2053: 1593: 1555: 1470: 1436: 1222: 855: 576:

where the flow restriction of the bridge piers increased the speed of the current.

559: 551: 347: 212: 188: 146: 5795:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, 5687:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 217–302, 5196: 3441: 1850:, were used not as sources of power but to measure water flows to irrigated land. 1634: 1410:, while the first known horizontal-wheel in such a type of mill is from the Irish 168:; the one carrying water after it has left the wheel is commonly referred to as a 44:

This article is about water power. For water-lifting irrigation water wheels, see

5672: 5330: 3997: 1976:, La Nora, and although the original wheel has been replaced by a steel one, the 1280:, but its exact construction cannot be gleaned from the text (XII, 3, 30 C 556). 227:, beginning with his first model in 1827. Turbines are capable of handling high 5991: 5986: 5910: 5359: 4123: 4095: 3971: 3791: 3382: 2258: 2180: 2057: 1906: 1840: 1832: 1687: 1675: 1638: 1597: 1589: 1418: 1392: 1303:

About the same time, the overshot wheel appears for the first time in a poem by

921: 877:(476-221 BC). It says that the waterwheel was invented by Zigong, a disciple of 870: 712: 704: 700: 609:

wheels where paddles are placed into the flow of a stream. See the stream above.

204: 142: 4763: 5996: 5954: 4829: 4805: 3780:

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Engineering Sustainability

2697: 2296: 2262: 2168: 2160: 2105: 2090: 2065: 2049: 2037: 2033: 1981: 1812: 1784: 1768: 1652:

The most powerful water wheel built in the United Kingdom was the 100 hp

1451: 1395:

was accompanied with a sharp increase in references to watermills and wheels.

1381: 1296: 1254: 1234: 1210: 1177:

projects, with enormous Roman-era waterwheels found in places like modern-day

1119: 1115: 1003: 929: 845: 663: 81: 5643:

Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology

5198:

Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages

5185:

For a discussion of the different types of water wheels, see Syson, pp. 76–91

3799: 1831:

once had at least two water wheels, one of which was rolled to its site from

956:(d. 38), applied a complex use of the water wheel and machinery to power the 5782:(1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", 5764: 5480: 4398:

De Rebus Bellicis (anon.), chapter XVII, text edited by Robert Ireland, in:

3353: 2184: 2172: 2140: 2120: 2045: 2021: 1997: 1490: 1486: 1454: 1430: 1429:

which has been dated to 787, although a possible earlier mill dates to 619.

1403: 1399: 1385: 1353: 1308: 1250: 1245:

Taking indirect evidence into account from the work of the Greek technician

1238: 1214: 1186: 965: 913: 898: 878: 841: 818: 569: 234: 161: 138: 126: 38: 5511: 1936: 1146:

The earliest depiction of a compartmented wheel is from a tomb painting in

1064: 149:, machining, ore crushing and pounding fibre for use in the manufacture of 17: 4471:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007). pp. 31–2b. 783: 599:

The term undershot is sometimes used with related but different meanings:

5597:

Wasserräder mit Kropfgerinne: Berechnungsgrundlagen und neue Erkenntnisse

4968: 4904: 2618: 2439: 2383: 2152: 1835:, on its rim using a novel trolley arrangement, taking nearly 90 days. A 1517: 1357: 1111: 1048:

The technological breakthrough occurred in the technologically developed

909: 894: 724: 554:

wheels because the water is not constrained by millraces or wheel pits.

390:

Driving surfaces – blades – flat prior to 18th century, curved thereafter

359:

Driving surfaces – blades – flat prior to 18th century, curved thereafter

286: 65: 4862:, Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University 889:

were using water wheels to crush grain in mills and to power the piston-

5866: 5840: 5442: 4758: 4686:"The Garfield water wheel: hydraulic power on the Victorian goldfields" 4507: 4134:

and denotes an instrument for watering ("instrument for making moist").

2323: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2086: 2077: 2029: 2012: 1585: 1445: 1407: 1388: 1258: 1138: 1018: 957: 945: 890: 573: 220: 160:. A channel for the water flowing to or from a water wheel is called a 118: 5486:

Hill, D.R. (1991) "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",

4528:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007). p. 33. 72: 4541:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007). p. 34 2116: 2101: 2025: 2008: 1969: 1914: 1863: 1788: 1546: 1494: 1482: 1462: 1198: 1174: 1123: 999:

found practical uses such as this, as well as extraordinary use. The

953: 801: 164:. The race bringing water from the mill pond to the water wheel is a 134: 5832: 5791:

Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),

5434: 4524:. Baltimore; Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Robert, Friedel, 4499: 4572:

Certain Ancient Tracts Concerning the Management of Landed Property

2217:. In some situations an overshot wheel is preferable to a turbine. 739:

Backshot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, water, and spillage

686:

Overshot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, water, and spillage

282:. Undershot and stream wheel use large flows at little or no head. 5821:

Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy",

5702:

Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel

5408:, Manchester: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 4522:

Stronger than a Hundred Men; A History of the Vertical Water Wheel

3370: 3365: 2696: 2327: 2239:– depends on how fast the water is moving when it enters the wheel 2210: 2164: 2002: 1993: 1977: 1973: 1957: 1935: 1891: 1744: 1683: 1668: 1633: 1565: 1466: 1435: 1338: 1233: 1218: 1206: 1178: 1167: 1151: 1137: 1080: 1073: 1063: 996: 925: 917: 882: 835: 822: 782: 762: 720: 562:

in the 18th century. More modern wheels have higher efficiencies.

387:

The water hits the wheel low down, typically in the bottom quarter

251: 150: 130: 122: 97: 71: 50: 45: 5704:, Johns Hopkins studies in the history of technology: New Series 3553: 3551: 5919:

Foundry Patterns for 18 different Welsh waterwheel shrouds- 2015

2869:{\displaystyle P=\eta \cdot \rho \cdot g\cdot h\cdot {\dot {q}}} 2701:

Parameters for measuring the head and flow rate of a water wheel

2132: 2128: 2124: 2109: 2097: 2073: 1953: 881:

in the 5th century BC. By at least the 1st century AD, the

396:

Efficiency – about 20% prior to 18th century and later 50 to 60%

365:

Efficiency – about 20% prior to 18th century and later 50 to 60%

5927: 1343:

Ox-powered Roman paddle wheel boat from a 15th-century copy of

641:

buckets carefully shaped to minimize turbulence as water enters

175:

Waterwheels were used for various purposes from things such as

5971: 5871: 4554:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007) 3711:

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (December 2006).

2136: 2081: 869:

The earliest waterwheel working like a lever was described by

157: 5923: 5611:

Wasserräder mit Freihang: Entwurfs- und Berechnungsgrundlagen

3495:. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 1862:, and those of the Phoenix flour mill's water wheel are near 1717:

was working on a radically different machine which he called

1272:) to have existed sometime before 71 BC in the palace of the 237:, that exceed the capability of practical-sized waterwheels. 5460:, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 4171:

reports meanings not related to types of irrigation system".

5429:, vol. 52, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 52, pp. 1–17, 1570:

Ore stamp mill (behind worker taking ore from chute). From

916:), it states that the legendary mythological king known as 625:

Breastshot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, and water

37:"Headrace" redirects here. For the rowing competition, see 5627:, 1st MIT Press ed., Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT, 5049:

Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology

4154:

Water architecture in the lands of Syria: the water-wheels

591:

Undershot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, and water

572:. They were sometimes mounted immediately downstream from 5872:

WaterHistory.org Several articles concerning water wheels

5625:

Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History

4781:"Water-Powered Flourmills in Nineteenth-Century Tasmania" 4657:

Portland Basin and the archaeology of the Canal Warehouse

4598:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

4437: 4435: 5753:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

5372: 5077:

A history of engineering in classical and medieval times

4194: 4192: 1827:; some remnants exist at both sites. The mining area at 1787:

used in the American Northwest and Alaska, which lifted

4487:

Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology

4100:

where you sowed your seed and watered it with your feet

211:, but also elsewhere. In the mid- to late 18th century 5404:

al-Hassani, S.T.S., Woodcock, E. and Saoud, R. (2006)

4999: 4386: 4354: 4326: 4314: 4298: 4238: 3521:"Types of Water Wheels – The Physics of a Water Wheel" 2232:

The energy available to the wheel has two components:

5311:. M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies. p. 44 3403: 3272: 3221: 3168: 3115: 3048: 3001: 2940: 2888: 2823: 2765: 2738: 2711: 2666: 2629: 2601: 2576: 2541: 2506: 2478: 2450: 2422: 2394: 2366: 2338: 2306: 2279: 4484:

Howard, Robert A. (1983). "Primer on Water Wheels".

2593:

velocity correction factor. 0.9 for smooth channels.

2115:

in midstream. This technique was employed along the

1674:

The largest working water wheel in the world is the

606:

wheels where the water enters in the bottom quarter.

356:

The bottom of the wheel is placed into flowing water

6019: 5961: 5406:

1001 inventions : Muslim heritage in our world

4626:, ed. Gino Loria and Giuseppe Vassura (Rome, 1919.) 4613:, ed. Gino Loria and Giuseppe Vassura (Rome, 1919.) 4179: 4177: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4019: 4017: 3998:"Antipater of Thessalonica: Epigrams - translation" 3836: 3834: 3773:"The breastshot waterwheel: design and model tests" 3457:

Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution

1886:(machine with wheel-pots attached). On this basis, 3617: 3454: 3418: 3293: 3252: 3183: 3148: 3073: 3028: 2981: 2920: 2868: 2771: 2751: 2724: 2675: 2647: 2610: 2585: 2557: 2522: 2487: 2459: 2431: 2403: 2375: 2347: 2315: 2288: 1481:, the Noria probably originated from somewhere in 5977:List of conventional hydroelectric power stations 1440:Water wheel powering a small village mill at the 613:This is the oldest type of vertical water wheel. 603:all wheels where the water passes under the wheel 317:A jet of water strikes blades mounted on the axle 30:"Waterwheel" redirects here. For other uses, see 5528:Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power 2108:powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of 1725:designed the first commercial one in the 1830s. 121:for converting the energy of flowing or falling 5877:Computer simulation of an undershot water wheel 5679:Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in 4965: 4137: 4120: 4080: 3956: 2982:{\displaystyle h_{v}={\frac {v^{2}}{2\cdot g}}} 1882:(turning wheel), which commentaries explain as 983:labor. He invented a water-power reciprocator ( 5899:Computer simulation of an overshot water wheel 3715:. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers 3620:Ingenium: Five Machines That Changed the World 3484: 3482: 2163:; he pioneered the use of the flywheel in the 1776:can be seen at the 1849 restored wheel at the 1641:, Laxey, Isle of Man, used to drive mine pumps 1442:Museum of Folk Architecture and Life, Uzhhorod 1241:' undershot-wheeled watermill (reconstruction) 1197:. Many were found during modern mining at the 1052:between the 3rd and 1st century BC. A poem by 715:, utilise about 1,869 m (6,132 ft). 5939: 5708:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 5302: 5300: 3814:"What type of water wheel is most efficient?" 3149:{\displaystyle P=7000\cdot {\dot {q}}\cdot h} 1749:The suspension wheel with rim-gearing at the 1649:'s water frame was powered by a water wheel. 1417:The earliest excavated water wheel driven by 8: 5475:, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, 5401:. vol. 163. No. 4. (Jan., 1994), p. 197 4661:University of Manchester Archaeological Unit 4463: 4461: 4459: 3706: 3704: 3672: 3670: 5458:Irrigation and society in medieval Valencia 4880:"Watermills and waterwheels of New Zealand" 2064:. Muslim and Christian engineers also used 1508:Domesday inventory of English mills c. 1086 1479:Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia 1173:The Romans used waterwheels extensively in 1068:Sequence of wheels found in Rio Tinto mines 912:about 20 AD (during the usurpation of 350:). Ship wheels are a type of stream wheel. 264:a horizontal wheel with a vertical axle; or 5946: 5932: 5924: 1459:Real Monasterio de Nuestra Senora de Rueda 5354: 5352: 5201:. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 115. 4479: 4477: 4156:, L'Erma di Bretschneider, pp. 48f, 3879: 3877: 3875: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3273: 3271: 3244: 3220: 3169: 3167: 3129: 3128: 3114: 3061: 3047: 3003: 3002: 3000: 2960: 2954: 2945: 2939: 2912: 2899: 2887: 2855: 2854: 2822: 2764: 2743: 2737: 2716: 2710: 2665: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2600: 2575: 2546: 2540: 2511: 2505: 2477: 2449: 2421: 2393: 2365: 2337: 2305: 2278: 944:In the year 31 AD, the engineer and 659:(height and weight) energy are utilised. 518:A horizontal wheel with a vertical axle. 108:Manchester Museum of Science and Industry 5544:, 4th Ed., New York : McGraw-Hill, 5003: 4961: 4745:Department of Planning & Environment 4441: 4411: 4382: 4342: 4310: 4294: 4258: 4254: 4234: 4130:equivalent of the logogram GIS.APIN was 4116: 3948: 3360:For devices to lift water for irrigation 3201: 3095: 2803: 1798: 1588:, which was used for cloth making. The 1286: 734: 681: 620: 586: 540: 509: 304: 267:a vertical wheel with a horizontal axle. 260:Water wheels come in two basic designs: 5255:"Estimating Discharge and Stream Flows" 5232:"Float Method for Estimating Discharge" 5226: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5218: 4929:"Water wheel of mill nears restoration" 4740:New South Wales State Heritage Register 4684:Davies, Peter; Lawrence, Susan (2013). 3970:Jahren, Per; Sui, Tongbo (2016-11-22). 3461:. University of Toronto Press. p. 3434: 3377:Devices to lift water for land drainage 3253:{\displaystyle P=100\cdot A\cdot v^{3}} 3184:{\displaystyle {\frac {21}{\sqrt {D}}}} 3074:{\displaystyle v=k\cdot {\frac {d}{t}}} 978:) as follows (in Wade-Giles spelling): 199:. Waterwheels saw continued use in the 125:into useful forms of power, often in a 5721:Roman and Islamic Water-Lifting Wheels 4995: 4991: 4427: 4415: 4378: 4366: 4330: 4282: 4270: 4242: 4222: 4210: 4198: 4183: 4122:References to water-wheels in ancient 4103: 4076: 4064: 4047: 4035: 4023: 3952: 3840: 1874:The early history of the watermill in 183:in ancient civilizations spanning the 106:The sound of the Otley waterwheel, at 4856:"Dethridge, John Stewart (1865–1926)" 4735:"Adelong Falls Gold Workings/Reserve" 4659:. Tameside Metropolitan Borough with 3308:Hydraulic wheel part reaction turbine 3294:{\displaystyle {\frac {9\cdot v}{D}}} 2093:between the 11th and 13th centuries. 1707:very efficient undershot wheel design 968:. Du Shi is mentioned briefly in the 314:Horizontal wheel with a vertical axis 7: 5793:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology 5685:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology 5540:Morton, W.S. and Lewis, C.M. (2005) 5253:Michaud, Joy P.; Wierenga, Marlies. 5195:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (1994). 5169:"Comment fonctionne une Aqualienne?" 5000:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4387:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4355:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4327:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4315:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4299:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4239:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002 4098:(11.10−11) about Egypt as a country 2533:, the difference in water levels (m) 1402:is from 6th-century Killoteran near 767:One of Finch Foundry's water wheels. 709:Bieudron Hydroelectric Power Station 634:the top, typically the middle half. 5891:painting with explanatory text, at 4788:Australasian Historical Archaeology 4693:Australasian Historical Archaeology 4585:Les manuscrits de Leonardo da Vinci 3902:from the original on 14 April 2022. 3442:Dictionary definition of "tailrace" 3029:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}=A\cdot v} 2783:There are many ways to measure the 1713:, followed later. At the same time 1142:Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines 478:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle 446:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle 424:Water – large volume, moderate head 415:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle 384:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle 353:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle 4860:Australian Dictionary of Biography 4115:As for a Mesopotamian connection: 4094:An isolated passage in the Hebrew 1665:National Slate Museum in Llanberis 362:Water – very large volume, no head 311:also known as tub or Norse mills. 25: 6002:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity 5889:Persian Wheel in India, 1814–1815 5827:, vol. 92, , pp. 1–32, 5362:. British Hydropower Association. 4583:Leonardo da Vinci, MS F, 44r, in 3559:"Stream wheel term and specifics" 2261:of Rome made about one-half of a 1890:suggested that the machine was a 1398:The earliest vertical-wheel in a 1376:List of early medieval watermills 1091:(chap. 61) of the Greek engineer 6010: 5786:, vol. 10, pp. 151–179 5775:, London : Batsford, 176 p. 4757: 2470:(9.81 m/s = 9.81 N/kg) 2127:, where large shipmills made of 2076:in watermills and water-raising 1992:in the 10th century described a 1461:, a Cistercian monastery in the 495: 463: 432: 401: 370: 334: 5982:Pumped-storage hydroelectricity 5816:, vol. 8, pp. 499–510 5645:, University of Toronto Press, 3771:Müller, G.; Wolter, C. (2004). 3213:Power (assuming 20% efficiency) 3107:Power (assuming 70% efficiency) 1846:Compact water wheels, known as 1562:Applications of the water wheel 1516:, commonly referred to as the " 1489:, the technology spread to the 1299:, powered by a breastshot wheel 1026: 1010:, by use of a water wheel. The 77: 5585:, Cambridge University Press, 5542:China: Its History and Culture 5234:. United States Forest Service 5075:Donald Routledge Hill (1996), 4905:"Young Australian Water Wheel" 3973:How Water Influences Our Lives 3858:. Springer. 22 November 2016. 3855:How Water Influences Our Lives 3655:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc 1932:Muslim Agricultural Revolution 1778:Portland Basin Canal Warehouse 1758:water wheel at McCoy, Colorado 1751:Portland Basin Canal Warehouse 1331:, the earliest known to date. 743:A backshot wheel (also called 487:Water – low volume, large head 455:Water – low volume, large head 393:Water – large volume, low head 291:gravitational potential energy 141:, grinding wood into pulp for 1: 5862:Glossary of water wheel terms 5667:, Energy, Elsevier: 315–325, 5079:, Routledge, pp. 145–6, 4933:Otago Daily Times Online News 4655:Nevell, Mike; Walker (2001). 4570:(London, 1539, reprinted in 3802:– via Semantic Scholar. 2921:{\displaystyle h=h_{p}+h_{v}} 1986:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi 1604:17th- and 18th-century Europe 1262: 1183:reverse overshot water-wheels 1096: 699:the largest water wheel, the 285:There is often an associated 5824:The Journal of Roman Studies 5814:Journal of Roman Archaeology 5673:10.1016/j.energy.2015.04.079 5599:, Detmold : Schäfer, 5530:, University of Hull Press, 5392:General and cited references 5284:The Renewable Energy Website 5280:"Calculation of Hydro Power" 3734:Collins English Dictionary. 3624:. Johns Hopkins University. 3327:low head hydroelectric power 3198:Traditional undershot wheels 1905:Around 1150, the astronomer 1767:Two early improvements were 1191:reverse overshot water-wheel 1122:(221−205 BC). Several Greek 5723:, Odense University Press, 5719:Schioler, Thorkild (1973), 5613:, Detmold : Schäfer, 5473:The Economic History Review 5171:(in French). Archived from 4169:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 4152:Adriana de Miranda (2007), 3792:10.1680/ensu.2004.157.4.203 2787:. Two of the simplest are: 2648:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}=} 2171:) and noria. The engineers 1791:out of the flow of rivers. 637:They are characterized by: 32:Waterwheel (disambiguation) 6127: 4715:www.goldfieldsguide.com.au 3605:Collins English Dictionary 3419:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}} 1929: 1774:William Armstrong Fairburn 1373: 1317:Barbegal watermill complex 1044:List of ancient watermills 1041: 816: 484:Driving surfaces – buckets 475:(also known as pitchback) 452:Driving surfaces – buckets 43: 36: 29: 6008: 5739:"Water Wheel Engineering" 5494:(5:May), pp. 100–105 4806:"Walhalla's Water Wheels" 4779:Pearson, Warwick (1997). 4609:Torricelli, Evangelista, 3884:Hansen, Roger D. (2005). 3453:Musson; Robinson (1969). 3318:University of Southampton 1592:was also used for making 1512:The assembly convened by 1305:Antipater of Thessalonica 1054:Antipater of Thessalonica 904:In the text known as the 596:design to stream wheels. 323:Water – low volume, high 320:Driving surfaces – blades 5609:Nuernbergk, D.M. (2007) 5595:Nuernbergk, D.M. (2005) 4622:Torricella, Evangelica, 4539:A Culture of Improvement 4526:A Culture of Improvement 4469:A Culture of Improvement 4400:BAR International Series 3677:Power in the landscape. 3264:Optimal rotational speed 3160:Optimal rotational speed 2175:in the 13th century and 1962:some of its large wheels 1837:water wheel at Jindabyne 854:of 1637, written by the 727:, which can be lengthy. 514:Vertical axis water mill 5765:10.1163/156852086X00036 5555:Murphy, Donald (2005), 5481:10.1111/1468-0289.00151 5418:Allan. April 18, 2008. 3713:"Noria al-Muhammadiyya" 3679:"Types of water wheels" 2220:The development of the 2123:rivers in 10th-century 185:Hellenistic Greek world 6045:Gorlov helical turbine 5700:Reynolds, T.S. (1983) 5512:10.1353/tech.2005.0026 5500:Technology and Culture 5153:Flywheel Effect for a 5130:Mechanical Engineering 4973: 4711:"Garfield Water Wheel" 4552:Culture of Improvement 4142: 4136: 4085: 3960: 3594:Power in the Landscape 3489:Thomson, Ross (2009). 3420: 3295: 3254: 3185: 3150: 3075: 3040:Water velocity (speed) 3030: 2983: 2922: 2870: 2773: 2753: 2726: 2702: 2677: 2649: 2612: 2587: 2559: 2558:{\displaystyle h_{v}=} 2524: 2523:{\displaystyle h_{p}=} 2489: 2461: 2433: 2405: 2377: 2349: 2317: 2316:{\displaystyle \rho =} 2290: 2289:{\displaystyle \eta =} 2016: 1948: 1807: 1783:Somewhat related were 1753: 1692:Manx National Heritage 1642: 1620:Evangelista Torricelli 1581: 1448: 1423:Nendrum Monastery mill 1349: 1300: 1278:Mithradates VI Eupator 1242: 1143: 1069: 993: 942: 866: 796: 768: 740: 687: 626: 592: 546: 545:Stream shot waterwheel 515: 490:Efficiency – 80 to 90% 458:Efficiency – 80 to 90% 427:Efficiency – 50 to 60% 257: 256:A vertical water wheel 110: 95: 78:reversible water wheel 69: 5784:History of Technology 5526:Lewis, M.J.T. (1997) 5420:Undershot Water Wheel 5260:. State of Washington 4884:www.windmillworld.com 4140:saqiya was invented." 3421: 3296: 3255: 3186: 3151: 3076: 3031: 2984: 2923: 2871: 2774: 2754: 2752:{\displaystyle h_{v}} 2727: 2725:{\displaystyle h_{p}} 2700: 2678: 2650: 2613: 2588: 2560: 2525: 2490: 2462: 2434: 2406: 2378: 2350: 2318: 2291: 2006: 1939: 1802: 1748: 1699:Industrial Revolution 1637: 1569: 1475:Industrial Revolution 1439: 1370:Early Medieval Europe 1342: 1290: 1237: 1141: 1067: 980: 934: 875:Warring States period 839: 786: 766: 759:Overshot and backshot 738: 685: 624: 590: 544: 513: 255: 217:Industrial Revolution 105: 75: 63: 5337:. September 27, 2012 5309:"Hydraulic Turbines" 5047:Lucas, Adam (2006), 4998:, pp. 217–302; 3616:Denny, Mark (2007). 3525:ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu 3401: 3270: 3219: 3208:Approximate formula 3166: 3113: 3102:Approximate formula 3046: 2999: 2938: 2886: 2821: 2763: 2736: 2709: 2664: 2627: 2599: 2574: 2539: 2504: 2476: 2448: 2420: 2392: 2364: 2356:cross sectional area 2336: 2304: 2277: 2269:Quantities and units 2228:The power of a wheel 1884:arahatta-ghati-yanta 1817:Garfield water wheel 1804:Garfield water wheel 1703:Jean-Victor Poncelet 1682:) in the village of 1291:Scheme of the Roman 1157:Museum of Alexandria 1132:Alexander's conquest 6096:Egyptian inventions 5773:British Water-mills 5581:Needham, J. (1965) 5488:Scientific American 5456:Glick, T.F. (1970) 4994:, pp. 325ff.; 4903:COMB (2014-09-03). 4810:www.walhalla.org.au 4564:Anthony Fitzherbert 4520:Terry S, Reynolds, 4273:, pp. 234, 269 4201:, pp. 234, 270 4119:, p. 165−167: 3092:Breast and overshot 2468:strength of gravity 2191:Modern developments 2089:complexes built in 1639:Lady Isabella Wheel 1514:William of Normandy 1247:Apollonius of Perge 1166:Around 300 AD, the 1118:under the reign of 1023:Emperor Ming of Wei 1012:mechanical engineer 887:Eastern Han Dynasty 809:and dates to 1556. 6101:Iranian inventions 6091:Ancient inventions 6060:Cross-flow turbine 5904:2009-08-10 at the 5882:2009-08-10 at the 5736:Shannon, R. 1997. 5639:Oleson, John Peter 5135:2000-12-12 at the 5006:, pp. 371−400 5002:, pp. 10−15; 4854:McNicoll, Ronald, 4600:51 (1759); 124–125 4574:Reprinted pg. 92. 4550:Robert, Friedel, A 4444:, pp. 155–157 4381:, pp. 507f.; 4285:, pp. 269−271 3416: 3291: 3250: 3181: 3146: 3071: 3026: 2979: 2918: 2866: 2769: 2749: 2722: 2705:The pressure head 2703: 2676:{\displaystyle t=} 2673: 2645: 2611:{\displaystyle v=} 2608: 2586:{\displaystyle k=} 2583: 2555: 2520: 2488:{\displaystyle h=} 2485: 2460:{\displaystyle g=} 2457: 2432:{\displaystyle d=} 2429: 2404:{\displaystyle P=} 2401: 2376:{\displaystyle D=} 2373: 2358:of the channel (m) 2348:{\displaystyle A=} 2345: 2313: 2286: 2143:every day for the 2017: 1949: 1808: 1754: 1661:Dinorwic workshops 1643: 1582: 1549:, put Europe on a 1536:Economic influence 1449: 1350: 1325:Roman North Africa 1301: 1293:Hierapolis sawmill 1243: 1144: 1093:Philo of Byzantium 1070: 1050:Hellenistic period 1017:(c. 200–265) from 867: 797: 769: 741: 688: 627: 593: 547: 521:Commonly called a 516: 258: 242:hydroelectric dams 209:Islamic Golden Age 201:post-classical age 111: 96: 70: 6073: 6072: 5914: 5802:978-90-04-11123-3 5771:Syson, l. (1965) 5730:978-87-7492-090-8 5694:978-90-04-11123-3 5652:978-90-277-1693-4 5623:Pacey, A. (1991) 5427:Anatolian Studies 5307:Nagpurwala, Q.H. 5086:978-0-415-15291-4 5062:978-90-04-14649-5 4670:978-1-871324-25-9 4537:Robert, Friedel, 4467:Robert, Friedel, 4414:, p. 372f.; 4402:63, part 2, p. 34 4297:, p. 373f.; 4237:, p. 396f.; 3983:978-981-10-1938-8 3756:Merriam Webster. 3506:978-0-8018-9141-0 3413: 3389:Explanatory notes 3305: 3304: 3289: 3195: 3194: 3179: 3178: 3137: 3084: 3083: 3069: 3011: 2977: 2863: 2772:{\displaystyle v} 2639: 2222:hydraulic turbine 2135:could produce 10 1813:stamper batteries 1769:suspension wheels 1723:Benoît Fourneyron 1647:Richard Arkwright 1630:Industrial Europe 1611:Leonardo da Vinci 1503:Spanish expansion 1363:De Rebus Bellicis 1346:De Rebus Bellicis 1195:Archimedean screw 1128:Ancient Near East 1038:Greco-Roman world 971:Book of Later Han 807:Georgius Agricola 503: 502: 329:Efficiency – poor 225:Benoît Fourneyron 103: 92:Georgius Agricola 64:A water wheel in 61: 16:(Redirected from 6118: 6021:Hydroelectricity 6014: 5963:Hydroelectricity 5948: 5941: 5934: 5925: 5912: 5867:Essay/audio clip 5851: 5817: 5805: 5787: 5768: 5746: 5741:. Archived from 5733: 5697: 5675: 5655: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5570: 5563: 5523: 5483: 5453: 5386: 5381: 5375: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5356: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5316: 5304: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5265: 5259: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5241: 5239: 5228: 5213: 5212: 5192: 5186: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5165: 5159: 5146: 5140: 5126: 5120: 5117: 5111: 5107:Ahmad Y Hassan, 5105: 5099: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5072: 5066: 5065: 5053:Brill Publishers 5044: 5038: 5031: 5025: 5022: 5016: 5013: 5007: 4989: 4983: 4980: 4974: 4959: 4953: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4925: 4919: 4918: 4916: 4915: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4890: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4851: 4845: 4844: 4842: 4841: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4816: 4802: 4796: 4795: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4761: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4721: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4690: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4639:. Archived from 4633: 4627: 4620: 4614: 4607: 4601: 4594: 4588: 4581: 4575: 4561: 4555: 4548: 4542: 4535: 4529: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4481: 4472: 4465: 4454: 4451: 4445: 4439: 4430: 4425: 4419: 4409: 4403: 4396: 4390: 4376: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4334: 4324: 4318: 4308: 4302: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4252: 4246: 4232: 4226: 4220: 4214: 4213:, pp. 271f. 4208: 4202: 4196: 4187: 4181: 4172: 4166: 4149: 4143: 4113: 4107: 4106:, pp. 234). 4092: 4086: 4079:, pp. 235: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4051: 4045: 4039: 4038:, pp. 231f. 4033: 4027: 4021: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4008: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3967: 3961: 3946: 3940: 3937: 3931: 3928: 3922: 3919: 3913: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3893:waterhistory.org 3890: 3881: 3870: 3869: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3825: 3810: 3804: 3803: 3777: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3708: 3699: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3674: 3665: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3623: 3613: 3607: 3602: 3596: 3591: 3585: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3571: 3570: 3561:. Archived from 3555: 3546: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3531: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3486: 3477: 3476: 3460: 3450: 3444: 3439: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3415: 3414: 3406: 3396: 3339:Hydroelectricity 3300: 3298: 3297: 3292: 3290: 3285: 3274: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3202: 3190: 3188: 3187: 3182: 3180: 3174: 3170: 3155: 3153: 3152: 3147: 3139: 3138: 3130: 3096: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3072: 3070: 3062: 3035: 3033: 3032: 3027: 3013: 3012: 3004: 2993:Volume flow rate 2988: 2986: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2965: 2964: 2955: 2950: 2949: 2927: 2925: 2924: 2919: 2917: 2916: 2904: 2903: 2875: 2873: 2872: 2867: 2865: 2864: 2856: 2804: 2785:volume flow rate 2778: 2776: 2775: 2770: 2758: 2756: 2755: 2750: 2748: 2747: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2723: 2721: 2720: 2682: 2680: 2679: 2674: 2656:volume flow rate 2654: 2652: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2640: 2632: 2617: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2592: 2590: 2589: 2584: 2564: 2562: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2550: 2529: 2527: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2515: 2494: 2492: 2491: 2486: 2466: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2438: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2410: 2408: 2407: 2402: 2382: 2380: 2379: 2374: 2354: 2352: 2351: 2346: 2330:(1000 kg/m) 2322: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2295: 2293: 2292: 2287: 2243:Potential energy 2141:flour from grain 1960:still preserves 1911:perpetual motion 1907:Bhaskara Achārya 1848:Dethridge wheels 1721:, and his pupil 1654:Quarry Bank Mill 1427:Northern Ireland 1271: 1267: 1264: 1189:, including the 1105: 1101: 1098: 1028: 1008:armillary sphere 1001:Chinese inventor 995:Water wheels in 617:Breastshot wheel 499: 467: 436: 405: 374: 338: 305: 301:Summary of types 104: 62: 21: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6030:Francis turbine 6015: 6006: 5957: 5952: 5906:Wayback Machine 5893:British Library 5884:Wayback Machine 5858: 5833:10.2307/3184857 5820: 5808: 5803: 5790: 5780:Wikander, Örjan 5778: 5750: 5737: 5731: 5718: 5695: 5681:Wikander, Örjan 5678: 5658: 5653: 5637: 5574: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5554: 5497: 5470: 5435:10.2307/3643076 5424: 5394: 5389: 5382: 5378: 5371: 5367: 5358: 5357: 5350: 5340: 5338: 5331:"Velocity Head" 5329: 5328: 5324: 5314: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5298: 5288: 5286: 5278: 5277: 5273: 5263: 5261: 5257: 5252: 5251: 5247: 5237: 5235: 5230: 5229: 5216: 5209: 5194: 5193: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5147: 5143: 5137:Wayback Machine 5128:Hill; see also 5127: 5123: 5118: 5114: 5106: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5074: 5073: 5069: 5063: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5032: 5028: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5010: 4990: 4986: 4981: 4977: 4964:, p. 400: 4960: 4956: 4952:Reynolds, p. 14 4951: 4947: 4938: 4936: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4913: 4911: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4888: 4886: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4865: 4863: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4839: 4837: 4834:Daily Telegraph 4828: 4827: 4823: 4814: 4812: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4783: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4750: 4748: 4733: 4732: 4728: 4719: 4717: 4709: 4708: 4704: 4688: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4671: 4654: 4652: 4648: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4621: 4617: 4608: 4604: 4595: 4591: 4582: 4578: 4562: 4558: 4549: 4545: 4536: 4532: 4519: 4515: 4500:10.2307/1493973 4483: 4482: 4475: 4466: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4440: 4433: 4426: 4422: 4410: 4406: 4397: 4393: 4385:, p. 377; 4377: 4373: 4365: 4361: 4357:, pp. 12f. 4353: 4349: 4341: 4337: 4325: 4321: 4313:, p. 375; 4309: 4305: 4293: 4289: 4281: 4277: 4269: 4265: 4257:, p. 160; 4253: 4249: 4233: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4197: 4190: 4182: 4175: 4164: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4114: 4110: 4093: 4089: 4075: 4071: 4063: 4054: 4046: 4042: 4034: 4030: 4022: 4015: 4006: 4004: 4002:www.attalus.org 3996: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3969: 3968: 3964: 3951:, p. 395; 3947: 3943: 3939:Needham, p. 158 3938: 3934: 3929: 3925: 3921:Needham, p. 370 3920: 3916: 3912:Needham, p. 392 3911: 3907: 3899: 3888: 3883: 3882: 3873: 3866: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3839: 3832: 3823: 3821: 3812: 3811: 3807: 3775: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3755: 3754: 3750: 3740: 3738: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3718: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3702: 3697: 3693: 3683: 3681: 3676: 3675: 3668: 3658: 3656: 3651: 3650: 3646: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3588: 3583:Merriam Webster 3581: 3577: 3568: 3566: 3557: 3556: 3549: 3542: 3538: 3529: 3527: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3488: 3487: 3480: 3473: 3452: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3399: 3398: 3393: 3391: 3335: 3310: 3275: 3268: 3267: 3240: 3217: 3216: 3200: 3164: 3163: 3111: 3110: 3094: 3089: 3044: 3043: 2997: 2996: 2966: 2956: 2941: 2936: 2935: 2908: 2895: 2884: 2883: 2819: 2818: 2802: 2761: 2760: 2739: 2734: 2733: 2712: 2707: 2706: 2695: 2662: 2661: 2625: 2624: 2597: 2596: 2572: 2571: 2542: 2537: 2536: 2507: 2502: 2501: 2474: 2473: 2446: 2445: 2418: 2417: 2390: 2389: 2362: 2361: 2334: 2333: 2302: 2301: 2275: 2274: 2271: 2230: 2207: 2198: 2196:Hydraulic wheel 2193: 2007:Water wheel in 1964:, on the river 1934: 1928: 1872: 1856: 1797: 1743: 1728:Development of 1678:(also known as 1632: 1606: 1577:De re metallica 1564: 1538: 1526: 1510: 1378: 1372: 1337: 1269: 1265: 1232: 1161:Alexandrian War 1148:Ptolemaic Egypt 1103: 1099: 1062: 1046: 1040: 1035: 834: 825: 815: 781: 761: 756: 733: 680: 655:(movement) and 619: 585: 583:Undershot wheel 539: 508: 346:(also known as 303: 250: 223:, developed by 205:medieval Europe 98: 87:De re metallica 51: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6124: 6122: 6114: 6113: 6108: 6106:Water turbines 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6078: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6035:Kaplan turbine 6032: 6026: 6024: 6017: 6016: 6009: 6007: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5968: 5966: 5959: 5958: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5943: 5936: 5928: 5922: 5921: 5916: 5908: 5896: 5886: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5857: 5856:External links 5854: 5853: 5852: 5818: 5810:Wilson, Andrew 5806: 5801: 5788: 5776: 5769: 5748: 5745:on 2017-09-20. 5734: 5729: 5716: 5698: 5693: 5676: 5656: 5651: 5635: 5621: 5607: 5593: 5579: 5552: 5538: 5524: 5495: 5484: 5468: 5454: 5422: 5416: 5402: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5384:Low Head Hydro 5376: 5365: 5348: 5322: 5296: 5271: 5245: 5214: 5207: 5187: 5178: 5175:on 2017-07-11. 5160: 5149:Ahmad Y Hassan 5141: 5121: 5112: 5100: 5091: 5085: 5067: 5061: 5055:, p. 26, 5039: 5026: 5017: 5008: 4984: 4975: 4954: 4945: 4920: 4895: 4871: 4846: 4821: 4797: 4771: 4726: 4702: 4676: 4669: 4646: 4643:on 2019-11-15. 4628: 4615: 4602: 4589: 4576: 4556: 4543: 4530: 4513: 4473: 4455: 4446: 4431: 4420: 4404: 4391: 4371: 4359: 4347: 4335: 4329:, p. 11; 4319: 4303: 4287: 4275: 4263: 4247: 4245:, pp. 7f. 4241:, p. 11; 4227: 4215: 4203: 4188: 4186:, pp. 235 4173: 4163:978-8882654337 4162: 4144: 4108: 4087: 4069: 4067:, pp. 234 4052: 4040: 4028: 4013: 3989: 3982: 3962: 3941: 3932: 3923: 3914: 3905: 3886:"Water Wheels" 3871: 3864: 3845: 3830: 3805: 3786:(4): 203–211. 3763: 3758:"stream wheel" 3748: 3726: 3700: 3691: 3666: 3644: 3630: 3608: 3597: 3586: 3575: 3547: 3536: 3512: 3505: 3478: 3471: 3445: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3412: 3409: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3373: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3357: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3331: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3302: 3288: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3265: 3261: 3260: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3214: 3210: 3209: 3206: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3192: 3177: 3173: 3161: 3157: 3156: 3145: 3142: 3136: 3133: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3100: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3087:Rules of thumb 3085: 3082: 3081: 3068: 3065: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3041: 3037: 3036: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3016: 3010: 3007: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2948: 2944: 2933: 2929: 2928: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2881: 2880:Effective head 2877: 2876: 2862: 2859: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2816: 2812: 2811: 2808: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2796: 2793: 2768: 2746: 2742: 2719: 2715: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2687: 2672: 2669: 2659: 2644: 2638: 2635: 2622: 2607: 2604: 2594: 2582: 2579: 2569: 2554: 2549: 2545: 2534: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2499: 2484: 2481: 2471: 2456: 2453: 2443: 2428: 2425: 2415: 2400: 2397: 2387: 2372: 2369: 2359: 2344: 2341: 2331: 2312: 2309: 2299: 2285: 2282: 2270: 2267: 2247: 2246: 2240: 2237:Kinetic energy 2229: 2226: 2206: 2203: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2159:1038–1075) of 2070:water turbines 1980:system during 1942:Norias of Hama 1927: 1924: 1888:Joseph Needham 1871: 1868: 1855: 1852: 1796: 1793: 1762:Colorado River 1742: 1739: 1730:water turbines 1711:Sagebien wheel 1631: 1628: 1605: 1602: 1572:Georg Agricola 1563: 1560: 1537: 1534: 1530:overshot wheel 1525: 1522: 1509: 1506: 1473:well into the 1371: 1368: 1336: 1333: 1329:water turbines 1231: 1228: 1108:Parasceuastica 1061: 1058: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 851:Tiangong Kaiwu 833: 830: 814: 811: 780: 777: 760: 757: 755: 752: 732: 731:Backshot wheel 729: 679: 678:Overshot wheel 676: 649: 648: 645: 642: 618: 615: 611: 610: 607: 604: 584: 581: 538: 535: 507: 504: 501: 500: 493: 492: 491: 488: 485: 482: 479: 469: 468: 461: 460: 459: 456: 453: 450: 447: 438: 437: 430: 429: 428: 425: 422: 419: 416: 407: 406: 399: 398: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 376: 375: 368: 367: 366: 363: 360: 357: 354: 340: 339: 332: 331: 330: 327: 321: 318: 315: 302: 299: 269: 268: 265: 249: 246: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6123: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6055:Turgo turbine 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6040:Tyson turbine 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6018: 6013: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5949: 5944: 5942: 5937: 5935: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5909: 5907: 5903: 5900: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5881: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5855: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5825: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5804: 5798: 5794: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5735: 5732: 5726: 5722: 5717: 5715: 5714:0-8018-2554-7 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5696: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5677: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5657: 5654: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5634: 5633:0-262-66072-5 5630: 5626: 5622: 5620: 5619:3-87696-122-X 5616: 5612: 5608: 5606: 5605:3-87696-121-1 5602: 5598: 5594: 5592: 5591:0-521-05803-1 5588: 5584: 5580: 5571:on 2007-11-18 5567: 5560: 5559: 5553: 5551: 5550:0-07-141279-4 5547: 5543: 5539: 5537: 5536:0-85958-657-X 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5496: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5467: 5466:0-674-46675-6 5463: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5423: 5421: 5417: 5415: 5414:0-9552426-0-6 5411: 5407: 5403: 5400: 5396: 5395: 5391: 5385: 5380: 5377: 5374: 5369: 5366: 5361: 5360:"Waterwheels" 5355: 5353: 5349: 5336: 5332: 5326: 5323: 5310: 5303: 5301: 5297: 5285: 5281: 5275: 5272: 5256: 5249: 5246: 5233: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5210: 5204: 5200: 5199: 5191: 5188: 5182: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5157: 5156: 5150: 5145: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5125: 5122: 5116: 5113: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5095: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5078: 5071: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5043: 5040: 5036: 5030: 5027: 5021: 5018: 5012: 5009: 5005: 5004:Wikander 2000 5001: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4985: 4979: 4976: 4972: 4970: 4963: 4962:Wikander 2000 4958: 4955: 4949: 4946: 4934: 4930: 4924: 4921: 4910: 4906: 4899: 4896: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4872: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4847: 4835: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4798: 4793: 4789: 4782: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4765: 4760: 4746: 4742: 4741: 4736: 4730: 4727: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4680: 4677: 4672: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4650: 4647: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4629: 4625: 4619: 4616: 4612: 4606: 4603: 4599: 4593: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4557: 4553: 4547: 4544: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4517: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4488: 4480: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4453:Glick, p. 178 4450: 4447: 4443: 4442:Wikander 1985 4438: 4436: 4432: 4429: 4424: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4412:Wikander 2000 4408: 4405: 4401: 4395: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4383:Wikander 2000 4380: 4375: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4360: 4356: 4351: 4348: 4345:, p. 375 4344: 4343:Wikander 2000 4339: 4336: 4333:, p. 236 4332: 4328: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4311:Wikander 2000 4307: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4295:Wikander 2000 4291: 4288: 4284: 4279: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4264: 4261:, p. 396 4260: 4259:Wikander 2000 4256: 4255:Wikander 1985 4251: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4235:Wikander 2000 4231: 4228: 4225:, p. 271 4224: 4219: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4204: 4200: 4195: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4165: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4145: 4141: 4135: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4117:Schioler 1973 4112: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4091: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4073: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4053: 4050:, p. 233 4049: 4044: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4029: 4026:, p. 230 4025: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3985: 3979: 3975: 3974: 3966: 3963: 3959: 3955:, p. 229 3954: 3950: 3949:Wikander 2000 3945: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3930:Morton, p. 70 3927: 3924: 3918: 3915: 3909: 3906: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3872: 3867: 3865:9789811019388 3861: 3857: 3856: 3849: 3846: 3843:, p. 229 3842: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3819: 3815: 3809: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3767: 3764: 3759: 3752: 3749: 3737: 3730: 3727: 3714: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3692: 3680: 3673: 3671: 3667: 3654: 3648: 3645: 3633: 3631:9780801885860 3627: 3622: 3621: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3590: 3587: 3584: 3579: 3576: 3565:on 2011-10-07 3564: 3560: 3554: 3552: 3548: 3545: 3540: 3537: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3513: 3508: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3493: 3485: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3472:9780802016379 3468: 3464: 3459: 3458: 3449: 3446: 3443: 3438: 3435: 3429: 3427: 3410: 3407: 3395: 3388: 3384: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3358: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3349:Water turbine 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3314: 3307: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3204: 3203: 3197: 3175: 3171: 3162: 3159: 3158: 3143: 3140: 3134: 3131: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3109: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3091: 3086: 3066: 3063: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3042: 3039: 3038: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3014: 3008: 3005: 2995: 2992: 2991: 2973: 2970: 2967: 2961: 2957: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2932:Velocity head 2931: 2930: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2882: 2879: 2878: 2860: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2806: 2805: 2799: 2794: 2790: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2781: 2766: 2744: 2740: 2717: 2713: 2699: 2692: 2690: 2685: 2670: 2667: 2660: 2657: 2642: 2636: 2633: 2623: 2620: 2605: 2602: 2595: 2580: 2577: 2570: 2567: 2566:velocity head 2552: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2532: 2531:pressure head 2517: 2512: 2508: 2500: 2497: 2482: 2479: 2472: 2469: 2454: 2451: 2444: 2441: 2426: 2423: 2416: 2413: 2398: 2395: 2388: 2385: 2370: 2367: 2360: 2357: 2342: 2339: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2310: 2307: 2300: 2298: 2283: 2280: 2273: 2272: 2268: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2234: 2233: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2204: 2202: 2195: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2032:, shipmills, 2031: 2027: 2023: 2014: 2010: 2005: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1990:Kitab al-Hawi 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1946:Orontes River 1943: 1938: 1933: 1926:Islamic world 1925: 1923: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1901: 1900:ancient India 1895: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1825:Adelong Falls 1822: 1818: 1814: 1805: 1801: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1752: 1747: 1741:North America 1740: 1738: 1735: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1715:Claude Burdin 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1680:Lady Isabella 1677: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1640: 1636: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1616:laws of force 1612: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1579: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1552: 1551:hydraulically 1548: 1542: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1507: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1499:South America 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1447: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1412:Little Island 1409: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1383: 1377: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1355: 1348: 1347: 1341: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1240: 1236: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1140: 1136: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1104: 220 BC 1094: 1090: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1075: 1066: 1060:Water-lifting 1059: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1045: 1037: 1033:Western world 1032: 1030: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1002: 998: 992: 990: 986: 979: 977: 973: 972: 967: 963: 962:blast furnace 959: 955: 951: 947: 941: 939: 933: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 902: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 864: 863:Song Yingxing 860: 859:encyclopedist 857: 853: 852: 847: 843: 840:Two types of 838: 831: 829: 824: 820: 812: 810: 808: 803: 794: 790: 789:Anderson Mill 785: 778: 776: 774: 773:Finch Foundry 765: 758: 753: 751: 748: 746: 737: 730: 728: 726: 722: 716: 714: 710: 706: 702: 696: 692: 684: 677: 675: 673: 667: 665: 660: 658: 654: 646: 643: 640: 639: 638: 635: 632: 623: 616: 614: 608: 605: 602: 601: 600: 597: 589: 582: 580: 577: 575: 571: 566: 563: 561: 555: 553: 543: 536: 534: 532: 528: 524: 519: 512: 506:Vertical axis 505: 498: 494: 489: 486: 483: 480: 477: 476: 474: 471: 470: 466: 462: 457: 454: 451: 448: 445: 444: 443: 440: 439: 435: 431: 426: 423: 420: 417: 414: 413: 412: 409: 408: 404: 400: 395: 392: 389: 386: 383: 382: 381: 378: 377: 373: 369: 364: 361: 358: 355: 352: 351: 349: 345: 342: 341: 337: 333: 328: 326: 322: 319: 316: 313: 312: 310: 309:Vertical axis 307: 306: 300: 298: 294: 292: 288: 283: 281: 276: 274: 266: 263: 262: 261: 254: 247: 245: 243: 238: 236: 232: 231: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 173: 171: 167: 163: 159: 154: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 109: 93: 89: 88: 83: 79: 74: 67: 47: 40: 33: 19: 6086:Water wheels 6064: 6050:Pelton wheel 5822: 5813: 5792: 5783: 5772: 5759:(1): 52–77. 5756: 5752: 5743:the original 5720: 5705: 5701: 5684: 5664: 5660: 5642: 5624: 5610: 5596: 5582: 5573:, retrieved 5566:the original 5557: 5541: 5527: 5503: 5499: 5491: 5487: 5472: 5457: 5426: 5405: 5398: 5379: 5368: 5339:. Retrieved 5334: 5325: 5313:. Retrieved 5287:. Retrieved 5283: 5274: 5262:. Retrieved 5248: 5236:. Retrieved 5197: 5190: 5181: 5173:the original 5163: 5154: 5144: 5124: 5119:Lucas, p. 11 5115: 5103: 5098:Lucas, p. 10 5094: 5076: 5070: 5048: 5042: 5034: 5029: 5020: 5015:Pacey, p. 36 5011: 4987: 4982:Pacey, p. 10 4978: 4966: 4957: 4948: 4937:. Retrieved 4935:. 2015-09-19 4932: 4923: 4912:. Retrieved 4908: 4898: 4887:. Retrieved 4883: 4874: 4864:, retrieved 4859: 4849: 4838:. Retrieved 4836:. 1918-06-10 4833: 4824: 4813:. Retrieved 4809: 4800: 4791: 4787: 4774: 4749:. Retrieved 4738: 4729: 4718:. Retrieved 4714: 4705: 4696: 4692: 4679: 4656: 4649: 4641:the original 4631: 4623: 4618: 4610: 4605: 4597: 4592: 4584: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4559: 4551: 4546: 4538: 4533: 4525: 4521: 4516: 4494:(3): 26–33. 4491: 4485: 4468: 4449: 4423: 4407: 4399: 4394: 4389:, p. 13 4374: 4369:, p. 39 4362: 4350: 4338: 4322: 4317:, p. 13 4306: 4301:, p. 12 4290: 4278: 4266: 4250: 4230: 4218: 4206: 4153: 4147: 4138: 4131: 4121: 4111: 4099: 4090: 4081: 4072: 4043: 4031: 4005:. Retrieved 4001: 3992: 3976:. Springer. 3972: 3965: 3957: 3944: 3935: 3926: 3917: 3908: 3892: 3854: 3848: 3822:. Retrieved 3820:. 2021-04-12 3817: 3808: 3783: 3779: 3766: 3751: 3739:. Retrieved 3729: 3717:. Retrieved 3694: 3682:. Retrieved 3657:. Retrieved 3653:"Waterwheel" 3647: 3635:. Retrieved 3619: 3611: 3600: 3589: 3578: 3567:. Retrieved 3563:the original 3539: 3528:. Retrieved 3524: 3515: 3491: 3456: 3448: 3437: 3394: 3392: 3344:Pelton wheel 3329:generation. 3323: 3315: 3311: 2782: 2704: 2693:Measurements 2689: 2386:of wheel (m) 2252: 2248: 2231: 2219: 2208: 2199: 2181:water clocks 2095: 2062:Central Asia 2054:North Africa 2018: 1989: 1950: 1904: 1896: 1883: 1880:cakkavattaka 1879: 1873: 1857: 1845: 1809: 1806:(built 1887) 1782: 1766: 1755: 1727: 1718: 1696: 1679: 1673: 1658: 1651: 1644: 1607: 1594:wrought iron 1586:fulling mill 1583: 1575: 1556:feudal state 1543: 1539: 1527: 1511: 1478: 1471:steam engine 1450: 1416: 1397: 1379: 1361: 1351: 1344: 1322: 1313:central Gaul 1302: 1282: 1270: AD 24 1266: 64 BC 1244: 1230:Watermilling 1223:carbon dated 1181:. They were 1172: 1165: 1145: 1107: 1088: 1086: 1076: 1071: 1047: 994: 988: 984: 981: 975: 969: 943: 937: 935: 905: 903: 873:in the late 868: 865:(1587–1666). 856:Ming Dynasty 849: 826: 798: 788: 770: 749: 744: 742: 717: 697: 693: 689: 668: 661: 650: 636: 630: 628: 612: 598: 594: 578: 567: 564: 560:John Smeaton 556: 552:free surface 548: 530: 526: 522: 520: 517: 472: 441: 410: 379: 348:free surface 343: 308: 295: 284: 277: 272: 270: 259: 239: 228: 213:John Smeaton 174: 169: 165: 155: 147:wrought iron 145:, hammering 114: 112: 85: 6065:Water wheel 5992:Micro hydro 5987:Small hydro 5506:(1): 1–30. 5399:Water Wheel 5397:Soto Gary, 5341:25 February 5315:25 February 5289:25 February 5264:24 February 5238:24 February 5033:al-Hassani 4996:Oleson 2000 4992:Oleson 1984 4428:Murphy 2005 4418:, p. 3 4416:Wilson 2002 4379:Wilson 1995 4367:Greene 2000 4331:Oleson 2000 4283:Oleson 2000 4271:Oleson 2000 4243:Wilson 2002 4223:Oleson 2000 4211:Oleson 2000 4199:Oleson 2000 4184:Oleson 2000 4124:Mesopotamia 4104:Oleson 2000 4096:Deuteronomy 4077:Oleson 2000 4065:Oleson 2000 4048:Oleson 2000 4036:Oleson 2000 4024:Oleson 2000 3953:Oleson 2000 3841:Oleson 2000 3818:faq-ans.com 3741:12 February 3736:"undershot" 3684:12 February 3383:Scoop wheel 2177:Taqi al-Din 2066:crankshafts 2058:Middle East 2042:sugar mills 2038:steel mills 2034:stamp mills 1860:Carricktown 1854:New Zealand 1841:Snowy River 1833:Port Albert 1785:fish wheels 1705:invented a 1697:During the 1688:Isle of Man 1676:Laxey Wheel 1598:papermaking 1590:trip hammer 1455:monasteries 1419:tidal power 1393:hagiography 1391:, but also 1382:legal codes 976:Hou Han Shu 932:spelling): 922:trip hammer 908:written by 893:in forging 846:chain pumps 713:Switzerland 705:Isle of Man 701:Laxey Wheel 177:agriculture 143:papermaking 115:water wheel 80:powering a 18:Norse wheel 6111:Watermills 6080:Categories 5997:Pico hydro 5965:generation 5955:Hydropower 5575:2010-03-17 5208:0060165901 4939:2022-09-11 4914:2022-09-11 4889:2022-09-11 4866:2022-02-06 4840:2022-09-04 4830:"THE SOIL" 4815:2022-09-10 4720:2022-02-06 4007:2024-09-12 3824:2021-11-23 3659:19 January 3637:19 January 3569:2009-04-07 3544:pitch-back 3530:2017-07-10 2297:efficiency 2263:horsepower 2205:Efficiency 2169:chain pump 2161:Al-Andalus 2106:water mill 2091:al-Andalus 2050:al-Andalus 2046:tide mills 2022:gristmills 1982:al-Andalus 1930:See also: 1501:following 1465:region of 1452:Cistercian 1431:Tide mills 1374:See also: 1354:automatons 1335:Navigation 1297:Asia Minor 1268: – c. 1255:Alexandria 1213:, a Roman 1211:Dolaucothi 1120:Ptolemy IV 1116:Alexandria 1106:). 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