1621:
itself, entering the water behind the main thrust of the flow driving the wheel, followed by the lift of the wheel out of the water ahead of the main thrust, actually impedes its own operation. The overshot wheel solves this problem by bringing the water flow to the top of the wheel. The water fills buckets built into the wheel, rather than the simple paddle wheel design of undershot wheels. As the buckets fill, the weight of the water starts to turn the wheel. The water spills out of the bucket on the down side into a spillway leading back to river. Since the wheel itself is set above the spillway, the water never impedes the speed of the wheel. The impulse of the water on the wheel is also harnessed in addition to the weight of the water once in the buckets. Overshot wheels require the construction of a dam on the river above the mill and a more elaborate millpond, sluice gate, mill race and spillway or tailrace.
715:
1488:
1464:
661:
1516:
1500:
685:
1476:
673:
1717:. This mill might be of any kind, undershot, overshot or horizontal but it does not employ a river for its power source. Instead a mole or causeway is built across the mouth of a small bay. At low tide, gates in the mole are opened allowing the bay to fill with the incoming tide. At high tide the gates are closed, trapping the water inside. At a certain point a sluice gate in the mole can be opened allowing the draining water to drive a mill wheel or wheels. This is particularly effective in places where the tidal differential is very great, such as the
1123:
1559:) known as a stone nut, which was attached to the shaft that drove the runner stone. The number of runner stones that could be turned depended directly upon the supply of water available. As waterwheel technology improved mills became more efficient, and by the 19th century, it was common for the great spur wheel to drive several stone nuts, so that a single water wheel could drive as many as four stones. Each step in the process increased the gear ratio which increased the maximum speed of the runner stone. Adjusting the
1017:
1761:
485:
707:
1371:
53:
41:
623:. So-called 'Greek Mills' used water wheels with a horizontal wheel (and vertical shaft). A "Roman Mill" features a vertical wheel (on a horizontal shaft). Greek style mills are the older and simpler of the two designs, but only operate well with high water velocities and with small diameter millstones. Roman style mills are more complicated as they require gears to transmit the power from a shaft with a horizontal axis to one with a vertical axis.
1601:
1583:
558:
1077:(618–907 AD) 'Ordinances of the Department of Waterways' written in 737 AD stated that watermills should not interrupt riverine transport and in some cases were restricted to use in certain seasons of the year. From other Tang-era sources of the 8th century, it is known that these ordinances were taken very seriously, as the government demolished many watermills owned by great families, merchants, and
1645:
1855:
1773:
1333:
230:
1352:
1424:). The force of the water's movement drives the blades of a wheel or turbine, which in turn rotates an axle that drives the mill's other machinery. Water leaving the wheel or turbine is drained through a tail race, but this channel may also be the head race of yet another wheel, turbine or mill. The passage of water is controlled by
1840:
1830:
In some developing countries, watermills are still widely used for processing grain. For example, there are thought to be 25,000 operating in Nepal, and 200,000 in India. Many of these are still of the traditional style, but some have been upgraded by replacing wooden parts with better-designed metal
836:
In a 2005 survey the scholar Adam Lucas identified the following first appearances of various industrial mill types in
Western Europe. Noticeable is the preeminent role of France in the introduction of new innovative uses of waterpower. However, he has drawn attention to the dearth of studies of the
2367:
The translation of this word is crucial to the interpretation of the passage. Traditionally, it has been translated as 'spoke' (e.g. Reynolds, p. 17), but Lewis (p. 66) points out that, while its primary meaning is 'ray' (as a sunbeam), its only concrete meaning is 'cog'. Since a horizontal-wheeled
1751:
wheels the mills are mostly on the banks of sizeable rivers or fast flowing streams. Other watermills were set beneath large bridges where the flow of water between the stanchions was faster. At one point London bridge had so many water wheels beneath it that bargemen complained that passage through
1620:
The overshot wheel was a later innovation in waterwheels and was around two and a half times more efficient than the undershot. The undershot wheel, in which the main water wheel is simply set into the flow of the mill race, suffers from an inherent inefficiency stemming from the fact that the wheel
1435:
Watermills can be divided into two kinds, one with a horizontal water wheel on a vertical axle, and the other with a vertical wheel on a horizontal axle. The oldest of these were horizontal mills in which the force of the water, striking a simple paddle wheel set horizontally in line with the flow
761:
alone. Later research estimates a less conservative number of 6,082 that should be considered a minimum as the northern reaches of
England were never properly recorded. In 1300, this number had risen to between 10,000 and 15,000. By the early 7th century, watermills were also well established in
1784:
In 1870 watermills still produced 2/3 of the power available for
British grain milling. By the early 20th century, availability of cheap electrical energy made the watermill obsolete in developed countries although some smaller rural mills continued to operate commercially later throughout the
155:
mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and pitchback (backshot or reverse shot) waterwheel mills. Another way to
1624:
An inherent problem in the overshot mill is that it reverses the rotation of the wheel. If a miller wishes to convert a breastshot mill to an overshot wheel all the machinery in the mill has to be rebuilt to take account of the change in rotation. An alternative solution was the pitchback or
3009:
1538:
However, in corn mills rotation about a vertical axis was required to drive its stones. The horizontal rotation was converted into the vertical rotation by means of gearing, which also enabled the runner stones to turn faster than the waterwheel. The usual arrangement in
British and American
1390:
1448:
Most watermills in
Britain and the United States of America had a vertical waterwheel, one of four kinds: undershot, breast-shot, overshot and pitchback wheels. This vertical produced rotary motion around a horizontal axis, which could be used (with cams) to lift hammers in a
1444:
which is atop a shaft leading directly up from the wheel. The bedstone does not turn. The problem with this type of mill arose from the lack of gearing; the speed of the water directly set the maximum speed of the runner stone which, in turn, set the rate of milling.
1181:
The industrial uses of watermills in the
Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled watermills were both in widespread use by the 9th century. A variety of industrial watermills were used in the Islamic world, including
209:
mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal-waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further divided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and reverse shot waterwheel mills.
626:
Although to date only a few dozen Roman mills are archaeologically traced, the widespread use of aqueducts in the period suggests that many remain to be discovered. Recent excavations in Roman London, for example, have uncovered what appears to be a
1570:
In many mills (including the earliest) the great spur wheel turned only one stone, but there might be several mills under one roof. The earliest illustration of a single waterwheel driving more than one set of stones was drawn by
272:(ca. 280−220 BC). The British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis has shown that those portions of Philo of Byzantium's mechanical treatise which describe water wheels and which have been previously regarded as later
1056:
speculates that the water-powered millstone could have existed in Han China by the 1st century AD, there is no sufficient literary evidence for it until the 5th century AD. In 488 AD, the mathematician and engineer
1113:
According to Greek historical tradition, India received water-mills from the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD when a certain
Metrodoros introduced "water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then".
1487:
1563:
and thus the flow of the water past the main wheel allowed the miller to compensate for seasonal variations in the water supply. Finer speed adjustment was made during the milling process by
1499:
684:
1463:
660:
1475:
672:
1320:
More than 300 watermills were at work in Iran till 1960. Now only a few are still working. One of the famous ones is the water mill of Askzar and the water mill of the
3131:
1629:
was placed at the end of the flume on the headrace, this turned the direction of the water without much loss of energy, and the direction of rotation was maintained.
2955:
Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial
Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".
2905:
Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial
Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".
515:. Further sawmills, also powered by crank and connecting rod mechanisms, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at
1432:
control; large mill complexes may have dozens of sluices controlling complicated interconnected races that feed multiple buildings and industrial processes.
786:
In recent years, a number of new archaeological finds has consecutively pushed back the date of the earliest tide mills, all of which were discovered on the
1641:
is an example of a flour mill that originally used a breastshot wheel, but was converted to use a pitchback wheel. Today it operates as a breastshot mill.
1130:(1878–1880). The rectangular water mill has a thatched roof and traditional design with a small horizontal mill-house built of stone or perhaps mud bricks.
2167:
Maaß, Anna-Lisa; Schüttrumpf, Holger (2019). "Elevated floodplains and net channel incision as a result of the construction and removal of water mills".
3490:
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a
Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",
2747:
Adam Robert Lucas, 'Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe',
1246:
as a source of water, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Fulling mills, and steel mills may have spread from
3557:
2881:(Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. AD 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then".
1265:
to take advantage of the increased flow. Another solution was the ship mill, a type of watermill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of
504:
1567:, that is, adjusting the gap between the stones according to the water flow, the type of grain being milled, and the grade of flour required.
3386:
3367:
3316:
3298:
3229:
3114:
3053:
1257:
The engineers of the Islamic world used several solutions to achieve the maximum output from a watermill. One solution was to mount them to
3394:, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority, archived from
2423:
3378:
Economia ed Energia, Seccoli XIII - XVIII, Atti delle 'Settimane di Studi' e Altrie Convegni, Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica
2993:
1905:
were, until the introduction of the steam engine, almost invariably water powered. Furnaces and Forges were sometimes called iron mills.
3642:
654:
cut off the water supply for those mills. These floating mills had a wheel that was attached to a boat moored in a fast flowing river.
167:
Watermills impact the river dynamics of the watercourses where they are installed. During the time watermills operate channels tend to
3376:
Munro, John H. (2003), "Industrial energy from water-mills in the European economy, 5th to 18th Centuries: the limitations of power",
1394:
151:
One major way to classify watermills is by wheel orientation (vertical or horizontal), one powered by a vertical waterwheel through a
3681:
3548:
3508:
3483:
3468:
3451:
3433:
3414:
3351:
3334:
3278:
3211:
3158:
1789:
701:
1831:
ones to improve the efficiency. For example, the Centre for Rural Technology in Nepal upgraded 2,400 mills between 2003 and 2007.
573:. The tangential water inflow of the millrace made the horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like a true turbine, the earliest known.
1069:(581–618 AD) was said to operate hundreds of them by the beginning of the 6th century. A source written in 612 AD mentions
714:
3666:
1824:
3676:
3238:
Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology",
1037:
3571:
2723:
1515:
183:
increase. Over time however these effects are cancelled by river banks becoming higher. Where mills have been removed,
3671:
1576:
1356:
1210:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial watermills in operation, from
32:
3178:
1122:
1175:
431:
308:
224:
1804:
in the UK still operate for demonstration purposes. Small-scale commercial production is carried out in the UK at
1551:, mounted on a vertical shaft, which turns the (larger) great spur wheel (mounted on the same shaft). This large
1062:
766:. A century later they began to spread across the former Roman Rhine and Danube frontier into the other parts of
364:
2409:
Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered",
1994:
1805:
1630:
1086:
250:
375:
Hold back your hand from the mill, you grinding girls; even if the cockcrow heralds the dawn, sleep on. For
253:
invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing, and used, along with the
3407:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 2, Mechanical Engineering
2013:
used water not only for motive power, but also required it in large quantities in the manufacturing process.
1941:
1801:
1722:
1127:
1082:
1016:
1383:
1143:
828:
horsepower (650 W) at its peak. Remains of an earlier mill dated at 619 were also found at the site.
807:
619:
The Romans used both fixed and floating water wheels and introduced water power to other provinces of the
330:
1725:. The last two examples in the United Kingdom which are restored to working conditions can be visited at
730:
The surviving evidence for watermills sharply increases with the emergence of documentary genres such as
1984:
1945:
2943:
706:
484:
2178:
1734:
1269:
818:. Its millstones are 830 mm in diameter and the horizontal wheel is estimated to have developed
478:
371:
mill around 20 BC/10 AD. He praised for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labour:
45:
348:
has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC; the device is fitted with an
3661:
2877:
This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to
2169:
1793:
1760:
803:
750:
746:
188:
3395:
2368:
corn mill does not need gearing (and hence has no cogs), the mill must have been vertical-wheeled.
1089:(r. 712–756 AD) owned a watermill by 748 AD which employed five waterwheels that ground 300
3592:
3584:
3259:
3251:
2972:
2922:
2194:
2117:
1990:
1908:
806:. Alongside it, another tide mill was found which was powered by a vertical undershot wheel. The
590:
489:
407:
269:
3388:
Excavations of a Mill at Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project
2247:
M. J. T. Lewis, Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power (University of Hull Press 1997)
1370:
52:
2427:
2064:
1544:
631:
together with a possible sequence of mills worked by an aqueduct running along the side of the
40:
3544:
3527:
3504:
3479:
3464:
3447:
3429:
3421:
3410:
3363:
3347:
3330:
3312:
3294:
3274:
3225:
3207:
3110:
3049:
2990:
1882:
1813:
1548:
1523:
1045:
508:
493:
172:
3639:
383:, who leaping down upon the topmost part of the wheel, rotate its axle; with encircling cogs,
3576:
3243:
2964:
2914:
2186:
2137:
2028:
1360:
1139:
1098:
1078:
1041:
815:
811:
543:
450:
per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of
1389:
778:, both of which yet unattested for the ancient period, were introduced in the 6th century.
3646:
3360:
Harnessing the Tides: The Early Medieval Tide Mills at Nendrum Monastery, Strangford Lough
3182:
2997:
2122:
2058:
1726:
1341:
1250:
to Christian Spain in the 12th century. Industrial watermills were also employed in large
745:. These were more inclined to address watermilling, a mostly rural work process, than the
605:
540:
402:
289:
273:
85:
3560:(1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel",
3162:
2944:
Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
2182:
1543:
has been for the waterwheel to turn a horizontal shaft on which is also mounted a large
1408:
or mill pond to a turbine or water wheel, along a channel or pipe (variously known as a
2939:
1809:
1653:
1649:
1638:
1600:
1594:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1493:
Pitchback water wheel, often used to increase the power generated by a breastshot wheel
1203:
1053:
758:
512:
497:
467:
277:
184:
28:
3132:"Back to the grind: historic mills boosted by flour shortage during Covid-19 lockdown"
557:
3655:
3596:
3287:
3263:
2976:
2926:
2198:
2054:
1933:
1894:
1375:
1231:
997:
983:
754:
594:
578:
439:
168:
81:
1697:
encouraged some mill owners to replace over- and undershot wheels with Pelton wheel
1670:
that is mounted near the outer edge of the wheel. This drives the machinery using a
205:
There are two basic types of watermills, one powered by a vertical-waterwheel via a
3199:
3136:
2095:
2034:
2024:
1951:
1898:
1844:
1718:
1694:
1454:
1450:
1437:
1223:
1215:
1074:
1021:
878:
620:
551:
438:
has been described as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the
416:
254:
234:
145:
141:
129:
3543:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400,
3499:
Rynne, Colin (2000), "Waterpower in Medieval Ireland", in Squatriti, Paolo (ed.),
3446:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 217–302,
3092:
2190:
1644:
753:
times, references to watermills had become "innumerable" in Frankish records. The
393:. If we learn to feast toil-free on the fruits of the earth, we taste again the
260:
The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel appears in the technical treatises
3629:
3517:
2551:
2132:
2016:
1937:
1925:
1854:
1772:
1605:
1560:
1219:
1066:
1058:
1029:
1028:
The waterwheel was found in China from 30 AD onwards, when it was used to power
799:
791:
738:
632:
474:
424:
412:
368:
349:
304:
296:
285:
242:
200:
137:
96:. Such processes are needed in the production of many material goods, including
77:
24:
3503:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 3, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1–50,
1024:(960–1127) water-powered mill for dehusking grain with a horizontal wheel
2127:
2112:
2085:
2010:
1888:
1820:
1797:
1777:
1721:
in Canada where the tides can rise fifty feet, or the now derelict village of
1552:
1247:
1227:
1211:
1199:
1195:
1135:
1049:
946:
742:
651:
647:
394:
338:
326:
311:
229:
180:
152:
133:
125:
73:
57:
3426:
Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology
3022:
Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged
284:
is, already fully developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd-century BC
3530:(1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report",
2727:
2020:
2004:
1980:
1961:
1870:
1748:
1730:
1714:
1683:
1667:
1540:
1413:
1301:
1281:
1273:
1207:
1183:
844:
First Appearance of Various Industrial Mills in Medieval Europe, AD 770-1443
795:
775:
771:
731:
719:
643:
639:
628:
598:
455:
390:
345:
300:
238:
161:
157:
117:
2968:
2918:
1993:
for scouring needles during manufacture were mostly water-powered (such as
593:, dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. A possible water-powered
3204:
Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation
3175:
1816:. This was boosted to overcome flour shortages during the Covid pandemic.
690:
Breastshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 3rd century AD
19:
This article is about a type of structure. For other locational uses, see
2878:
2142:
2076:
2057:
were used for slitting bars of iron into rods, which were then made into
2000:
1944:
were initially used to increase the water flow to the wheel, then as the
1902:
1702:
1660:
1609:
1590:
1505:
Breastshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 3rd century AD
1441:
1421:
547:
532:
463:
357:
3222:
A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD)
1469:
Undershot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
1351:
1332:
1081:
that failed to acknowledge ordinances or meet government regulations. A
666:
Undershot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
3588:
3255:
2040:
1929:
1874:
1863:
1765:
1738:
1698:
1679:
1634:
1481:
Overshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
1345:
1337:
1309:
1305:
1251:
1239:
1191:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1070:
1033:
959:
787:
767:
763:
734:
678:
Overshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
609:
586:
582:
570:
566:
562:
536:
528:
520:
420:
387:
376:
121:
109:
89:
20:
3575:, vol. 92, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32,
3442:
Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
550:, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the
2072:
2068:
2048:
2044:
1919:
1912:
1859:
1848:
1425:
1364:
1277:
1262:
1187:
1155:
1151:
1090:
613:
524:
516:
435:
334:
318:
101:
93:
3580:
3539:
Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
3247:
2724:"Recently discovered Tide Mill from 787 AD at Nendrum Monastic Site"
1142:, having been applied for centuries in those provinces prior to the
604:
Mills were commonly used for grinding grain into flour (attested by
156:
classify water mills is by an essential trait about their location:
2858:
2856:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2695:
2693:
2463:
2461:
1839:
1254:
complexes built in al-Andalus between the 11th and 13th centuries.
446:
mills. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of
442:". It featured 16 overshot waterwheels to power an equal number of
3569:
Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy",
3476:
Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel
3289:
The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages
2099:
2079:
1973:
1969:
1853:
1838:
1771:
1759:
1687:
1663:
1643:
1599:
1581:
1531:
1527:
1514:
1429:
1409:
1401:
1388:
1379:
1369:
1350:
1331:
1171:
1147:
1121:
1102:
1094:
1093:
of wheat a day. By 610 or 670 AD, the watermill was introduced to
1015:
723:
705:
556:
483:
451:
447:
443:
380:
353:
281:
228:
176:
113:
105:
97:
51:
39:
3634:
3198:
Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800−1400", in
3176:
Ashden Awards case study on upgrading of watermills by CRT/Nepal
1878:
1675:
1671:
1556:
1417:
1321:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1266:
1258:
1235:
507:
is the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a
459:
206:
492:, the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a
415:
operating in the greater part of Italy. There is evidence of a
3624:
2089:
1405:
1297:
1243:
3206:(4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422,
1674:
mounted on a shaft rather than taking power from the central
3614:
1555:, set with pegs, in turn, turned a smaller wheel (such as a
539:. They also seem to be indicated about the same time by the
356:. He also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered
2413:, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)
1226:. Muslim and Middle Eastern Christian engineers also used
1138:
adopted watermill technology from former provinces of the
3461:
Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History
2680:
2678:
1958:
mills were used for a finishing process on woollen cloth.
1693:
Toward the end of the 19th century, the invention of the
1678:. However, the basic mode of operation remains the same;
303:
in the first half of the 3rd century BC, and that of the
3619:
3010:
Conference of Qanat in Iran - water clock in Persia 1383
2772:
Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, pp. 390–392
839:
477:
mill dating to the late 2nd century AD was excavated at
3609:
3380:, vol. 34, no. 1, F. Datini, pp. 223–269
1747:
schemes do not divert water at all and usually involve
257:, undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills.
2514:
2346:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2313:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2272:
2219:
1073:
arguing over the revenues gained from watermills. The
3620:
The Society for the Preservation of Old Mills (SPOOM)
3048:. Newbury, Berks: Countryside Books. pp. 20–31.
2448:
2446:
2444:
2162:
2160:
2158:
454:
at that time. A similar mill complex existed on the
3640:
Windmills and watermills of the East Grinstead area
3159:"Water Mill Battery Charger (Nepal Ghatta Project)"
2502:
2500:
1065:(r. 482–493 AD). The engineer Yang Su of the
164:are water mills onboard (and constituting) a ship.
3286:
2479:
2467:
3463:, The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 1, 1991).
3327:Mills in the Medieval Economy: England, 1300-1540
2170:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography
1428:gates that allow maintenance and some measure of
3344:Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power
3109:. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 22.
2850:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 400–401.
2823:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 396–400.
2711:
757:, compiled in 1086, records 5,624 watermills in
276:interpolations, actually date back to the Greek
2875:
1061:had a watermill erected which was inspected by
1052:). Although the British chemist and sinologist
373:
295:Lewis assigns the date of the invention of the
241:. The millstone (upper floor) is powered by an
27:. For further details of the technologies, see
3615:The International Molinological Society (TIMS)
2814:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 88–89.
1819:Some old mills are being upgraded with modern
1126:An Afghan water mill photographed during the
1040:, and in one case, to mechanically rotate an
379:has imposed the labours of your hands on the
8:
3610:Mill database with over 10000 European mills
2802:
2781:
1928:were driven by water. The power was used to
802:tide mill dating to c. 630 was excavated on
245:by the way of a gear mechanism (lower floor)
16:Structure that uses a water wheel or turbine
3358:McErlean, Thomas; Crothers, Norman (2007),
2037:shaped metal by passing it between rollers.
1983:prior to the introduction of the cupola (a
1891:were used for sharpening newly made blades.
1823:technology, such as those worked on by the
749:urban-centered literary class had been. By
3067:
3065:
1393:The interior of a functional watermill at
3478:. (Johns Hopkins University Press 1983).
1948:progressed, to directly drive the shafts.
794:tide mill was located at Killoteran near
3039:
3037:
2892:
2871:
2684:
2658:
2646:
2598:
2574:
2562:
2526:
2510:
2452:
2397:
2381:
2377:
2342:
2325:
2309:
2292:
2288:
2268:
2223:
1276:. This technique was employed along the
713:
329:to have existed near the palace of king
116:products. These watermills may comprise
2634:
2622:
2154:
1459:
656:
523:. Literary references to water-powered
466:important enough to be included in the
23:. For details of the technologies, see
2862:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 401.
2841:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 400.
2793:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 370.
2751:, Vol. 46, (Jan. 2005), pp. 1-30 (17).
2670:
2610:
2586:
2506:
2491:
2385:
2276:
2256:
2235:
2215:
2211:
1932:the raw cotton, and then to drive the
1922:and rugs were sometimes water-powered.
1881:to produce a coarse powder for use in
810:from 787 was situated on an island in
505:Hierapolis water-powered stone sawmill
237:water-powered grain mill described by
84:to drive a mechanical process such as
3501:Working with Water in Medieval Europe
2760:
2699:
2552:Rob Spain: A possible Roman Tide Mill
1713:A different type of watermill is the
7:
3541:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
3444:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
3362:, Belfast: Stationery Office Books,
2515:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2347:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2314:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2273:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2220:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
1400:Typically, water is diverted from a
837:subject in several other countries.
462:'s population was judged by emperor
3329:, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
3093:Dictionary definition of "tailrace"
3081:A Course of Experimental Philosophy
3046:The Industrial Revolution explained
3625:U.S. mill pictures and information
3293:, London: Penguin (Non-Classics),
1666:wheels) transmit the power from a
1395:Weald and Downland Open Air Museum
386:it turns the hollow weight of the
14:
3346:, University of Hull Press 1997.
3130:Partridge, Joanna (7 June 2020).
1788:A few historic mills such as the
1575:in 1723 and published in 1744 by
1288:, where large ship mills made of
702:List of early medieval watermills
432:multiple mill complex of Barbegal
3534:, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
3494:, vol. 20, pp. 138–163
3311:, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers,
3271:The Scottish Miller 1700 - 1900.
3083:II (1744; 1763 edition), 449-53.
2480:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
2468:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
2092:, usually from non-ferrous mines
1498:
1486:
1474:
1462:
1238:in watermills and water-raising
683:
671:
659:
458:hill, whose supply of flour for
76:. It is a structure that uses a
3564:, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
3428:, University of Toronto Press,
3242:, vol. 52, pp. 1–17,
2702:, pp. 10, fig. 1.2, 17, 49
1825:South Somerset Hydropower Group
1355:Roblin's Mill, a watermill, at
352:and power is transmitted via a
3630:Watermills in Norfolk, England
2007:might be wind or water-powered
1686:through the motion of flowing
411:of around 70 AD water-powered
179:and sedimentation of adjacent
175:. Also in the backwater area,
160:use the movement of the tide;
1:
3309:The Mills of Medieval England
3224:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill,
2191:10.1080/04353676.2019.1574209
2102:were sometimes water-powered.
2098:for spinning yarn or weaving
1915:and other textile industries.
1659:Larger water wheels (usually
1324:city, still producing flour.
642:were ingeniously used by the
3572:The Journal of Roman Studies
3562:Journal of Roman Archaeology
3518:"A possible Roman Tide Mill"
3492:Journal of Roman Archaeology
2712:McErlean & Crothers 2007
1979:Lead was usually smelted in
1911:made wooden bobbins for the
1616:Overshot and pitchback mills
299:mill to the Greek colony of
60:watermill, UK (14th century)
3635:Mills in Hampshire, England
3522:Kent Archaeological Society
3409:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
3220:de Crespigny, Rafe (2007),
2411:The Economic History Review
2031:were usually water-powered.
1648:A breastshot waterwheel at
1357:Black Creek Pioneer Village
3700:
2661:, pp. 379 & 383f.
1752:the bridge was impaired.
1176:List of ancient watermills
1101:. It also became known in
842:
832:Survey of industrial mills
699:
608:), but industrial uses as
225:List of ancient watermills
222:
198:
18:
3520:, Paper submitted to the
3405:Needham, Joseph. (1986).
2424:"La meunerie de Barbegal"
1063:Emperor Wu of Southern Qi
470:in the late 3rd century.
365:Antipater of Thessalonica
3682:Sustainable technologies
1995:Forge Mill Needle Museum
1918:Carpet mills for making
1420:, leet, lade (Scots) or
1087:Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
1046:astronomical observation
401:The Roman encyclopedist
363:The Greek epigrammatist
48:, Belgium (12th century)
3385:Murphy, Donald (2005),
3107:Diet for a large planet
1877:, from oak or chestnut
1723:Tide Mills, East Sussex
1547:. This meshes with the
1284:rivers in 10th-century
1146:, including modern-day
1128:Second Anglo-Afghan War
597:has been identified at
3667:Agricultural buildings
3325:Langdon, John (2004),
3307:Holt, Richard (1988),
3269:Gauldie, Enid (1981).
3029:, n. A leat; a flume.
2991:Mechanical Engineering
2969:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
2957:Technology and Culture
2919:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
2907:Technology and Culture
2883:
2749:Technology and Culture
1866:
1851:
1802:The Darley Mill Centre
1781:
1769:
1656:
1612:
1597:
1535:
1453:, fulling stocks in a
1397:
1386:
1384:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1367:
1348:
1131:
1025:
808:Nendrum Monastery mill
727:
711:
574:
500:
399:
331:Mithradates VI Eupator
268:of the Greek engineer
246:
61:
49:
31:. For other uses, see
3677:Hydraulic engineering
3532:History of Technology
3285:Gimpel, Jean (1977),
3105:Otter, Chris (2020).
2601:, p. 170, fn. 45
1985:reverberatory furnace
1946:Industrial Revolution
1857:
1842:
1775:
1763:
1647:
1603:
1585:
1518:
1392:
1373:
1354:
1335:
1125:
1019:
913:Tool-sharpening mill
790:coast: A 6th century
717:
709:
700:Further information:
650:, when the besieging
560:
487:
367:tells of an advanced
317:The Greek geographer
232:
223:Further information:
55:
43:
3044:Yorke, Stan (2005).
2218:, pp. 217–302;
1858:Former watermill in
1668:toothed annular ring
1134:Engineers under the
1105:by at least 641 AD.
535:4th century AD poem
527:saws in what is now
488:Scheme of the Roman
479:Les Martres-de-Veyre
243:undershot waterwheel
72:is a mill that uses
3474:Reynolds, Terry S.
2259:, pp. 234, 270
2214:, pp. 325ff.;
2183:2019GeAnA.101..157M
1810:Little Salkeld Mill
616:were also applied.
503:The 3rd century AD
430:The 2nd century AD
344:The Roman engineer
219:Classical antiquity
3672:Ancient inventions
3645:2016-12-27 at the
3422:Oleson, John Peter
3273:Pub. John Donald.
3181:2008-04-30 at the
2996:2007-12-25 at the
2895:, pp. 158−162
2687:, pp. 155–157
2509:, pp. 507f.;
2482:, pp. 149–153
2312:, pp. 373f.;
2271:, pp. 396f.;
2226:, pp. 371−400
2222:, pp. 10−15;
2118:List of watermills
1867:
1852:
1782:
1770:
1657:
1625:backshot wheel. A
1613:
1598:
1536:
1398:
1387:
1374:Watermills on the
1368:
1349:
1304:every day for the
1132:
1026:
972:Ore-crushing mill
800:horizontal-wheeled
728:
712:
710:Medieval watermill
591:Roman North Africa
581:mill was found in
575:
501:
490:Hierapolis sawmill
408:Naturalis Historia
297:horizontal-wheeled
270:Philo of Byzantium
247:
86:milling (grinding)
62:
50:
3369:978-0-337-08877-3
3318:978-0-631-15692-5
3300:978-0-14-004514-7
3240:Anatolian Studies
3231:978-90-04-15605-0
3116:978-0-226-69710-9
3055:978-1-85306-935-2
2803:de Crespigny 2007
2782:de Crespigny 2007
1814:Redbournbury Mill
1577:J. T. Desaguliers
1524:San Vittore Olona
1520:Mulino Meraviglia
1296:could produce 10
1022:Northern Song era
1012:Ancient East Asia
1009:
1008:
941:Slovakia, France
354:gearing mechanism
288:wall painting in
177:inundation events
46:Braine-le-Château
3689:
3599:
3565:
3553:
3535:
3513:
3495:
3456:
3438:
3402:
3400:
3393:
3381:
3372:
3339:
3321:
3303:
3292:
3266:
3234:
3216:
3185:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3165:on 7 March 2005.
3161:. Archived from
3155:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3102:
3096:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3072:
3069:
3060:
3059:
3041:
3032:
3019:
3013:
3007:
3001:
2987:
2981:
2980:
2952:
2946:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2851:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2824:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2770:
2764:
2763:, pp. 417f.
2758:
2752:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2726:. Archived from
2720:
2714:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2688:
2682:
2673:
2668:
2662:
2656:
2650:
2644:
2638:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2614:
2613:, pp. 11–12
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2577:, pp. 372f.
2572:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2504:
2495:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2456:
2450:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2426:. Archived from
2420:
2414:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2375:
2369:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2350:
2340:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2307:
2296:
2286:
2280:
2266:
2260:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2164:
2029:smokeless powder
1745:Run of the river
1604:Shipmill on the
1502:
1490:
1478:
1466:
1440:balanced on the
1361:Toronto, Ontario
1144:Muslim conquests
1140:Byzantine Empire
1099:Korean Peninsula
1042:armillary sphere
908:England, France
840:
827:
826:
822:
816:Northern Ireland
812:Strangford Lough
792:vertical-wheeled
687:
675:
663:
544:Gregory of Nyssa
531:can be found in
475:breastshot wheel
405:mentions in his
341:, before 71 BC.
325:a water-powered
305:vertical-wheeled
56:Interior of the
3699:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3686:
3652:
3651:
3647:Wayback Machine
3606:
3581:10.2307/3184857
3568:
3556:
3551:
3538:
3528:Wikander, Örjan
3526:
3511:
3498:
3489:
3459:Pacey, Arnold,
3454:
3441:
3436:
3420:
3398:
3391:
3384:
3375:
3370:
3357:
3337:
3324:
3319:
3306:
3301:
3284:
3248:10.2307/3643076
3237:
3232:
3219:
3214:
3197:
3194:
3189:
3188:
3183:Wayback Machine
3174:
3170:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3142:
3140:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3117:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3043:
3042:
3035:
3024:(1952) states:
3020:
3016:
3008:
3004:
2998:Wayback Machine
2989:Hill; see also
2988:
2984:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2938:
2934:
2904:
2903:
2899:
2891:
2887:
2874:, p. 400:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2759:
2755:
2746:
2742:
2733:
2731:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2706:
2698:
2691:
2683:
2676:
2669:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2625:, pp. 9–10
2621:
2617:
2609:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2546:
2537:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2513:, p. 377;
2505:
2498:
2490:
2486:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2459:
2451:
2442:
2433:
2431:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2384:, p. 403;
2380:, p. 158;
2376:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2345:, p. 375;
2341:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2308:
2299:
2291:, p. 160;
2287:
2283:
2267:
2263:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2210:
2206:
2166:
2165:
2156:
2151:
2123:Mill (heraldry)
2109:
1837:
1758:
1711:
1701:driven through
1618:
1513:
1506:
1503:
1494:
1491:
1482:
1479:
1470:
1467:
1342:Veszprem County
1336:A watermill in
1330:
1318:
1302:flour from corn
1120:
1111:
1079:Buddhist abbeys
1014:
824:
820:
819:
798:. A twin flume
704:
698:
691:
688:
679:
676:
667:
664:
606:Pliny the Elder
541:Christian saint
419:in 73/74 AD in
350:undershot wheel
321:reports in his
314:around 240 BC.
290:Ptolemaic Egypt
227:
221:
216:
203:
197:
171:, particularly
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3685:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3604:External links
3602:
3601:
3600:
3566:
3558:Wilson, Andrew
3554:
3549:
3536:
3524:
3514:
3509:
3496:
3487:
3472:
3457:
3452:
3439:
3434:
3418:
3403:
3382:
3373:
3368:
3355:
3342:Lewis, M. J.,
3340:
3335:
3322:
3317:
3304:
3299:
3282:
3267:
3235:
3230:
3217:
3212:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3186:
3168:
3150:
3122:
3115:
3097:
3085:
3073:
3061:
3054:
3033:
3014:
3002:
2982:
2947:
2940:Ahmad Y Hassan
2932:
2897:
2885:
2864:
2852:
2843:
2825:
2816:
2807:
2805:, p. 1050
2795:
2786:
2774:
2765:
2753:
2740:
2715:
2704:
2689:
2674:
2663:
2651:
2639:
2627:
2615:
2603:
2591:
2579:
2567:
2555:
2544:
2531:
2519:
2496:
2484:
2472:
2457:
2440:
2415:
2402:
2390:
2370:
2360:
2358:Lewis, p. vii.
2351:
2330:
2318:
2297:
2281:
2279:, pp. 7f.
2275:, p. 11;
2261:
2249:
2240:
2228:
2204:
2177:(2): 157–176.
2153:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2093:
2083:
2062:
2055:Slitting mills
2052:
2038:
2032:
2014:
2008:
1998:
1988:
1977:
1959:
1949:
1934:spinning mules
1923:
1916:
1906:
1903:tinplate works
1895:Blast furnaces
1892:
1886:
1836:
1833:
1800:in the US and
1757:
1756:Current status
1754:
1710:
1707:
1654:United Kingdom
1650:Dalgarven Mill
1639:Worcestershire
1617:
1614:
1595:United Kingdom
1587:Dalgarven Mill
1573:Henry Beighton
1512:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1504:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1461:
1329:
1326:
1317:
1314:
1232:water turbines
1194:, ship mills,
1119:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1071:Buddhist monks
1054:Joseph Needham
1013:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1003:
1000:
993:
992:
989:
986:
980:
979:
976:
973:
969:
968:
965:
962:
956:
955:
952:
949:
943:
942:
939:
936:
932:
931:
928:
925:
921:
920:
917:
914:
910:
909:
906:
903:
899:
898:
895:
892:
888:
887:
884:
881:
875:
874:
871:
868:
864:
863:
858:
853:
847:
846:
834:
833:
784:
783:
697:
694:
693:
692:
689:
682:
680:
677:
670:
668:
665:
658:
513:connecting rod
498:connecting rod
468:Aurelian walls
369:overshot wheel
280:original. The
278:3rd century BC
266:Parasceuastica
220:
217:
215:
212:
196:
193:
187:increases and
185:river incision
138:trip hammering
29:Mill machinery
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3695:
3694:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3573:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3550:90-04-11123-9
3546:
3542:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3510:90-04-10680-4
3506:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3488:
3485:
3484:0-8018-7248-0
3481:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3469:0-262-66072-5
3466:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3453:90-04-11123-9
3449:
3445:
3440:
3437:
3435:90-277-1693-5
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3415:0-521-05803-1
3412:
3408:
3404:
3401:on 2007-11-18
3397:
3390:
3389:
3383:
3379:
3374:
3371:
3365:
3361:
3356:
3353:
3352:0-85958-657-X
3349:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3336:0-19-926558-5
3332:
3328:
3323:
3320:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3302:
3296:
3291:
3290:
3283:
3280:
3279:0-85976-067-7
3276:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3233:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3215:
3213:3-7861-1748-9
3209:
3205:
3201:
3200:Lindgren, Uta
3196:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3180:
3177:
3172:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3151:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3126:
3123:
3118:
3112:
3108:
3101:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3074:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2986:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2893:Wikander 1985
2889:
2886:
2882:
2880:
2873:
2872:Wikander 2000
2868:
2865:
2859:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2817:
2811:
2808:
2804:
2799:
2796:
2790:
2787:
2784:, p. 184
2783:
2778:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2730:on 2007-09-27
2729:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2685:Wikander 1985
2681:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2659:Wikander 2000
2655:
2652:
2649:, p. 400
2648:
2647:Wikander 2000
2643:
2640:
2637:, pp. 11
2636:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2599:Wikander 1985
2595:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2575:Wikander 2000
2571:
2568:
2565:, p. 383
2564:
2563:Wikander 2000
2559:
2556:
2553:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2529:, p. 407
2528:
2527:Wikander 2000
2523:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2511:Wikander 2000
2508:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2473:
2470:, p. 161
2469:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2455:, p. 375
2454:
2453:Wikander 2000
2449:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2430:on 2007-01-17
2429:
2425:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2406:
2403:
2400:, p. 406
2399:
2398:Wikander 2000
2394:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2382:Wikander 2000
2379:
2378:Wikander 1985
2374:
2371:
2364:
2361:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2343:Wikander 2000
2339:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2328:, p. 402
2327:
2326:Wikander 2000
2322:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2310:Wikander 2000
2306:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2295:, p. 396
2294:
2293:Wikander 2000
2290:
2289:Wikander 1985
2285:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2269:Wikander 2000
2265:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2238:, p. 233
2237:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2224:Wikander 2000
2221:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2171:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:Sutter's Mill
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2096:Textile mills
2094:
2091:
2088:for crushing
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2036:
2035:Rolling mills
2033:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2003:for crushing
2002:
1999:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1942:Steam engines
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1899:finery forges
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1843:Watermill in
1841:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1776:Watermill in
1774:
1767:
1764:Watermill in
1762:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1501:
1496:
1489:
1484:
1477:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1412:, head race,
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1124:
1117:
1115:
1109:Ancient India
1108:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1038:smelting iron
1035:
1031:
1023:
1018:
1011:
1004:
1001:
999:
998:slitting mill
995:
994:
990:
987:
985:
984:Blast furnace
982:
981:
977:
974:
971:
970:
966:
963:
961:
958:
957:
953:
950:
948:
945:
944:
940:
937:
934:
933:
929:
926:
923:
922:
918:
915:
912:
911:
907:
904:
901:
900:
896:
893:
891:Tanning mill
890:
889:
885:
882:
880:
877:
876:
872:
869:
866:
865:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
848:
845:
841:
838:
831:
830:
829:
817:
813:
809:
805:
804:Little Island
801:
797:
793:
789:
781:
780:
779:
777:
773:
769:
765:
760:
756:
755:Domesday Book
752:
748:
744:
741:and Germanic
740:
736:
733:
726:, around 1411
725:
721:
716:
708:
703:
695:
686:
681:
674:
669:
662:
657:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
630:
624:
622:
617:
615:
611:
607:
602:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
577:The earliest
572:
568:
564:
559:
555:
553:
549:
545:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
499:
495:
491:
486:
482:
480:
476:
471:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
440:ancient world
437:
433:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
409:
404:
398:
396:
392:
389:
385:
382:
378:
372:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
315:
313:
310:
306:
302:
298:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
258:
256:
252:
244:
240:
236:
231:
226:
218:
214:Western world
213:
211:
208:
202:
194:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
165:
163:
159:
154:
149:
147:
143:
142:rolling mills
139:
135:
131:
130:textile mills
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
82:water turbine
79:
75:
71:
67:
59:
54:
47:
44:Watermill of
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3570:
3561:
3540:
3531:
3521:
3516:Spain, Rob:
3500:
3491:
3475:
3460:
3443:
3425:
3406:
3396:the original
3387:
3377:
3359:
3343:
3326:
3308:
3288:
3270:
3239:
3221:
3203:
3171:
3163:the original
3153:
3141:. Retrieved
3137:The Guardian
3135:
3125:
3106:
3100:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3045:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3012:, in Persian
3005:
2985:
2963:(1): 1–30 .
2960:
2956:
2950:
2935:
2913:(1): 1–30 .
2910:
2906:
2900:
2888:
2876:
2867:
2846:
2819:
2810:
2798:
2789:
2777:
2768:
2756:
2748:
2743:
2732:. Retrieved
2728:the original
2718:
2707:
2666:
2654:
2642:
2635:Langdon 2004
2630:
2623:Langdon 2004
2618:
2606:
2594:
2582:
2570:
2558:
2547:
2539:
2534:
2522:
2517:, p. 13
2494:, p. 16
2487:
2475:
2432:. Retrieved
2428:the original
2418:
2410:
2405:
2393:
2388:, p. 16
2373:
2363:
2354:
2349:, p. 13
2321:
2316:, p. 12
2284:
2264:
2252:
2243:
2231:
2207:
2174:
2168:
2025:black powder
2017:Powder mills
1991:Needle mills
1965:
1955:
1926:Cotton mills
1909:Bobbin mills
1845:Caldas Novas
1835:Applications
1829:
1818:
1806:Daniels Mill
1787:
1783:
1744:
1743:
1719:Bay of Fundy
1712:
1695:Pelton wheel
1692:
1658:
1631:Daniels Mill
1626:
1623:
1619:
1569:
1564:
1557:lantern gear
1537:
1519:
1511:Milling corn
1455:fulling mill
1447:
1438:runner stone
1434:
1399:
1319:
1256:
1224:Central Asia
1216:North Africa
1180:
1133:
1118:Arabic world
1112:
1075:Tang dynasty
1030:trip hammers
1027:
996:Cutting and
879:Fulling mill
860:
855:
851:Type of mill
850:
843:
835:
785:
737:, Christian
729:
637:
625:
621:Roman Empire
618:
603:
576:
552:Roman Empire
502:
472:
434:in southern
429:
417:fulling mill
413:trip hammers
406:
400:
384:
374:
362:
343:
322:
316:
294:
265:
261:
259:
248:
204:
166:
150:
146:wire drawing
69:
65:
63:
37:
2671:Murphy 2005
2611:Gimpel 1977
2589:, p. 3
2587:Wilson 2002
2507:Wilson 1995
2492:Wilson 2002
2386:Wilson 2002
2277:Wilson 2002
2257:Oleson 2000
2236:Oleson 2000
2216:Oleson 2000
2212:Oleson 1984
2133:Scoop wheel
2086:Stamp mills
2065:Spoke mills
2019:for making
2011:Paper mills
1938:ring frames
1889:Blade mills
1827:in the UK.
1794:Newlin Mill
1561:sluice gate
1457:and so on.
1406:impoundment
1228:crankshafts
1220:Middle East
1204:sugar mills
1200:steel mills
1196:stamp mills
1067:Sui dynasty
1059:Zu Chongzhi
938:1269, 1283
902:Forge mill
751:Carolingian
743:legal codes
739:hagiography
696:Middle Ages
638:In 537 AD,
633:River Fleet
612:and sawing
425:Roman Syria
286:Hellenistic
233:Model of a
201:Water wheel
181:floodplains
169:sedimentate
134:hammermills
126:paper mills
112:, and many
78:water wheel
25:Water wheel
3662:Watermills
3656:Categories
3192:References
2761:Burns 1996
2734:2008-04-10
2700:Rynne 2000
2434:2008-04-11
2128:Molinology
2113:Horse mill
1981:smeltmills
1966:corn mills
1962:Gristmills
1871:Bark mills
1821:hydropower
1798:Yates Mill
1790:Water Mill
1780:(Slovakia)
1735:Woodbridge
1709:Tide mills
1553:face wheel
1541:corn mills
1248:Al-Andalus
1212:al-Andalus
1208:tide mills
1184:gristmills
1136:Caliphates
1050:Zhang Heng
947:Paper mill
924:Hemp mill
867:Malt mill
782:Tide mills
776:tide mills
772:Ship mills
720:ship mills
648:Belisarius
644:East Roman
640:ship mills
601:, France.
481:, France.
395:golden age
391:millstones
360:machines.
339:Asia Minor
327:grain-mill
312:Alexandria
282:sakia gear
262:Pneumatica
199:See also:
162:ship mills
158:tide mills
118:gristmills
74:hydropower
70:water mill
58:Lyme Regis
33:Water Mill
3597:154629776
3264:163811541
2977:109564224
2927:109564224
2199:133795380
2021:gunpowder
2005:oil seeds
2001:Oil mills
1883:tanneries
1785:century.
1768:(Finland)
1749:undershot
1731:Hampshire
1715:tide mill
1703:penstocks
1684:machinery
1672:spur gear
1565:tentering
1545:pit wheel
1436:turned a
1414:mill race
1328:Operation
1282:Euphrates
1274:midstream
905:ca. 1200
796:Waterford
629:tide mill
599:Marseille
456:Janiculum
346:Vitruvius
323:Geography
309:Ptolemaic
301:Byzantium
239:Vitruvius
173:backwater
94:hammering
66:watermill
3643:Archived
3424:(1984),
3179:Archived
3143:7 August
3071:Gauldie.
2994:Archived
2879:Cedrenus
2143:Windmill
2107:See also
2077:carriage
2041:Sawmills
1968:, grind
1699:turbines
1661:overshot
1610:Slovenia
1591:Ayrshire
1549:wallower
1530:, along
1422:penstock
1240:machines
1192:sawmills
1085:serving
978:Germany
964:c. 1300
935:Bellows
894:c. 1134
735:charters
732:monastic
646:general
565:mill at
548:Anatolia
533:Ausonius
464:Aurelian
388:Nisyrian
358:kneading
307:mill to
191:deepen.
189:channels
122:sawmills
110:textiles
3589:3184857
3256:3643076
3202:(ed.),
2538:Lewis,
2179:Bibcode
2067:turned
1952:Fulling
1920:carpets
1873:ground
1864:Estonia
1778:Jahodná
1766:Kuusamo
1739:Suffolk
1733:and at
1682:drives
1680:gravity
1635:Bewdley
1627:launder
1346:Hungary
1338:Tapolca
1310:Baghdad
1306:granary
1263:bridges
1252:factory
1242:, and
1218:to the
1188:hullers
1168:Morocco
1164:Tunisia
1160:Algeria
1091:bushels
1034:bellows
1005:France
991:France
967:France
960:Sawmill
930:France
919:France
897:France
886:France
873:France
861:Country
823:⁄
768:Germany
764:Ireland
759:England
747:ancient
722:on the
718:German
610:fulling
595:furnace
587:Testour
583:Chemtou
579:turbine
571:Tunisia
567:Chemtou
563:turbine
537:Mosella
529:Germany
521:Ephesus
452:Arelate
421:Antioch
377:Demeter
195:History
148:mills.
140:mills,
90:rolling
21:Milldam
3595:
3587:
3547:
3507:
3482:
3467:
3450:
3432:
3413:
3366:
3350:
3333:
3315:
3297:
3277:
3262:
3254:
3228:
3210:
3113:
3052:
2975:
2925:
2540:passim
2197:
2080:wheels
2073:spokes
2069:lumber
2049:lumber
2045:timber
1970:grains
1913:cotton
1901:, and
1860:Kohila
1849:Brazil
1426:sluice
1365:Canada
1316:Persia
1278:Tigris
1270:moored
1206:, and
1170:, and
1156:Israel
1152:Jordan
1083:eunuch
1032:, the
954:Spain
614:marble
561:Roman
525:marble
517:Gerasa
436:France
381:nymphs
335:Cabira
319:Strabo
274:Arabic
255:Romans
251:Greeks
144:, and
102:lumber
3593:S2CID
3585:JSTOR
3399:(PDF)
3392:(PDF)
3260:S2CID
3252:JSTOR
2973:S2CID
2923:S2CID
2195:S2CID
2149:Notes
2100:cloth
2071:into
2059:nails
2047:into
1974:flour
1972:into
1964:, or
1879:trees
1796:and
1727:Eling
1688:water
1664:steel
1633:near
1534:river
1532:Olona
1528:Italy
1451:forge
1430:flood
1410:flume
1402:river
1380:Jajce
1376:Pliva
1267:ships
1259:piers
1236:gears
1174:(see
1172:Spain
1148:Syria
1103:Tibet
1095:Japan
1048:(see
1002:1443
988:1384
975:1317
951:1282
927:1209
916:1203
883:1080
788:Irish
724:Rhine
652:Goths
546:from
509:crank
494:crank
448:flour
444:flour
403:Pliny
235:Roman
114:metal
106:paper
98:flour
92:, or
3545:ISBN
3505:ISBN
3480:ISBN
3465:ISBN
3448:ISBN
3430:ISBN
3411:ISBN
3364:ISBN
3348:ISBN
3331:ISBN
3313:ISBN
3295:ISBN
3275:ISBN
3226:ISBN
3208:ISBN
3145:2021
3111:ISBN
3050:ISBN
3027:leet
2075:for
2043:cut
1956:walk
1936:and
1930:card
1875:bark
1812:and
1676:axle
1606:Mura
1442:rynd
1418:leat
1322:Yazd
1298:tons
1294:iron
1292:and
1290:teak
1286:Iraq
1280:and
1244:dams
1230:and
1222:and
1214:and
1097:via
1044:for
870:770
856:Date
774:and
585:and
519:and
511:and
496:and
460:Rome
264:and
249:The
207:gear
153:gear
3577:doi
3244:doi
2965:doi
2915:doi
2187:doi
2175:101
2090:ore
2027:or
1954:or
1522:in
1404:or
1378:in
1359:in
1308:in
1300:of
1272:in
1261:of
1178:).
1036:in
814:in
333:at
80:or
68:or
3658::
3591:,
3583:,
3258:,
3250:,
3134:.
3064:^
3036:^
2971:.
2961:46
2959:.
2942:,
2921:.
2911:46
2909:.
2855:^
2828:^
2692:^
2677:^
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2333:^
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2193:.
2185:.
2173:.
2157:^
2023:-
1987:).
1940:.
1897:,
1862:,
1847:,
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1705:.
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1637:,
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1312:.
1234:,
1202:,
1198:,
1190:,
1186:,
1166:,
1162:,
1158:,
1154:,
1150:,
1020:A
770:.
635:.
589:,
569:,
554:.
473:A
427:.
423:,
337:,
292:.
136:,
132:,
128:,
124:,
120:,
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104:,
100:,
88:,
64:A
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1997:)
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397:.
35:.
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