824:: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons, the residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage.
998:
penetrate C horizons, which provide an important growing medium. Included as C layers are sediments, saprolite, non-indurated bedrock, and other geological materials that commonly slake within 24 hours when air-dry or drier chunks are placed in water, and that, when moist, can be dug with a spade. Some soils form in material that is already highly weathered, and if such material does not meet the requirements of A, E, or B horizons, it is designated C. Changes not considered pedogenic are those not related to overlying horizons. Layers having accumulations of silica, carbonates, or gypsum, even if indurated, may be included in C horizons, unless the layer is obviously affected by pedogenic processes; then it is a B horizon.
2284:). The presence or absence of one or more diagnostic horizons in a required depth is used for the definition of a taxonomic unit. In addition, most classification systems use some other soil characteristics for the definition of taxonomic units. The diagnostic horizons need to be thoroughly defined by a set of criteria. When allocating a soil (a pedon, a soil profile) to a taxonomic unit, one has to check every horizon of this soil and decide, whether or not the horizon fulfils the criteria of a diagnostic horizon. Based on the identified diagnostic horizons, one can proceed with the allocation of the soil to a taxonomic unit. In the following, the diagnostic horizons of two soil classification systems are listed.
830:: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth.
2087:
etc.). While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time. In the
Australian system, as a rule of thumb, layers thinner than 5 cm (2 inches) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer.
2018:
2268:: Rock breaks down, weathers and is mixed with other materials, or loose sediments are transformed by weathering. But the process is often far more complicated. For instance, a fully formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind- or water-deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile. This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas, and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes. Thus, a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O, A1, A2, B2, 2A2, 2B21, 2B22, 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2.
1969:
2091:
1803:
1039:: These are either water layers in soils or water layers submerging soils. The water is present either permanently or cyclic within the time frame of 24 hours. Some organic soils float on water. In other cases, shallow water (i.e. water not deeper than 1 m) may cover the soil permanently, as in the case of shallow lakes, or cyclic, as in tidal flats. The occurrence of tidal water can be indicated by the letter W in brackets: (W).
4185:
3820:
4174:
4201:
1909:. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons. In systems where (like in the Australian system) this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation "e" (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In soils that contain
109:
178:: This layer normally has less organic matter than the A horizon, so its colour is mainly derived from iron oxides. Iron oxides and clay minerals accumulate as a result of weathering. In soil, where substances move down from the topsoil, this is the layer where they accumulate. The process of accumulation of clay minerals, iron, aluminum, and organic compounds, is referred to as
2996:
1890:
2624:
91:
underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil.
2828:
35:
900:, or both; by coarser texture; or by a combination of these properties. An E horizon is commonly near to the surface, below an O or A horizon, and above a B horizon. However, the symbol E may be used without regard to the position in the profile for any horizon that meets the requirements and that has resulted from soil genesis.
75:. Diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the "cambic horizon" or the "spodic horizon". The WRB lists 40 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil characteristics may be needed to define a soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development of horizons.
2048:
R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the
1008:
underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated limestone or sandstone are examples of bedrock that are designated R. Air-dry or drier chunks of an R layer, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours. The R layer is sufficiently coherent when moist to make hand digging with a
997:
and lack properties of H, O, A, E or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but some siliceous and calcareous layers, such as shells, coral, and diatomaceous earth, are included. The material of C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying solum presumably formed. Plant roots can
779:
If the characteristics of two or more master layers occur in the same depth range, but occupy distinct parts clearly separated from each other, the master symbols are combined with the slash (/), the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: Bt/E (interfingering of E material
757:
5. If in a B horizon the characteristics of the suffixes g, h, k, l, o, q, s, t, v, or y are strongly expressed, the suffix w is not used, even if its characteristics are present; if the characteristics of the mentioned suffixes are weakly expressed and the characteristics of the suffix w are present
54:
The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of horizon
986:
Examples of layers that are not B horizons are: layers in which clay films either coat rock fragments or are found on finely stratified unconsolidated sediments, whether the films were formed in place or by illuviation; layers into which carbonates have been illuviated but that are not contiguous to
1763:
covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain undecomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of leaves), and
1418:
A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and
1047:
A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and
2033:
D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the
Australian system refer to "any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in its general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable horizon designation⊠may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization
90:
Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An
50:
surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance)
2086:
In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23
1958:
As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the
Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 â dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have a high
1821:
The A horizon is the top layer of the mineral soil horizons, often referred to as 'topsoil'. This layer contains dark decomposed organic matter, which is called "humus". The technical definition of an A horizon may vary between the systems, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to
2068:
L (Limnic) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic organisms. Included are coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat), diatomaceous earth, and marl; and is usually found as a remnant of past bodies of
891:
is advanced, because the lost substances first have been formed or accumulated there. All or much of the original rock structure is obliterated. An E horizon is usually, but not necessarily, lighter in colour than an underlying B horizon. In some soils, the colour is that of the sand and silt
2077:
A horizon that combines the characteristics of two horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If distinct parts have properties of two kinds of horizons, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.
1874:. However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A horizon. The A horizon may be further subdivided into A1 (dark, maximum biologic activity), A2 (paler), and A3 (transitional to the B horizon).
476:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn oxides predominantly inside soil aggregates, if present, and loss of these oxides on aggregate surfaces (A, B, C), or loss of Fe and/or Mn by lateral subsurface flow and pale colours in â„ 50% of the exposed area (E); transport in reduced form .
1943:
of the subsoil to a degree that it can be distinguished from the other horizons. The weathering may be biologically mediated. In addition, the B horizon is defined as having a distinctly different structure or consistency than the horizon(s) above and the horizon(s) below.
286:
consist of organotechnic material: Have ℠35% (by volume, related to the whole soil) artefacts containing ℠20% organic carbon; and < 20% organic carbon, not consisting of artefacts (related to the fine earth plus the dead plant residues of any length and a diameter †5
775:
If the characteristics of two or more master layers are superimposed to each other, the master symbols are combined without anything in between, the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: AhBw, BwAh, AhE, EAh, EBg, BgE, BwC, CBw, BsC, CBs.
202:: R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed
55:
symbols in the world. No one system is more correctâas artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed.
1324:
Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a horizon. The horizons in a profile are combined using a hyphen (-). Example: Ah-E-Bt1-2Bt2-2BwC-3C1-3C2.
802:
If two or more layers with the same designation occur, the letters are followed by figures. The sequence of figures continues across different strata. Examples: Oi-Oe-Oa-Ah-Bw1-Bw2-2Bw3-3Ahb1-3Eb-3Btb-4Ahb2-4C, Oi-He-Ha-Cr1-2Heb-2Hab-2Cr2-3CrÎł.
1980:", the surface depth of the soil where biologically activity and climate effects drives pedogenesis. The layers below the solum have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes.
1758:
The "O" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition. In the
Australian system, the O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of
753:
4. If two suffixes belong to the same soil-forming process, they follow each other immediately; in the combination of t and n, the t is written first; rules 1, 2 and 3 have to be followed, if applicable. Examples: Btn, Bhs, Bsh, Bhsm, Bsmh.
244:
is a loose layer that contains > 90% (by volume, related to the fine earth plus all dead plant residues) recognizable dead plant tissues (e.g. undecomposed leaves). Dead plant material still connected to living plants (e.g. dead parts of
528:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn in reduced form by upward-moving capillary water with subsequent oxidation: accumulation predominantly at soil aggregate surfaces, if present, and reduction of these oxides inside the aggregates (H, A, B, C).
393:
Consolidated rock; air-dry or drier specimens, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours; fractures, if present, occupy < 10% (by volume, related to the whole soil); not resulting from the cementation of a soil horizon.
798:
occur, the strata are indicated by preceding figures, starting with the second stratum. I and W layers are not considered as strata. All layers of the respective stratum are indicated by the figure: Example: Oi-Oe-Ah-E-2Bt-2C-3R.
264:
is a zone in the soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with properties different from layers above and/or below it. If at least one of these properties is the result of soil-forming processes, the layer is called a
94:
Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local
2832:
906:: These are horizons that formed below an A, E, H, or O horizon, and in which the dominant features are the obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, together with one or a combination of the following:
386:
Mineral layer; unconsolidated (can be cut with a spade when moist), or consolidated and more fractured than the R layer; no soil formation, or soil formation that does not meet the criteria of the A, E, and B horizon.
328:
that has at least partly been modified in-situ; soil structure and/or structural elements created by cultivation in â„ 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth), i.e. rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume).
62:
systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system uses entire horizon sequences for definition. Other systems pick out certain horizons, the "diagnostic horizons", for the definition; examples are the
836:: These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon. All or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. Additionally, they are characterized by one or more of the following:
1728:
Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithologic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a master horizon. Example: A, E, Bt1, 2Bt2, 2BC, 3C1, 3C2.
1048:
B/A. The master horizon symbols may be followed by the lowercase letters indicating subordinate characteristics (see below). Example: AhBw. The I, L and W symbols are not used in transitional horizon designations.
279:
consist of organic material: Have ℠20% organic carbon, not consisting of artefacts (related to the fine earth plus the dead plant residues of any length and a diameter †5 mm) and do not form part of a litter
1021:: These are sediments deposited in a body of water. They may be organic or mineral. Limnic material is either: (i) deposited by precipitation or through action of aquatic organisms, such as algae, especially
414:
This is the list of suffixes to the master symbols. In brackets is indicated to which master symbols the suffixes can be added. The suffixes e and i have different meanings for organic and mineral layers.
341:
Mineral horizon that has (at least originally) formed below an A or E horizon; rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth); one or more of the following processes of
318:
Organic horizon or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation †30 consecutive days in most years and not drained; generally regarded as non-peat and non-limnic horizon.
2788:
Wilkinson, M.T. and G.S. Humphreys. 2005. Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-based soil production rates and OSL-based bioturbation rates. Australian
Journal of Soil Research, v. 43, pp. 767-779.
534:: Pedogenic cementation in â„ 50% of the volume; cementation class: at least moderately cemented; only used if following another suffix (k, l, q, s, v, y, z) that indicates the cementing agent .
1901:"E", being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of
2800:
335:
Mineral horizon; has lost by downward movement within the soil (vertically or laterally) one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter.
2779:
Johnson, D.L., J.E.J. Domier, and D.N. Johnson. 2005. Reflections on the nature of soil and its biomantle. Annals, Association of
American Geographers, v. 95 (1), pp. 11-31.
2014:. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the C horizon and no underlying bedrock present, the C horizon resembles the parent material of the solum.
1784:
These horizons are also heavily organic but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The "P" designation comes from their common name,
1009:
spade impractical. The bedrock may contain cracks, but these are so few and so small that few roots can penetrate. The cracks may be coated or filled with soil material.
744:
1. The c follows the suffix that indicates the substance that forms the concretions or nodules; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the c.
2645:
253:(0 cm) is by convention the surface of the soil after removing, if present, the litter layer and, if present, below a layer of living plants (e.g. living mosses). The
3982:
857:
If a surface horizon has properties of both A and E horizons but the dominant feature is an accumulation of humified organic matter, it is designated an A horizon.
163:
is pronounced, a lighter coloured E subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the A horizon. The A horizon may also be the result of a combination of soil
4018:
2894:
747:
2. The m follows the suffix that indicates the substance that is the cementing agent; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the m.
2861:
1025:; or (ii) derived from underwater and floating aquatic plants and subsequently modified by aquatic animals. L layers include coprogenous earth or sedimentary
1947:
The B horizon can also accumulate minerals and organic matter that are migrating downwards from the A and E horizons. If so, this layer is also known as the
1764:
O2 horizons contain organic debris in various stages of decomposition, the origin of which is not readily visible. O horizons contain â„ 20% organic carbon.
1959:
concentration of clay minerals or oxides. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.
486:; in A horizons at least partly modified in situ; in B horizons predominantly by illuviation; in C horizons forming part of the parent material (A, B, C).
1015:: These are ice lenses and wedges that contain at least 75 per cent ice (by volume) and that distinctly separate layers (organic or mineral) in the soil.
556:: Modification by cultivation (e.g. ploughing); mineral layers are designated A, even if they belonged to another layer before cultivation (H, O, A).
3992:
2733:
4098:
3254:
1788:. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O horizons. P horizons contain â„ 12 to 18% organic carbon, depending on the clay content.
64:
4070:
3531:
1939:, mostly with the formation of iron oxides and clay minerals. It is usually brownish or reddish due to the iron oxides, which increases the
99:
and the historical uses to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.
4008:
1056:
This is the list of suffixes to the master horizons. After the hyphen, it is indicated to which master horizons the suffixes can be added.
297:
The designation consists of a capital letter (master symbol), which in most cases is followed by one or more lowercase letters (suffixes).
2673:
750:
3. The Ï follows the suffix that indicates the relict features; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the Ï.
4035:
3237:
187:
C) Substratum: Layer of non-indurated poorly weathered or unweathered rocks. This layer may accumulate more soluble compounds like CaCO
3515:
3047:
3520:
2887:
4063:
4003:
3987:
362:
accumulation by illuviation processes of one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter;
3525:
308:
Organic or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation > 30 consecutive days in most years or
4041:
2098:
Suffixes describing particular features of a horizon may also be added. The
Australian system provides the following suffixes:
4046:
4030:
3536:
2919:
72:
2649:
1962:
The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker.
1897:â dark surface horizon on a bleached subsurface horizon (an albic horizon) that tongues into a clay illuviation (Bt) horizon
764:
7. The @, f and b are written last, if b occurs together with @ or f (only if other suffixes are present as well): @b, fb.
1398:: A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen water (Wf) within or beneath the soil (excludes water/ice above soil).
3057:
847:, intimately mixed with the mineral fraction, and not displaying properties characteristic of E or B horizons (see below);
4177:
767:
8. Besides that, combinations must be in the sequence of dominance, the dominant one first. Examples: Btng, Btgb, Bkcyc.
2880:
2280:
systems have diagnostic horizons. A diagnostic horizon is a horizon used to define soil taxonomic units (e.g. to define
3998:
3556:
2017:
1968:
2837:
1935:
The B horizon is commonly referred to as "subsoil" and consists of mineral layers which are significantly altered by
4013:
3541:
2980:
2855:
853:
a morphology that is different from the underlying B or C horizon, resulting from processes related to the surface.
269:. In the following, the term layer is used to indicate the possibility that soil-forming processes did not occur.
51:
and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than the horizons above and below.
2985:
1810:
2648:(12th ed.). Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from
714:: Relict features (only used if following another suffix (g, k, l, p, r, @) that indicates the relict feature) .
4135:
3929:
3551:
2843:
969:
alteration that forms clay minerals or liberates oxides or both and that forms a granular, blocky or prismatic
732:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn in reduced form by lateral subsurface flow with subsequent oxidation (A, B, C).
702:: High bulk density (natural or anthropogenic), so that roots cannot enter, except along cracks (A, E, B, C).
428:: Buried horizon; first, the horizon has formed, and then, it was buried by mineral material (H, O, A, E, B).
4204:
3546:
3509:
3230:
2914:
2090:
151:
minerals are formed and accumulated. It has a pronounced soil structure. But in some soils, clay minerals,
3823:
3197:
2564:
1230:
1213:: Ploughing or other human disturbanceâno restriction; ploughed E, B, or C horizons are referred to as Ap.
892:
particles. An E horizon is most commonly differentiated from an underlying B horizon: by colour of higher
573:
4194:
3878:
2740:
237:
comprises fine earth, coarse fragments, artefacts, cemented parts, and dead plant residues of any size.
582:: Accumulation of Fe oxides, Mn oxides and/or Al by vertical illuviation processes from above . (B, C).
3959:
3853:
3677:
783:
W cannot be combined with other master symbols. H, O, I, and R can only be combined using the slash.
676:(in R layers related to the rock, in all other layers related to the fine earth) (H, A, E, B, C, R).
2034:
between it and the overlying horizons" (National
Committee on Soil and Terrain, 2009, p. 151).
125:
layerâthe upper part is often relatively undecomposed, but the lower part may be strongly humified.
3246:
3187:
3148:
2533:
2368:
2277:
2011:
1835:
59:
4150:
3797:
3430:
3223:
3143:
3086:
3042:
1664:
1256:
599:
550:: Residual accumulation of large amounts of pedogenic oxides in strongly weathered horizons (B).
68:
1802:
400:â„ 75% ice (by volume, related to the whole soil), permanent, below an H, O, A, E, B or C layer.
2677:
4225:
3843:
3712:
3103:
2950:
442:; only used if following another suffix (k, q, v, y) that indicates the accumulated substance.
4024:
3717:
3180:
2116:
1462:
1080:
439:
1998:. Clay illuviation, if present, is not significant. The absence of solum-type development (
4145:
4125:
4120:
3949:
3883:
3868:
3848:
3782:
3767:
3627:
3123:
3052:
3020:
2865:
2050:
1989:
1822:
deeper layers. "A" horizons may be darker in colour than deeper layers and contain more
4154:
4077:
3757:
3702:
3165:
3138:
3118:
3030:
2975:
2970:
2415:
1871:
1823:
1806:
1753:
1684:
1276:
1130:
970:
944:
876:
844:
693:
619:
483:
350:
342:
325:
132:
987:
an overlying genetic horizon; and layers with gleying but no other pedogenic changes.
159:, organic compounds, and other constituents are soluble and move downwards. When this
4219:
4188:
4091:
4084:
3924:
3893:
3802:
3687:
3192:
3069:
3025:
1544:
1312:
663:
96:
993:: These are horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, that are little affected by
406:
Permanent water above the soil surface or between layers, may be seasonally frozen.
3944:
3939:
3914:
3787:
3732:
3133:
3108:
3064:
3037:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2945:
2903:
2002:) is one of the defining attributes. The C horizon forms either in deposits (e.g.,
1940:
1914:
1644:
1386:: Little or no pedogenic alteration, unconsolidated earthy material, soft bedrock.
959:
897:
726:: Human-transported natural material (related to the whole soil) ((H, O, A, B, C).
683:
164:
122:
118:
2715:
1834:. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most
1509:: Permanently frozen soil ("dry" permafrost); no continuous ice; not seasonal ice.
850:
properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance;
29:
Soil layer whose physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath
4140:
3954:
3888:
3858:
3792:
3772:
3692:
3672:
3652:
3642:
3637:
3170:
3093:
3074:
2204:
1999:
1995:
1936:
1867:
1760:
1140:
994:
976:
932:
888:
499:
180:
82:). Layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called "layers".
79:
2807:
2628:
1733:
Horizons according to the
Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook (2009)
807:
Horizons and layers according to the FAO Guidelines for Soil
Description (2006)
4130:
3873:
3777:
3727:
3682:
3667:
3632:
3602:
3468:
3375:
3340:
3315:
3155:
3128:
3113:
3015:
2940:
2112:
1918:
1500:
1458:
1076:
435:
160:
140:
4159:
3934:
3919:
3863:
3762:
3707:
3647:
3410:
3405:
3395:
3330:
3300:
3280:
3209:
3098:
2455:
2281:
2166:
2022:
1994:
The C horizon is below the solum horizons. This layer is little affected by
1851:
1847:
1839:
1674:
1438:
1266:
1166:
966:
than overlying and underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron;
955:
940:
922:
893:
872:
673:
627:
623:
609:
519:
461:
367:
272:
The following layers are distinguished (see Chapter 3.3 of the WRB Manual):
214:
Horizons and layers according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources
136:
34:
2847:
2010:. The C horizon may be enriched with carbonates carried below the solum by
1965:
Plant roots penetrate throughout this layer, but it has very little humus.
167:
and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded
108:
2995:
2672:
R.F. Isbell; et al. (National Committee on Soil and Terrain) (2016).
1889:
1305:: Pedogenic accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsumâno restriction.
791:
The sequence of the layers is from top to down with a hyphen in between.
780:
into a Bt horizon), C/Bt (Bt horizon forming lamellae within a C layer).
257:
is the upper limit of the uppermost layer consisting of mineral material.
4115:
3964:
3747:
3662:
3617:
3493:
3473:
3463:
3448:
3420:
3415:
3400:
3370:
3365:
3345:
3335:
3320:
3305:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3175:
2935:
2732:
P.J. Schoeneberger; D.A. Wysocki; E.C. Benham; Soil Survey Staff (2012).
2503:
2259:
2230:
2144:
1902:
1859:
1694:
1534:
1286:
1181:: Strong cementation or induration (pedogenic, massive)âmineral horizons.
1156:
1095:: Dense layer (physically root restrictive)âmineral horizons, not with m.
637:
509:
309:
246:
156:
17:
2288:
Diagnostic horizons in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB)
720:: Permanent water saturation and no redoximorphic features (A, D, B, C)
3909:
3697:
3657:
3622:
3612:
3607:
3597:
3592:
3488:
3458:
3453:
3443:
3438:
3390:
3385:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3325:
3310:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3081:
2623:
2609:
2497:
2043:
2007:
2006:, flood deposits, landslides) or it formed from weathering of residual
1930:
1894:
1884:
1863:
1843:
1797:
1634:
1618:
1005:
199:
175:
168:
128:
3215:
2181:: disturbed by ploughing or other tillage practices (A horizons only).
3807:
3742:
3483:
3478:
3380:
2240:
2188:
2063:
1910:
1906:
1704:
1608:
1484:
1296:
1220:
1198:
1102:
1022:
948:
926:
647:
563:
541:
454:: Organic material in an intermediate state of decomposition (H, O).
371:
363:
206:
from bedrock will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
144:
983:
All kinds of B horizons are or were originally subsurface horizons.
1207:: Residual accumulation of sesquioxides (pedogenic)âno restriction.
3722:
2089:
2016:
2003:
1977:
1967:
1888:
1855:
1831:
1801:
1773:
911:
863:: These are mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of
841:
195:
from non-indurated material exhibit similarities to this C layer.
33:
2021:
Soil with broken rock fragments overlying bedrock, Sandside Bay,
1380:; or accumulation of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure.
696:
in the fraction between > 0.02 and †2 mm (H, O, A, E, B, C).
492:: Organic material in an initial state of decomposition; (H, O).
422:: Organic material in an advanced state of decomposition (H, O).
324:
Mineral horizon at the mineral soil surface or buried; contains
3752:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3010:
2527:
2214:
1827:
1814:
1785:
1779:
1654:
1580:
1404:: Root-limiting subsoil layers of human-manufactured materials.
1246:
1188:
1175:: Mottling due to upmoving groundwater (gleying)âno restriction.
1030:
1026:
954:
coatings of oxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in
936:
915:
884:
880:
868:
864:
589:
356:
152:
148:
47:
3219:
2876:
2872:
2612:(fourth ed.). International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna
3737:
963:
2767:
Australian soil and land survey field handbook. Third edition
2627:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
1029:(mostly organic), diatomaceous earth (mostly siliceous), and
1069:: Buried genetic horizonâmineral horizons, not cryoturbated.
380:
Nota bene: B horizons may show other accumulations as well.
312:; generally regarded as peat layer or organic limnic layer.
249:
mosses) is not regarded to form part of a litter layer. The
171:. In this case, the A horizon is regarded as a "biomantle".
2734:"Field Book for describing and sampling soils. Version 3.0"
2249:: accumulation of salts more soluble than calcium sulfate.
1719:: Pedogenic accumulation of salt more soluble than gypsum.
1493:: Moderately decomposed organic matter (used only with O).
1368:: Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus, CaCO
1111:: Moderately decomposed organic materialâH and O horizons.
935:
concentration, alone or in combination, of clay minerals,
1362:: Mineral; some loss of Fe, Al, clay, or organic matter.
879:
or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of
1976:
The A/E/B horizons are referred to collectively as the "
1527:: Slightly decomposed organic matter (used only with O).
1149:: Slightly decomposed organic materialâH and O horizons.
973:
if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content;
656:: Presence of readily soluble salts (H, O, A, E, B, C).
1866:
are concentrated here, often in close association with
1627:: Illuvial sesquioxide and organic matter accumulation.
2629:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1431:: Highly decomposed organic matter (used only with O).
1063:: Highly decomposed organic materialâH and O horizons.
761:
6. In H and O layers, the i, e or a is written first.
78:
A soil horizon is a result of soil-forming processes (
2049:
solum and the R horizon, the R horizon resembles the
1921:
commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon.
622:
and/or oxides and/or clay minerals (layer silicates,
2094:
Soil horizon taken from a collapsed/exposed hillside
1451:: Buried genetic horizon (not used with C horizons).
4108:
4055:
3975:
3902:
3836:
3565:
3502:
3429:
3253:
3208:
3003:
2928:
1239:: Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxidesâB horizons.
708:: Deposited in a body of water (limnic) (H, A. C).
222:, 4th edition (2022). The chapter starts with some
2426:Diagnostic horizons in the USDA soil taxonomy (ST)
602:or consisting of artefacts (H, O, A, E, B, C, R).
2716:"Guidelines for Soil Description. Fourth Edition"
1870:. Thus, the A horizon may be referred to as the
1595:: Residual sesquioxide accumulation (pedogenic).
1356:: Mineral; organic matter (humus) accumulation.
218:The designations are found in Chapter 10 of the
184:. The B horizon has generally a soil structure.
3983:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
2765:National Committee on Soil and Terrain (2009).
2739:. Lincoln, Nebraska: NRCS, NSSC. Archived from
2264:Soil formation is often described as occurring
1503:); continuous subsurface ice; not seasonal ice.
4019:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
1589:: Pedogenic, exchangeable sodium accumulation.
220:World Reference Base for Soil Resources Manual
3231:
2888:
1601:: Plow layer or other artificial disturbance.
1477:: Densic layer (physically root restrictive).
38:A cross section of a soil, revealing horizons
8:
2703:. Stuttgart: Borntraeger Science Publishers.
2699:W.E.H. Blum; P. Schad; S. Nortcliff (2018).
1663:: Presence of human-manufactured materials (
1331:Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils
233:comprises the soil constituents †2 mm. The
2590:Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung, 5. Auflage
2119:, perhaps of iron, aluminium, or manganese.
1410:: Bedrock, strongly cemented to indurated.
592:minerals by illuviation processes . (B, C).
4200:
3238:
3224:
3216:
2895:
2881:
2873:
1826:, or they may be lighter but contain less
1329:Horizons and layers according to the USDA
512:and/or schwertmannite (H, O, A, E, B, C).
2610:"World Reference Base for Soil Resources"
1320:Discontinuities and vertical subdivisions
1197:: Pedogenic accumulation of exchangeable
3993:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
1255:: Urban and other human-made materials (
113:
4099:Soil Science Society of America Journal
2580:
1521:: Illuvial organic matter accumulation.
1471:: Coprogenous earth (used only with L).
1350:: Organic soil materials (not limnic).
65:World Reference Base for Soil Resources
4071:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
3532:Canadian system of soil classification
1713:: Dominance of gypsum (ââ„50% by vol.).
1117:: Frozen soilânot in I and R horizons.
2676:(2nd ed.). CSIRO. Archived from
2603:
2601:
2599:
2137:: faunal accumulations in A horizons.
1573:: Continuous cementation (pedogenic).
758:as well, the suffixes are combined.
7:
4173:
4009:International Union of Soil Sciences
2639:
2637:
2059:(not used in the Australian system)
1880:(not used in the Australian system)
1653:: Illuvial accumulation of silicate
1123:: Stagnic conditionsâno restriction.
502:and/or wedge-shaped aggregates (B).
4036:Soil and Water Conservation Society
2239:: accumulation of calcium sulfate (
2175:: strong cementation or induration.
1972:Soil profile of a road in Bengaluru
692:: Containing â„ 5% (by grain count)
3516:Unified Soil Classification System
3048:Soil retrogression and degradation
2808:"Soil Horizon letter designations"
1499:: Permanently frozen soil or ice (
131:: Layer of mineral soil with most
25:
3521:AASHTO Soil Classification System
2153:: accumulation of organic matter.
1637:(in mineral or organic horizons).
736:I and W layers have no suffixes.
470:: Permafrost (H, O, A, E, B, C).
4199:
4184:
4183:
4178:Knowledge (XXG):WikiProject Soil
4172:
4064:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
4004:Indian Institute of Soil Science
3988:Canadian Society of Soil Science
3819:
3818:
2994:
2831: This article incorporates
2826:
2674:"Australian Soil Classification"
2622:
1414:Transitional horizons and layers
1043:Transitional horizons and layers
914:(especially iron oxides) and/or
376:removal of carbonates or gypsum.
107:
4042:Soil Science Society of America
2814:. EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica. 2008
2608:IUSS Working Group WRB (2022).
1838:occurs. Soil organisms such as
1557:accumulation (<50% by vol.).
1289:characteristicsâno restriction.
4047:World Congress of Soil Science
4031:Soil Science Society of Poland
3537:Australian Soil Classification
3528:(French classification system)
2812:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica Online
2473:Diagnostic subsurface horizons
1259:âH, O, A, E, B and C horizons.
1089:: Coprogenous earthâL horizon.
73:Australian Soil Classification
1:
3058:Soil compaction (agriculture)
2169:, commonly calcium carbonate.
1437:: (proposed) Accumulation of
2187:: accumulation of secondary
1687:within B (used only with B).
1567:accumulation (â„50% by vol.).
1295:: Pedogenic accumulation of
1219:: Accumulation of pedogenic
1165:: Accumulation of pedogenic
1159:accumulationâno restriction.
646:: Accumulation of secondary
562:: Accumulation of secondary
518:: Accumulation of secondary
349:formation of soil aggregate
3999:German Soil Science Society
3557:List of vineyard soil types
2592:. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart.
2436:Diagnostic surface horizons
1275:: Development of colour or
1245:: Illuvial accumulation of
1052:Subordinate characteristics
640:characteristics (E, B, C).
544:percentage â„ 6% (E, B, C).
46:is a layer parallel to the
4242:
4014:International Year of Soil
3542:Polish Soil Classification
2981:Environmental soil science
2701:Essentials of soil science
2644:Soil Survey Staff (2014).
2257:
2197:: weathered, digable rock.
2061:
2041:
1987:
1928:
1882:
1809:, a potential pathway for
1795:
1777:
1771:
1751:
1343:Master horizons and layers
1249:mineralsâB and C horizons.
910:residual concentration of
817:Master horizons and layers
4168:
3816:
3566:Non-systematic soil types
2992:
2986:Agricultural soil science
2910:
2803:section on soil horizons.
2131:: conspicuously bleached.
2125:: root restricting layer.
1811:nonpoint source pollution
1487:earth (used only with L).
1392:: Limnic soil materials.
147:(mainly iron oxides) and
103:Examples of soil profiles
4136:Infiltration (hydrology)
3930:Geotechnical engineering
3552:List of U.S. state soils
2844:United States Government
2588:Ad-hoc-AG Boden (2005).
2272:Diagnostic soil horizons
2159:: sporadically bleached.
1607:: Secondary (pedogenic)
1004:: These consist of hard
947:, carbonates, gypsum or
740:Combination of suffixes:
482:: Significant amount of
4205:List of soil scientists
3547:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
3526:Référentiel pédologique
3510:FAO soil classification
2864:April 16, 2022, at the
2646:"Keys to Soil Taxonomy"
1813:, from a farm field in
1724:Other horizon modifiers
921:evidence of removal of
139:. Additionally, due to
3976:Societies, Initiatives
3198:Soil water (retention)
2846:. 1993. Archived from
2833:public domain material
2565:Archaeological horizon
2111:: presence of mineral
2095:
2025:
1973:
1898:
1858:, and many species of
1818:
1563:: Major pedogenic CaCO
796:lithic discontinuities
672:: Presence of primary
359:minerals and/or oxides
39:
4195:Category soil science
3879:Soil salinity control
2541:Petroplinthic horizon
2454:Mollic epipedon (see
2379:Petroplinthic horizon
2093:
2073:Transitional horizons
2020:
1971:
1892:
1805:
1033:(mostly calcareous).
293:are all other layers.
119:Organic surface layer
37:
3960:Agricultural science
3854:Soil guideline value
3678:Calcareous grassland
3255:World Reference Base
2652:on November 28, 2018
2382:Pisoplinthic horizon
1617:: Weathered or soft
991:C horizons or layers
887:particles. However,
828:O horizons or layers
822:H horizons or layers
664:cryogenic alteration
284:Organotechnic layers
255:mineral soil surface
4056:Scientific journals
3247:Soil classification
3188:Soil organic matter
3149:Pore water pressure
2850:on August 23, 2003.
2769:. CSIRO, Melbourne.
2538:Petrogypsic horizon
2534:Petrocalcic Horizon
2394:Protovertic horizon
2376:Petrogypsic horizon
2369:Petrocalcic horizon
2278:soil classification
2223:: weak development.
1836:biological activity
1817:during a rain storm
1583:(used only with L).
995:pedogenic processes
840:an accumulation of
771:Transitional layers
686:†0.9 kg dm-3 (B).
666:(H, O, A, E, B, C).
522:(H, O, A, E, B, C).
224:general definitions
60:soil classification
4151:Impervious surface
3431:USDA soil taxonomy
3257:for Soil Resources
3144:Pore space in soil
3087:Soil acidification
3043:Soil contamination
2857:Soil Survey Manual
2839:Soil Survey Manual
2746:on August 29, 2017
2442:Anthropic epipedon
2373:Petroduric horizon
2302:Anthraquic horizon
2213:: accumulation of
2165:: accumulation of
2096:
2026:
1974:
1899:
1819:
1703:: Accumulation of
1143:âmineral horizons.
1133:âmineral horizons.
1129:: Accumulation of
1083:âmineral horizons.
588:: Accumulation of
508:: Accumulation of
69:USDA soil taxonomy
40:
4213:
4212:
3844:Soil conservation
3830:
3829:
3104:Soil biodiversity
2951:Soil microbiology
2854:Current version:
2680:on April 16, 2019
2445:Folistic epipedon
2347:Hydragric horizon
2105:: buried horizon.
1376:; or loss of CaCO
211:
210:
135:accumulation and
16:(Redirected from
4233:
4203:
4202:
4187:
4186:
4176:
4175:
4025:OPAL Soil Centre
3822:
3821:
3718:Hydrophobic soil
3240:
3233:
3226:
3217:
3181:Soil respiration
2998:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2874:
2851:
2830:
2829:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2789:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2745:
2738:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2669:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2641:
2632:
2626:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2605:
2594:
2593:
2585:
2488:Argillic horizon
2485:Anhydric horizon
2467:Umbric epidpedon
2464:Plaggen epipedon
2451:Melanic epipedon
2412:Tsitelic horizon
2388:Plinthic horizon
2350:Irragric horizon
2326:Ferralic horizon
2082:Horizon suffixes
2069:standing water.
1913:, due to animal
1846:(enchytraeids),
1697:characteristics.
1683:: Weak color or
1553:: Pedogenic CaCO
1423:Horizon suffixes
1315:âno restriction.
1299:âno restriction.
1269:âno restriction.
1265:: Occurrence of
1233:âno restriction.
1223:âno restriction.
1201:âno restriction.
1169:âno restriction.
1105:earthâL horizon.
694:volcanic glasses
114:
111:
86:Horizon sequence
21:
4241:
4240:
4236:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4231:
4230:
4216:
4215:
4214:
4209:
4164:
4146:Crust (geology)
4126:Land management
4121:Land conversion
4104:
4051:
3971:
3950:Earth materials
3898:
3884:Erosion control
3869:Soil governance
3849:Soil management
3832:
3831:
3826:
3812:
3783:Subaqueous soil
3768:Serpentine soil
3628:Parent material
3561:
3498:
3425:
3256:
3249:
3244:
3204:
3124:Soil resilience
3053:Soil compaction
3021:Soil morphology
2999:
2990:
2924:
2906:
2901:
2866:Wayback Machine
2836:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2806:
2797:
2795:General sources
2792:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2736:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2683:
2681:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2655:
2653:
2643:
2642:
2635:
2615:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2597:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2561:
2556:
2550:Sombric horizon
2509:Glossic horizon
2470:
2461:Ochric epipedon
2448:Histic epipedon
2428:
2423:
2409:Thionic horizon
2400:Sombric horizon
2385:Plaggic horizon
2365:Panpaic horizon
2353:Limonic horizon
2317:Cohesic horizon
2314:Chernic horizon
2290:
2274:
2262:
2256:
2084:
2075:
2066:
2051:parent material
2046:
1992:
1990:Parent material
1933:
1887:
1800:
1782:
1776:
1756:
1745:
1735:
1726:
1566:
1556:
1444:
1425:
1416:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1345:
1335:
1322:
1054:
1045:
962:, or redder in
819:
809:
789:
787:Layer sequences
773:
618:: Formation of
540:: Exchangeable
448:: Drained (H).
412:
303:
216:
191:. Soils formed
190:
105:
88:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4239:
4237:
4229:
4228:
4218:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4207:
4197:
4191:
4180:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4157:
4155:Surface runoff
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4095:
4088:
4081:
4078:Plant and Soil
4074:
4067:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4033:
4028:
4022:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3906:
3904:
3903:Related fields
3900:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3833:
3828:
3827:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3758:Prime farmland
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3713:Fuller's earth
3710:
3705:
3703:Expansive clay
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3567:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3262:
3260:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3235:
3228:
3220:
3214:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3190:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3173:
3168:
3166:Soil biomantle
3163:
3158:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3139:Soil structure
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3119:Soil fertility
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3031:Soil formation
3028:
3023:
3013:
3007:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2976:Soil chemistry
2973:
2971:Soil mechanics
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2892:
2885:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2824:
2804:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:
2781:
2772:
2757:
2724:
2706:
2691:
2664:
2633:
2595:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2553:Spodic horizon
2551:
2548:
2545:
2544:Placic horizon
2542:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2525:
2524:Ortstein layer
2522:
2519:
2518:Natric horizon
2516:
2515:Kandic horizon
2513:
2512:Gypsic horizon
2510:
2507:
2501:
2495:
2494:Cambic horizon
2492:
2491:Calcic horizon
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2420:Vertic horizon
2418:
2416:Umbric horizon
2413:
2410:
2407:
2406:Terric horizon
2404:
2403:Spodic horizon
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2391:Pretic horizon
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2359:Natric horizon
2357:
2356:Mollic horizon
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2344:Hortic horizon
2342:
2341:Histic horizon
2339:
2338:Gypsic horizon
2336:
2335:Fragic horizon
2333:
2330:
2329:Ferric horizon
2327:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2311:Cambic horizon
2309:
2308:Calcic horizon
2306:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2286:
2273:
2270:
2258:Main article:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2234:
2224:
2218:
2208:
2198:
2192:
2182:
2176:
2170:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2120:
2106:
2083:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2062:Main article:
2053:of the solum.
2042:Main article:
1988:Main article:
1929:Main article:
1883:Main article:
1824:organic matter
1807:Surface runoff
1796:Main article:
1772:Main article:
1754:Organic matter
1752:Main article:
1744:
1741:
1734:
1731:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1698:
1688:
1678:
1668:
1658:
1648:
1638:
1633:: Presence of
1628:
1622:
1612:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1574:
1568:
1564:
1558:
1554:
1548:
1543:: Evidence of
1538:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1515:: Strong gley.
1510:
1504:
1494:
1488:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1424:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1344:
1341:
1334:
1327:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1311:: Evidence of
1306:
1300:
1290:
1280:
1270:
1260:
1250:
1240:
1234:
1224:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1192:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1160:
1150:
1144:
1134:
1131:organic matter
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1070:
1064:
1053:
1050:
1044:
1041:
981:
980:
974:
967:
952:
945:organic matter
930:
919:
877:organic matter
855:
854:
851:
848:
845:organic matter
818:
815:
808:
805:
788:
785:
772:
769:
734:
733:
727:
721:
715:
709:
703:
697:
687:
677:
667:
657:
651:
641:
631:
620:soil structure
613:
603:
593:
583:
577:
567:
557:
551:
545:
535:
529:
523:
513:
503:
493:
487:
484:organic matter
477:
471:
465:
455:
449:
443:
429:
423:
411:
408:
378:
377:
374:
360:
353:
343:soil formation
326:organic matter
302:
301:Master symbols
299:
295:
294:
291:Mineral layers
288:
281:
277:Organic layers
215:
212:
209:
208:
188:
133:organic matter
104:
101:
87:
84:
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4238:
4227:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4206:
4198:
4196:
4192:
4190:
4189:Category soil
4181:
4179:
4171:
4170:
4167:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4096:
4094:
4093:
4092:Soil Research
4089:
4087:
4086:
4085:Pochvovedenie
4082:
4080:
4079:
4075:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3925:Geomorphology
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3894:Liming (soil)
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3835:
3825:
3824:Types of soil
3815:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3803:Tropical peat
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3688:Dry quicksand
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3503:Other systems
3501:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3236:
3234:
3229:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3213:
3211:
3207:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3193:Soil moisture
3191:
3189:
3186:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3070:Soil salinity
3068:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3026:Pedodiversity
3024:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2997:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2893:
2891:
2886:
2884:
2879:
2878:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2834:
2825:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2785:
2782:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2761:
2758:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2725:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2702:
2695:
2692:
2679:
2675:
2668:
2665:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2625:
2611:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2584:
2581:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2547:Salic horizon
2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2521:Nitic horizon
2520:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2482:Albic horizon
2481:
2479:Agric horizon
2478:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2425:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2397:Salic horizon
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2362:Nitic horizon
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2332:Folic horizon
2331:
2328:
2325:
2323:Duric horizon
2322:
2320:Cryic horizon
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2305:Argic horizon
2304:
2301:
2299:Albic horizon
2298:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2261:
2253:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:accumulation.
2206:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2052:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1979:
1970:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1830:or pedogenic
1829:
1825:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1732:
1730:
1723:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1611:accumulation.
1610:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:cryoturbation
1542:
1539:
1537:accumulation.
1536:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1440:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1367:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1349:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1332:
1328:
1326:
1319:
1314:
1313:cryoturbation
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1051:
1049:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1003:
999:
996:
992:
988:
984:
978:
975:
972:
968:
965:
961:
957:
953:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
931:
928:
924:
920:
917:
913:
909:
908:
907:
905:
901:
899:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
852:
849:
846:
843:
839:
838:
837:
835:
831:
829:
825:
823:
816:
814:
813:
806:
804:
800:
797:
792:
786:
784:
781:
777:
770:
768:
765:
762:
759:
755:
751:
748:
745:
742:
741:
737:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
695:
691:
688:
685:
681:
678:
675:
671:
668:
665:
661:
658:
655:
652:
650:(A, E, B, C).
649:
645:
642:
639:
635:
632:
629:
625:
621:
617:
614:
611:
607:
604:
601:
598:: Containing
597:
594:
591:
587:
584:
581:
578:
576:(A, E, B, C).
575:
571:
568:
566:(A, E, B, C).
565:
561:
558:
555:
552:
549:
546:
543:
539:
536:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
517:
514:
511:
507:
504:
501:
497:
494:
491:
488:
485:
481:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
463:
459:
456:
453:
450:
447:
444:
441:
437:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
417:
416:
409:
407:
405:
401:
399:
395:
392:
388:
385:
381:
375:
373:
369:
365:
361:
358:
355:formation of
354:
352:
348:
347:
346:
344:
340:
336:
334:
330:
327:
323:
319:
317:
313:
311:
307:
300:
298:
292:
289:
285:
282:
278:
275:
274:
273:
270:
268:
263:
258:
256:
252:
248:
243:
238:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
213:
207:
205:
201:
196:
194:
185:
183:
182:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
124:
120:
116:
115:
112:
110:
102:
100:
98:
97:geomorphology
92:
85:
83:
81:
76:
74:
70:
66:
61:
56:
52:
49:
45:
36:
32:
27:
19:
4097:
4090:
4083:
4076:
4069:
4062:
3945:Biogeography
3940:Hydrogeology
3915:Geochemistry
3837:Applications
3733:Martian soil
3161:Soil horizon
3160:
3134:Soil texture
3109:Soil quality
3065:Soil sealing
3038:Soil erosion
2966:Soil physics
2961:Soil ecology
2956:Soil zoology
2946:Soil biology
2904:Soil science
2859:(March 2017)
2856:
2848:the original
2838:
2816:. Retrieved
2811:
2784:
2775:
2766:
2760:
2748:. Retrieved
2741:the original
2727:
2721:. FAO, Rome.
2714:FAO (2006).
2709:
2700:
2694:
2684:February 11,
2682:. Retrieved
2678:the original
2667:
2654:. Retrieved
2650:the original
2616:November 21,
2614:. Retrieved
2589:
2583:
2430:
2429:
2292:
2291:
2275:
2265:
2263:
2254:Buried soils
2246:
2236:
2226:
2220:
2210:
2200:
2194:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2122:
2108:
2102:
2097:
2085:
2076:
2067:
2056:
2055:
2047:
2037:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2027:
1993:
1983:
1982:
1975:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1946:
1934:
1924:
1923:
1915:bioturbation
1900:
1877:
1876:
1820:
1791:
1790:
1783:
1767:
1766:
1757:
1747:
1746:
1737:
1736:
1727:
1716:
1710:
1700:
1690:
1680:
1670:
1660:
1650:
1645:Slickensides
1640:
1630:
1624:
1614:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1576:
1570:
1560:
1550:
1540:
1530:
1524:
1518:
1512:
1506:
1496:
1490:
1485:Diatomaceous
1480:
1474:
1468:
1454:
1448:
1434:
1428:
1417:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1382:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1330:
1323:
1308:
1302:
1292:
1282:
1279:âB horizons.
1272:
1262:
1252:
1242:
1236:
1226:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1194:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1162:
1152:
1146:
1141:Slickensides
1136:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1103:Diatomaceous
1098:
1092:
1086:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1055:
1046:
1036:
1035:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1001:
1000:
990:
989:
985:
982:
958:, higher in
903:
902:
860:
859:
856:
833:
832:
827:
826:
821:
820:
811:
810:
801:
795:
793:
790:
782:
778:
774:
766:
763:
760:
756:
752:
749:
746:
743:
739:
738:
735:
729:
723:
717:
711:
705:
699:
689:
684:Bulk density
679:
669:
659:
653:
643:
633:
615:
605:
595:
585:
579:
569:
559:
553:
547:
537:
531:
525:
515:
505:
500:Slickensides
495:
489:
479:
473:
467:
457:
451:
445:
431:
425:
419:
413:
403:
402:
397:
396:
390:
389:
383:
382:
379:
338:
337:
332:
331:
321:
320:
315:
314:
305:
304:
296:
290:
283:
276:
271:
267:soil horizon
266:
261:
259:
254:
251:soil surface
250:
242:litter layer
241:
239:
234:
230:
228:
223:
219:
217:
203:
197:
192:
186:
179:
173:
165:bioturbation
129:Surface soil
126:
123:Plant litter
106:
93:
89:
77:
57:
53:
44:soil horizon
43:
41:
31:
26:
4141:Groundwater
3955:Archaeology
3889:Agroecology
3859:Soil survey
3798:Terra rossa
3793:Terra preta
3773:Spodic soil
3693:Duplex soil
3673:Brown earth
3653:Alkali soil
3643:Rhizosphere
3638:Laimosphere
3512:(1974â1998)
3469:Inceptisols
3376:Plinthosols
3341:Kastanozems
3171:Soil carbon
3094:Soil health
3075:Alkali soil
3004:Soil topics
2929:Main fields
2818:February 2,
2205:sesquioxide
2113:concretions
2000:pedogenesis
1996:pedogenesis
1937:pedogenesis
1868:plant roots
1761:leaf litter
1459:Concretions
1191:âL horizon.
1077:Concretions
977:brittleness
889:pedogenesis
436:Concretions
181:illuviation
80:pedogenesis
67:(WRB), the
4131:Vegetation
3874:Soil value
3778:Stagnogley
3728:Lunar soil
3683:Dark earth
3668:Brickearth
3633:Pedosphere
3603:Soil crust
3411:Technosols
3396:Solonchaks
3316:Ferralsols
3281:Anthrosols
3156:Soil crust
3129:Soil color
3114:Soil value
3016:Pedosphere
2941:Edaphology
2750:August 11,
2571:References
2282:soil types
2167:carbonates
1949:illuviated
1919:stonelayer
1848:arthropods
1840:earthworms
1778:See also:
1501:permafrost
1167:carbonates
923:carbonates
904:B horizons
867:minerals,
861:E horizons
834:A horizons
674:carbonates
628:imogolites
624:allophanes
520:carbonates
368:carbonates
262:soil layer
235:whole soil
231:fine earth
161:eluviation
141:weathering
4160:Petrichor
3935:Hydrology
3920:Petrology
3864:Soil test
3763:Quicksand
3708:Fill dirt
3648:Bulk soil
3494:Vertisols
3484:Spodosols
3474:Mollisols
3464:Histosols
3449:Aridisols
3421:Vertisols
3416:Umbrisols
3406:Stagnosol
3371:Planosols
3366:Phaeozems
3346:Leptosols
3331:Gypsisols
3321:Fluvisols
3301:Chernozem
3296:Cambisols
3291:Calcisols
3286:Arenosols
3210:Soil type
3099:Soil life
2576:Citations
2456:Mollisols
2217:minerals.
2057:L horizon
2038:R horizon
2029:D horizon
2023:Caithness
1984:C horizon
1955:horizon.
1925:B horizon
1903:silicates
1878:E horizon
1872:biomantle
1852:nematodes
1792:A horizon
1768:P horizon
1748:O horizon
1685:structure
1675:Plinthite
1665:artifacts
1439:anhydrite
1277:structure
1267:plinthite
1257:artefacts
1231:reduction
1229:: Strong
971:structure
941:aluminium
918:minerals;
896:or lower
873:aluminium
610:Plinthite
600:artefacts
574:reduction
572:: Strong
462:Saprolite
351:structure
137:soil life
18:O horizon
4226:Pedology
4220:Category
4116:Land use
4109:See also
3965:Agrology
3748:Paleosol
3663:Blue goo
3618:Gypcrust
3489:Ultisols
3459:Gelisols
3454:Entisols
3444:Andisols
3439:Alfisols
3401:Solonetz
3391:Retisols
3386:Regosols
3361:Nitisols
3356:Luvisols
3351:Lixisols
3336:Histosol
3326:Gleysols
3311:Durisols
3306:Cryosols
3276:Andosols
3266:Acrisols
3176:Soil gas
2936:Pedology
2862:Archived
2801:Soil-Net
2559:See also
2504:Fragipan
2260:Paleosol
2231:fragipan
2147:horizon.
2012:leaching
1953:illuvial
1860:bacteria
1844:potworms
1743:Horizons
1695:Fragipan
1635:sulfides
1535:Jarosite
1287:Fragipan
1157:Jarosite
1037:W layers
1019:L layers
1013:I layers
1002:R layers
933:illuvial
842:humified
510:jarosite
410:Suffixes
247:Sphagnum
157:aluminum
71:and the
58:In most
4193:
3995:(India)
3910:Geology
3698:Eluvium
3658:Bay mud
3623:Caliche
3613:Hardpan
3608:Claypan
3598:Subsoil
3593:Topsoil
3479:Oxisols
3381:Podzols
3271:Alisols
3259:(1998â)
3082:Soil pH
2915:History
2530:horizon
2498:Duripan
2431:Source:
2293:Source:
2266:in situ
2117:nodules
2044:Bedrock
2008:bedrock
1931:Subsoil
1911:gravels
1895:Luvisol
1885:Eluvium
1864:archaea
1798:topsoil
1738:Source:
1619:bedrock
1463:nodules
1338:Source:
1081:nodules
1023:diatoms
1006:bedrock
812:Source:
630:) (B).
626:and/or
612:(B, C).
440:nodules
438:and/or
310:drained
204:in situ
200:Bedrock
193:in situ
176:Subsoil
169:topsoil
4182:
3808:Yedoma
3743:Muskeg
2656:May 2,
2241:gypsum
2189:silica
2145:gleyed
2064:Limnic
1941:chroma
1907:silica
1893:Albic
1832:oxides
1705:gypsum
1609:silica
1372:, CaSO
1333:(2012)
1297:gypsum
1221:silica
1199:sodium
960:chroma
949:silica
927:gypsum
912:oxides
898:chroma
648:gypsum
638:Fragic
564:silica
542:sodium
372:gypsum
364:silica
280:layer.
145:oxides
3788:Takir
3723:Loess
2920:Index
2835:from
2744:(PDF)
2737:(PDF)
2719:(PDF)
2506:layer
2500:layer
2276:Many
2004:loess
1978:solum
1856:fungi
1786:peats
1774:Humus
1441:(CaSO
1419:B/A.
956:value
894:value
4038:(US)
4027:(UK)
4021:(US)
3753:Peat
3588:Loam
3583:Clay
3578:Silt
3573:Sand
3011:Soil
2820:2008
2752:2023
2686:2016
2658:2023
2618:2022
2528:Oxic
2215:clay
1917:, a
1862:and
1828:clay
1815:Iowa
1780:Peat
1655:clay
1581:Marl
1247:clay
1189:Marl
1031:marl
1027:peat
937:iron
916:clay
885:silt
883:and
881:sand
869:iron
865:clay
590:clay
464:(C).
357:clay
287:mm).
229:The
153:iron
149:clay
48:soil
3738:Mud
2115:or
1951:or
1905:or
1461:or
1079:or
964:hue
925:or
794:If
226::
198:R)
174:B)
127:A)
117:O)
4222::
2842:.
2810:.
2636:^
2598:^
2243:).
2229::
2203::
2143::
1854:,
1850:,
1842:,
1711:yy
1693::
1673::
1667:).
1643::
1641:ss
1631:se
1579::
1577:ma
1561:kk
1541:jj
1533::
1507:ff
1483::
1481:di
1469:co
1457::
1445:).
1435:aa
1285::
1187::
1155::
1139::
1101::
1075::
943:,
939:,
875:,
871:,
682::
662::
636::
608::
498::
460::
434::
404:W:
398:I:
391:R:
384:C:
370:;
366:;
345::
339:B:
333:E:
322:A:
316:O:
306:H:
260:A
240:A
155:,
143:,
121::
42:A
4153:/
3239:e
3232:t
3225:v
2896:e
2889:t
2882:v
2822:.
2754:.
2688:.
2662:,
2660:.
2631:.
2620:.
2458:)
2247:z
2237:y
2233:.
2227:x
2221:w
2211:t
2201:s
2195:r
2191:.
2185:q
2179:p
2173:m
2163:k
2157:j
2151:h
2141:g
2135:f
2129:e
2123:d
2109:c
2103:b
1717:z
1707:.
1701:y
1691:x
1681:w
1677:.
1671:v
1661:u
1657:.
1651:t
1647:.
1625:s
1621:.
1615:r
1605:q
1599:p
1593:o
1587:n
1571:m
1565:3
1555:3
1551:k
1547:.
1531:j
1525:i
1519:h
1513:g
1497:f
1491:e
1475:d
1465:.
1455:c
1449:b
1443:4
1429:a
1408:R
1402:M
1396:W
1390:L
1384:C
1378:3
1374:4
1370:3
1366:B
1360:E
1354:A
1348:O
1309:@
1303:z
1293:y
1283:x
1273:w
1263:v
1253:u
1243:t
1237:s
1227:r
1217:q
1211:p
1205:o
1195:n
1185:m
1179:m
1173:l
1163:k
1153:j
1147:i
1137:i
1127:h
1121:g
1115:f
1109:e
1099:d
1093:d
1087:c
1073:c
1067:b
1061:a
979:.
951:;
929:;
730:Ï
724:Ï
718:Ï
712:Ï
706:λ
700:ÎŽ
690:Îł
680:ÎČ
670:α
660:@
654:z
644:y
634:x
616:w
606:v
596:u
586:t
580:s
570:r
560:q
554:p
548:o
538:n
532:m
526:l
516:k
506:j
496:i
490:i
480:h
474:g
468:f
458:e
452:e
446:d
432:c
426:b
420:a
189:3
20:)
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