69:
fluids are pumped from the ground, changes in temperature, pressure and chemical composition shift the equilibria and cause precipitation and deposition of sparingly soluble salts that build up over time with the potential of blocking vital assets in the oil production setups. Scaling can occur at all stages of oil/gas production systems (upstream, midstream and downstream) and causes blockages of well-bore perforations, casing, pipelines, pumps, valves etc. Severe scaling issues have been reported in Russia and certain North Sea production systems.
883:
these functional groups tend to prevent the crystal growth sites using dissociated or un-dissociated groups. The dissociation state is determined by the pH of the system, hence knowledge of the pKa values of the chemicals are important for different pH environments. Again, the inhibition efficiency of the SI depends on its compatibility with other production chemicals such as corrosion inhibitors.
61:
792:
903:
SIs have been made since the late 1990s and an increasing number of such SIs are becoming commercially available. Recent environmental awareness over the past 15 years has resulted in the production and application of more environmentally friendly SIs, otherwise called 'Green Scale
Inhibitors' (GSI).
811:
have been used extensively for scale treatment in water systems due to their excellent solubility, thermal stability and dosage efficiency. In the water treatment industry, the major classes of SIs have inorganic phosphate, organophosphorous and organic polymer backbones and common examples are PBTC
722:
Sulfate scale usually forms when formation water and injected seawater mix together. The relationship between these and the degree of supersaturation is crucial in estimating the amount of sulfate salts that will precipitate in the system. Seawater has a high concentration of sulfate ions and mixing
77:
Two main classifications of scales are known; inorganic and organic scales and the two types are mutually inclusive, occurring simultaneously in the same system, referred to as mixed scale. Mixed scales may result in highly complex structured scales that are difficult to treat. Such scales require
840:
properties. The inhibitor molecules essentially bind ions in aqueous phase of production fluids that could potentially precipitate as scales. For instance, to bind positively charged ions in the water, anions must be present in the inhibitor molecular backbone structure and vice versa. Group (II)
892:
hazardous and harmful to human health, water supplies, marine and freshwater organisms. For instance trails of increased turbidity resulting from oil and gas exploratory activities on the eastern shelf of
Sakhalin in Russia have been reported with consequential adverse effects on salmon, cod and
882:
A SI with a combination of two or more of these functional groups is more efficient in managing scale problems. Usually the sodium salts of the carboxylic derivatives are synthesized as the anionic derivatives and are known to be the most effective due to their high solubilities. Interactions of
726:
Due to its relatively high solubility in water, Calcium sulfate is the easiest sulfate scale to remove chemically as compared to strontium and barium sulfate. Scale crystals are initially dispersed in production systems until accumulation of stable crystals of insoluble sulfates and scale growth
138:
whose solubility decreases with temperature as is the case for most of the gases (exothermic dissolution reaction in water). In calcium sulfate, the reason is that the dissolution reaction of calcium sulfate itself is exothermic and therefore is favored when the temperature decreases (then, the
68:
The three prevailing water-related problems that upset oil companies today are corrosion, gas hydrates and scaling in production systems. The reservoir water has a high composition of dissolved minerals equilibrated over millions of years at constant physicochemical conditions. As the reservoir
921:
has been used in oil exploration and its very low toxicity and crystal growth inhibition power has been reported for treating calcite scales. Examples of poorly biodegradable SIs such as the amino-phosphonate and acrylate-based SIs are being phased-out by stringent environmental regulations as
891:
Generally, the environmental impacts of SIs are complicated further by combination of other chemicals applied through exploratory, drilling, well-completion and start-up operations. Produced fluids, and other wastes from oil and gas operations with high content of different toxic compounds are
925:
Another modern alternative to SI use for environmental protection is the development of materials or coatings that intrinsically resist formation of inorganic scale to begin with. A variety of strategies can be used to accomplish this aim, including engineering of wettability properties and
701:
Sulfates of Group (II) metal ions (M), generally decrease in solubility down the group. The most difficult scales to remove are those of Barium sulfate because of its high insolubility forming very hard scale deposits. A general representation of the reaction is summarized in reaction:
912:
SIs, commonly employed for treating calcium carbonate scales are known to be environmentally friendly but poor inhibition efficiency. Release of SIs containing
Nitrogen and Phosphorus distorts the natural equilibrium of the immediate water body with adverse effects on aquatic life.
916:
Another alternative, polysaccharide SIs meet the requirements for environmentally friendly materials; they contain no
Phosphorus or Nitrogen and are noted for their non-toxic, renewable, and biodegradable properties. Carboxymethyl inulin (CMI), which is isolated from the roots of
782:
The first two methods may be used for short-term treatment and effective for mild-scaling conditions, however, continuous injection or chemical scale squeeze treatment with SIs have been proven over the years to be the most efficient and cost-effective preventative technique.
926:
engineering of epitaxial properties to prevent mineral growth or to make minerals easier to remove following growth. Recent work has demonstrated that some classes of hydrophobic and superhydrophobic surfaces can cause self-ejection of scale grown during evaporation
43:
used to describe solid deposits that grow over time, blocking and hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, pumps etc. with significant reduction in production rates and equipment damages. Scaling represents a major challenge for
1504:
Shi, Wen-Yan; Ding, Cheng; Yan, Jin-Long; Han, Xiang-Yun; Lv, Zhi-Min; Lei, Wu; Xia, Ming-Zhu; Wang, Feng-Yun (2012-04-02). "Molecular dynamics simulation for interaction of PESA and acrylic copolymers with calcite crystal surfaces".
828:
copolymers, such as SPOCA (sulfonated phosphonocarboxylic acid), polyvinyl sulfonates. Two common oilfield mineral SIs are Poly-Phosphono
Carboxylic acid (PPCA) and Diethylenetriamine- penta (methylene phosphonic acid)
755:
is the scale saturation ratio, defined as the ratio of the activity product to the solubility product of the salt. Activity is defined as the product of the activity coefficients and the concentrations of Ca and
1290:
Laing, N.; Graham, G.M.; Dyer, S.J. (2003-01-01). "Barium
Sulphate Inhibition in Subsea Systems – the Impact of Cold Seabed Temperatures on the Performance of Generically Different Scale Inhibitor Species".
129:
While the solubility of most inorganic salts (NaCl, KCl, ...) increases with temperature (endothermic dissolution reaction), some inorganic salts such as calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate have also a
723:
with formation water with many Ca and other M ions in the formation water. Severe problems with sulfate scale are common in reservoirs where seawater has been injected to enhance oil recovery.
1815:
Pro, Danièle; Huguet, Samuel; Arkoun, Mustapha; Nugier-Chauvin, Caroline; Garcia-Mina, José Maria; Ourry, Alain; Wolbert, Dominique; Yvin, Jean-Claude; Ferrières, Vincent (2014-11-04).
1780:
Jordan, Myles M.; Sorhaug, Eyvind; Marlow, David (2012-11-01). "Red vs. Green Scale
Inhibitors for Extending Squeeze life--A Case Study From the North Sea, Norwegian Sector--Part II".
685:, drilling operations and extraction of the oil from the well bore decreases the pressure of the formation and the equilibrium shifts to the right (3) to increase the production of CO
1565:
Lawless, T.A.; Bourne, H.M.; Bolton, J.R. (1993-01-01). "Examining the
Potential for Corrosion Inhibitor and Scale Inhibitor Compatibility in a Multifunctional Squeeze Strategy".
1532:
Graham, GM Boak, LS Sorbie, KS (2003). "The influence of formation calcium and magnesium on the effectiveness of generically different barium sulphate oilfield scale inhibitors".
1371:
Shakkthivel, P.; Vasudevan, T. (2006-10-02). "Acrylic acid-diphenylamine sulphonic acid copolymer threshold inhibitor for sulphate and carbonate scales in cooling water systems".
1684:
Knudsen, B.L.; Hjelsvold, M.; Frost, T.K.; Svarstad, M.B.E.; Grini, P.G.; Willumsen, C.F.; Torvik, H. (2004-01-01). "Meeting the Zero
Discharge Challenge for Produced Water".
1442:
Shi, Wenyan; Xia, Mingzhu; Lei, Wu; Wang, Fengyun (2013-08-01). "Molecular dynamics study of polyether polyamino methylene phosphonates as an inhibitor of anhydrite crystal".
1857:
Liu, Jun; Willför, Stefan; Xu, Chunlin (2015-01-01). "A review of bioactive plant polysaccharides: Biological activities, functionalization, and biomedical applications".
836:
Inhibition of calcium carbonate scale deposition and crystal studies of its polymorphs have been conducted. Different SIs are designed for specific scaling conditions and
1667:
1551:
1238:
1125:
1013:
Liang, Bin; Pan, Kai; Li, Li; Giannelis, Emmanuel P.; Cao, Bing (2014-08-15). "High performance hydrophilic pervaporation composite membranes for water desalination".
143:). In other terms, the solubility of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate increases at low temperature and decreases at high temperature, as it is also the case for
730:
The scaling-tendency of an oil-well can be predicted based on the prevailing conditions such as pH, temperature, pressure, ionic strength and the mole fraction of CO
727:
occur at nucleation centers. Uneven pipeline surfaces and production equipment such as pumps and valves cause rapid scale growth to levels that can block pipelines.
1344:
Amjad, Zahid; Koutsoukos, Petros G. (2014-02-17). "Evaluation of maleic acid based polymers as scale inhibitors and dispersants for industrial water applications".
106:
such as injection water. The mixing changes causes reaction between incompatible ions and changes the thermodynamic and equilibrium state of the reservoir fluids.
90:
are the most often encountered organic scales in the oil industry. This article focuses on the simplest and common form of scales encountered; inorganic scales.
1816:
942:
Alzahrani, Salem; Mohammad, Abdul Wahab (2014-12-01). "Challenges and trends in membrane technology implementation for produced water treatment: A review".
760:
ions. The ionic strength is a measure of the concentration of the dissociated ions dissolved in water also called as “total dissolved solids” (TDS).
52:), iron sulfides, barium sulfate and strontium sulfate. Scale inhibition encompasses the processes or techniques employed to treat scaling problems.
1651:
689:
to offset the change in pressure. After years of oil production, wells may experience significant pressure drops resulting in large CaCO
1954:
Kırboga, Semra; Öner, Mualla (2012-03-01). "The inhibitory effects of carboxymethyl inulin on the seeded growth of calcium carbonate".
1919:
Kirboga, Semra; Ă–ner, Mualla (2013-04-16). "Investigation of calcium carbonate precipitation in the presence of carboxymethyl inulin".
1469:
Fried, Ruth; Mastai, Yitzhak (2012-01-01). "The effect of sulfated polysaccharides on the crystallization of calcite superstructures".
1096:
997:
1701:
1582:
1308:
1219:
Crabtree, M., Eslinger, D., Fletcher, P., Miller, M., Johnson, A., & King, G. (1999). "Fighting Scale- prevention and removal".
1183:
1068:
799:
Scale inhibitors are specialty chemicals that are added to oil production systems to delay, reduce and/or prevent scale deposition.
110:
and subsequent deposition of the inorganic salts occur. The most common types of inorganic scales known to the oil/gas industry are
565:) whose solubility increases at low temperature and high pressure. The slightest changes in pressure and temperature dissolves H
27:(SIs) are a class of specialty chemicals that are used to slow or prevent scaling in water systems. Oilfield scaling is the
134:, i.e., their solubility decreases with temperature. In the case of calcium carbonate, it is due to the degassing of CO
2035:
682:
140:
23:
from blocking or hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, and pumps used in oil production and processing.
362:
900:
1139:
Mitchell, R.W; Grist, D.M.; Boyle, M.J. (May 1980). "Chemical
Treatments Associated with North Sea Projects".
1991:"Self-ejection of salts and other foulants from superhydrophobic surfaces to enable sustainable anti-fouling"
28:
1400:"Prevention of Carbonate Scale Deposition: A Well-Packing Technique with Controlled Solubility Phosphates"
1545:
1232:
768:
Different oilfield scale remediation techniques are known but majority are based on three basic themes:
2045:
1740:
Boak, Lorraine S.; Sorbie, Ken (2010-11-01). "New Developments in the Analysis of Scale Inhibitors".
1478:
1255:
Oddo, J.E.; Tomson, M.B. (1994-02-01). "Why Scale Forms in the Oil Field and Methods To Predict It".
277:
2040:
1711:
1661:
1592:
1318:
1193:
1106:
111:
541:
Water, noted for its high solvation power can dissolve certain gases such as carbon dioxide (CO
2012:
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343:
119:
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32:
816:(amino-trimethylene phosphonic acid) and HEDP (1-hydroxyethylidene-1,1-diphosphonic acid),
1723:
1604:
1330:
1205:
1118:
909:
528:
389:
295:
237:
190:
107:
24:
1482:
151:), often cited as a didactic case study to explain the reason of retrograde solubility.
908:
properties and therefore reduce pollution of the waters around oil production systems.
259:
123:
45:
1897:
2029:
825:
673:
The two reactions (2) and (4) describe the equilibrium between bicarbonate ions (HCO
1967:
1490:
1087:
Wayne W Frenier, Murtaza Ziauddin, N. Wolf (Editor), Ryan Hartman (Editor) (2008).
800:
351:
79:
40:
1835:
1089:
Formation, removal, and inhibition of inorganic scale in the oilfield environment
989:
Formation, removal, and inhibition of inorganic scale in the oilfield environment
1518:
1455:
1384:
1357:
1026:
821:
808:
804:
221:
148:
60:
48:
in the oil and gas industry. Examples of oilfield scales are calcium carbonate (
1884:
Johannsen, F. R (2003-01-01). "Toxicological profile of carboxymethyl inulin".
1870:
955:
841:
metal ions are commonly sequestered by SIs with the following functionalities;
918:
412:
131:
83:
31:
and accumulation of insoluble crystals (salts) from a mixture of incompatible
1940:
1817:"From algal polysaccharides to cyclodextrins to stabilize a urease inhibitor"
1801:
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1276:
893:
505:
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355:
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217:
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64:
Scale build-up effectively decreases pipeline diameter and reduces flow rate
49:
2016:
1975:
1905:
1843:
734:
in the vapor and aqueous phases. For instance the saturation index for CaCO
573:
in water according to equation (3) to form hydronium and bicarbonate (HCO
440:
416:
408:
382:
378:
374:
370:
335:
331:
310:
795:
Chemical Structure of Diethylenetriaminepenta(methylene-phosphonic acid)
1932:
432:
288:
179:
99:
20:
2007:
1990:
1793:
1753:
1166:
Collins, I.R. (2002-01-01). "A New Model for Mineral Scale Adhesion".
820:(PAA), phosphinopolyacrylates (such as PPCA), polymaleic acids (PMA),
1693:
1574:
1300:
1268:
1175:
423:
347:
270:
205:
1416:
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deposits as the equilibrium shifts to offset the pressure changes.
904:
These GSIs are designed to have reduced bio-accumulating and high
830:
790:
103:
59:
1619:"Drilling Waste Streams from Offshore Oil and Gas Installations"
813:
791:
677:), which are highly soluble in water and calcium carbonate (CaCO
78:
aggressive, severe and sometimes costly remediation techniques.
922:
demonstrated in the North sea by Norway zero discharge policy.
549:. Under the right conditions of temperature and/or pressure, H
1989:
McBride, Samantha; Lake, John; Varanasi, Kripa (2023-04-07).
778:
Application of Scale Inhibitors (SIs) for scale prevention
102:
that occur when the formation water mixes with different
772:Sulfate ion sequestering from sea injection waters
1061:Production chemicals for the oil and gas industry
1398:Bezemer, Cornelis; Bauer, Karl A. (1969-04-01).
775:Chemical or mechanical Scale removal/dissolution
139:dissolution heat is more easily evacuated; see
19:is the process of preventing the formation of
8:
1666:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1550:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1237:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
812:(phosphonobutane-1,2,4-tricarboxylic acid),
1540:: 28–44 – via Science Citation Index.
1679:
1677:
2006:
1859:Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre
1415:
1124:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
557:molecules react to yield carbonic acid (H
1642:Davies, Michael; P. J. B. Scott (2006).
153:
1646:. NACE International. pp. 523–32.
934:
738:scale is calculated using the formula;
1956:Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces
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944:Journal of Water Process Engineering
1688:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
1569:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
1295:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
1170:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
1091:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
992:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
35:phases in oil processing systems.
14:
493:, Ni and Fe mixed oxide: NiO + Fe
1995:The Journal of Chemical Physics
1782:SPE Production & Operations
1742:SPE Production & Operations
1404:Journal of Petroleum Technology
1257:SPE Production & Facilities
463:Fe and Fe mixed oxide: FeO + Fe
1968:10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.10.031
1491:10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.09.044
1141:Society of Petroleum Engineers
1:
1898:10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00213-2
1836:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.05.075
1059:Kelland, M. A. (6 Feb 2014).
1886:Food and Chemical Toxicology
1623:www.offshore-environment.com
887:Environmental considerations
1519:10.1016/j.desal.2012.01.019
1456:10.1016/j.desal.2013.05.013
1385:10.1016/j.desal.2005.12.023
1358:10.1016/j.desal.2013.12.012
1027:10.1016/j.desal.2014.05.021
2062:
1871:10.1016/j.bcdf.2014.12.001
986:W. Frenier, Wayne (2008).
956:10.1016/j.jwpe.2014.09.007
98:Inorganic scales refer to
1644:Oilfield water technology
1471:Journal of Crystal Growth
17:Oilfield scale inhibition
901:environmentally friendly
899:Efforts to develop more
683:Le Chatelier's principle
363:Aluminium oxy-hydroxides
141:Le Chatelier's principle
39:is a common term in the
875:- Carboxylate ions (-CO
861:- Phosphonate ions (-PO
844:- Phosphonate ions (-PO
537:Calcium carbonate scale
126:are often encountered.
868:- Sulphonate ions (-SO
796:
65:
1824:Carbohydrate Polymers
794:
681:) salt. According to
132:retrograde solubility
63:
854:Phosphate ions (-OPO
545:) to form aqueous CO
1483:2012JCrGr.338..147F
824:terpolymers (MAT),
278:Magnesium hydroxide
2036:Petroleum industry
1933:10.1039/c3ce27022j
1117:has generic name (
894:littoral amphipods
797:
66:
2008:10.1063/5.0142428
1794:10.2118/140752-pa
1754:10.2118/130401-pa
1653:978-1-57590-204-3
1534:Soc Petroleum Eng
764:Scale remediation
534:
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431:Metallic copper,
169:Calcium carbonate
160:Chemical Formula
145:calcium hydroxide
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25:Scale inhibitors
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2001:(13): 134721.
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1788:(4): 404–413.
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1244:
1211:
1202:|journal=
1184:
1158:
1147:(5): 904–912.
1131:
1098:978-1555631406
1097:
1076:
1069:
1032:
1005:
999:978-1555631406
998:
961:
933:
931:
928:
919:Inula helenium
888:
885:
876:
869:
862:
855:
845:
788:
785:
780:
779:
776:
773:
765:
762:
757:
752:
746:
742:
735:
731:
717:
713:
710:
706:
698:
697:Sulfate scales
695:
690:
686:
678:
674:
671:
670:
667:
663:
660:
656:
653:
650:
646:
642:
638:
635:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
615:
611:
607:
604:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
577:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
535:
532:
531:
529:Hydroxyapatite
526:
523:
519:
515:
511:
508:
502:
501:
498:
494:
488:
485:
481:
478:
476:Nickel ferrite
472:
471:
468:
464:
461:
458:
454:
451:
445:
444:
436:
429:
426:
420:
419:
406:
403:
399:
395:
392:
386:
385:
368:
365:
359:
358:
328:
324:
320:
316:
313:
307:
306:
301:
298:
292:
291:
286:
283:
280:
274:
273:
268:
265:
262:
260:Barium sulfate
256:
255:
250:
247:
243:
240:
234:
233:
229:
225:
213:
209:
199:
196:
193:
187:
186:
177:
174:
171:
165:
164:
161:
158:
135:
95:
92:
74:
71:
57:
54:
46:flow assurance
38:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2058:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1713:
1705:
1703:9781555639815
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1663:
1655:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1635:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1606:
1594:
1586:
1584:9781555634926
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1332:
1320:
1312:
1310:9781555639556
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1234:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1195:
1187:
1185:9781555639426
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1120:
1108:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1070:9781439873793
1066:
1063:. CRC press.
1062:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1009:
1006:
1001:
995:
991:
990:
982:
980:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
962:
957:
953:
949:
945:
938:
935:
929:
927:
923:
920:
914:
911:
907:
902:
897:
895:
886:
884:
880:
873:
866:
859:
853:
849:
842:
839:
834:
832:
827:
826:sulfonic acid
823:
819:
815:
810:
807:polymers and
806:
802:
793:
786:
784:
777:
774:
771:
770:
769:
763:
761:
749:
739:
728:
724:
720:
703:
696:
694:
684:
654:
626:
605:
583:
582:
581:
536:
530:
527:
509:
507:
504:
503:
492:
489:
479:
477:
474:
473:
462:
452:
450:
447:
446:
442:
434:
430:
427:
425:
422:
421:
418:
414:
410:
407:
393:
391:
388:
387:
384:
380:
376:
372:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
314:
312:
309:
308:
305:
302:
299:
297:
294:
293:
290:
287:
281:
279:
276:
275:
272:
269:
263:
261:
258:
257:
254:
251:
241:
239:
236:
235:
223:
219:
207:
203:
200:
194:
192:
189:
188:
185:
181:
178:
172:
170:
167:
166:
162:
159:
156:
155:
152:
150:
146:
142:
133:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
93:
91:
89:
85:
81:
72:
70:
62:
55:
53:
51:
47:
42:
36:
34:
30:
29:precipitation
26:
22:
18:
1998:
1994:
1984:
1959:
1955:
1949:
1927:(18): 3678.
1924:
1921:CrystEngComm
1920:
1914:
1892:(1): 49–59.
1889:
1885:
1879:
1865:(1): 31–61.
1862:
1858:
1852:
1827:
1823:
1810:
1785:
1781:
1745:
1741:
1685:
1643:
1637:
1626:. Retrieved
1622:
1613:
1566:
1560:
1546:cite journal
1537:
1533:
1527:
1510:
1507:Desalination
1506:
1499:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1447:
1444:Desalination
1443:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1376:
1373:Desalination
1372:
1366:
1352:(1): 55–63.
1349:
1346:Desalination
1345:
1339:
1292:
1285:
1263:(1): 47–54.
1260:
1256:
1233:cite journal
1224:
1220:
1214:
1167:
1161:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1088:
1060:
1018:
1015:Desalination
1014:
1008:
988:
947:
943:
937:
924:
915:
898:
890:
881:
874:
867:
860:
851:
850:
843:
835:
809:phosphonates
801:acrylic acid
798:
781:
767:
750:
740:
729:
725:
721:
704:
700:
672:
540:
352:cristobalite
330:Serpentine,
128:
97:
88:gas hydrates
80:Paraffin wax
76:
67:
41:oil industry
16:
15:
2046:Engineering
1830:: 145–151.
1450:: 137–143.
1227:(3): 30–45.
1115:|last=
1021:: 199–206.
950:: 107–133.
822:maleic acid
805:maleic acid
224:form) (CaSO
222:hemihydrate
149:portlandite
84:asphaltenes
2030:Categories
1628:2016-11-22
930:References
803:polymers,
506:Phosphates
413:cancrinite
112:carbonates
56:Background
2041:Chemistry
1962:: 18–25.
1941:1466-8033
1802:1930-1855
1762:1930-1855
1722:ignored (
1712:cite book
1662:cite book
1603:ignored (
1593:cite book
1426:0149-2136
1329:ignored (
1319:cite book
1277:1064-668X
1204:ignored (
1194:cite book
1107:cite book
491:Trevorite
449:Magnetite
356:pectolite
340:gehlenite
311:Silicates
304:Periclase
253:Beerstone
218:bassanite
202:Anhydrite
184:aragonite
124:chlorites
50:limescale
2017:37031132
1976:22079106
1906:12453728
1844:25129728
1686:All Days
1567:All Days
1513:: 8–14.
1293:All Days
1168:All Days
580:) ions.
553:O and CO
441:tenorite
417:noselite
409:Analcite
383:corundum
379:diaspore
375:gibbsite
371:Boehmite
367:AlO(OH)
336:gyrolite
163:Mineral
120:sulfides
116:sulfates
1479:Bibcode
751:Where F
433:cuprite
323:) · y H
289:Brucite
228:· 0.5 H
180:Calcite
33:aqueous
2015:
1974:
1939:
1904:
1842:
1800:
1760:
1700:
1650:
1581:
1424:
1307:
1275:
1182:
1095:
1067:
996:
745:= {}/K
666:↔ CaCO
443:(Cu )
424:Copper
348:quartz
332:acmite
282:Mg(OH)
271:Barite
206:gypsum
104:brines
1820:(PDF)
831:DTPMP
716:→ MSO
627:2 HCO
618:+ HCO
612:3(aq)
602:3(aq)
586:2(aq)
571:3(aq)
555:2(aq)
547:2(aq)
315:Me(Si
212:· 2 H
208:(CaSO
157:Name
37:Scale
21:scale
2013:PMID
1972:PMID
1937:ISSN
1902:PMID
1840:PMID
1798:ISSN
1758:ISSN
1724:help
1698:ISBN
1668:link
1648:ISBN
1605:help
1579:ISBN
1552:link
1422:ISSN
1331:help
1305:ISBN
1273:ISSN
1239:link
1206:help
1180:ISBN
1126:link
1119:help
1093:ISBN
1065:ISBN
994:ISBN
814:ATMP
718:4(s)
714:(aq)
709:+ SO
707:(aq)
705:5. M
668:3(s)
664:(aq)
659:+ CO
657:(aq)
651:2(g)
649:+ CO
639:(aq)
634:↔ CO
632:(aq)
623:(aq)
616:(aq)
614:↔ H
578:(aq)
522:(OH)
480:NiFe
439:O),
300:MgO
264:BaSO
216:O),
195:CaSO
173:CaCO
122:and
114:and
86:and
2003:doi
1999:158
1964:doi
1929:doi
1894:doi
1867:doi
1832:doi
1828:112
1790:doi
1750:doi
1690:doi
1571:doi
1515:doi
1511:291
1487:doi
1475:338
1452:doi
1448:322
1412:doi
1381:doi
1377:197
1354:doi
1350:335
1297:doi
1265:doi
1172:doi
1149:doi
1023:doi
1019:347
952:doi
865:H)
858:H)
848:H)
833:).
647:(l)
641:+ H
596:↔ H
594:(l)
588:+ H
514:(PO
435:(Cu
428:Cu
242:CaC
232:O)
2032::
2011:.
1997:.
1993:.
1970:.
1960:91
1958:.
1935:.
1925:15
1923:.
1900:.
1890:41
1888:.
1861:.
1838:.
1826:.
1822:.
1796:.
1786:27
1784:.
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1746:25
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964:^
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896:.
879:)
872:)
756:SO
747:sp
655:Ca
610:CO
600:CO
584:CO
569:CO
561:CO
512:10
510:Ca
453:Fe
415:,
411:,
398:Si
394:Al
381:,
377:,
373:,
354:,
350:,
346:,
342:,
338:,
334:,
327:O
204:,
182:,
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2005::
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1966::
1943:.
1931::
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1896::
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1869::
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1834::
1804:.
1792::
1764:.
1752::
1726:)
1706:.
1692::
1670:)
1656:.
1631:.
1607:)
1587:.
1573::
1554:)
1521:.
1517::
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1489::
1481::
1458:.
1454::
1428:.
1414::
1387:.
1383::
1360:.
1356::
1333:)
1313:.
1299::
1279:.
1267::
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1241:)
1208:)
1188:.
1174::
1155:.
1151::
1128:)
1121:)
1101:.
1073:.
1029:.
1025::
1002:.
958:.
954::
948:4
877:2
870:3
863:2
856:3
852:-
846:3
829:(
758:4
753:s
743:s
741:F
736:3
732:2
711:4
691:3
687:2
679:3
675:3
661:3
645:O
643:2
636:3
629:3
620:3
608:2
606:H
598:2
592:O
590:2
575:3
567:2
563:3
559:2
551:2
543:2
524:2
520:6
518:)
516:4
499:3
497:O
495:2
486:4
484:O
482:2
469:3
467:O
465:2
459:4
457:O
455:3
437:2
404:z
402:O
400:y
396:x
325:2
321:x
319:O
317:n
284:2
266:4
248:4
246:O
244:2
230:2
226:4
220:(
214:2
210:4
197:4
175:3
147:(
136:2
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